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A R T I C L E
I N F O
Article history:
Received 16 October 2008
Accepted 20 August 2009
Available online 19 September 2009
Keywords:
Flexibility of water delivery
On-demand operation
Local upstream control
Distant downstream control
Proportional-Integral controller
AB S T R A C T
Improved water management and efcient investment in the modernization of irrigation schemes are
essential measures in many countries to satisfy the increasing demand for water. Automatic control of
the main canals is one method for increasing the efciency and exibility of irrigation systems. In 2005,
one canal in the irrigation scheme Sector B-XII del Bajo Guadalquivir was monitored. This canal is
representative of irrigation schemes in Southern Spain; it is divided into four pools and supplies an area
of 5154 ha. Ultrasonic sensors and pressure transducers were used to record the gate opening and water
levels at the upstream and downstream ends of each canal pool. Using the recorded data and the SIC
(Simulation of Irrigation Canals) hydraulic model, two canal control options (local upstream control and
distant downstream control) were evaluated using a PI (Proportional-Integral) control algorithm. First,
the SIC model was calibrated and validated under steady-state conditions. Then the proportional and
integral gains of the PI algorithm were calibrated. The controllers were tested using theoretical demand
changes (constant outow followed by a sudden demand increase or decrease) and real demand changes
generated on the basis of a spatially distributed crop water balance that included a number of sources of
variability (random and not random) in the determination of eld irrigation timing and depth. The
results obtained show that only the distant downstream controller was able to adjust quickly and
automatically the canal dynamics to the varying water demands; it achieved this efciently and with few
spills at the canal tail, even when there were sudden and signicant ow variations.
2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Competition for water between the irrigation sector and the
industrial, urban, recreational, and environmental sectors, and the
need for increasing agricultural water productivity (Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture, 2007) are
challenging irrigation engineers to save water and to provide more
exible water delivery services (Merriam et al., 2007).
In Spain, investment in the modernization of irrigation systems
is signicant (Anonymous, 1998). However, interventions tend to
be focused mainly on the farm irrigation systems and on the
transformation of open channel distribution systems into ondemand pressurized-pipe networks. In most cases, the modernization of conveyance canals has been neglected or received little
technical attention, so these canals remain unchanged since they
were constructed decades ago. Therefore, the bottleneck for a
exible, on-demand service is often at the level of the conveyance
or primary distribution system.
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +34 957 499228; fax: +34 957 499252.
E-mail addresses: ag1mainl@uco.es (L. Mateos).
0378-3774/$ see front matter 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.agwat.2009.08.016
92
93
Fig. 2. Longitudinal sketch of canal B of the Sector B-XII del Bajo Guadalquivir
indicating the lines of the canal bed and bench.
respectively, and their design ows are 5.4, 4.5, 3.35, and
1.98 m3 s1, respectively. The trapezoidal cross-section of the
canal reduces in area downstream of each pumping station. The
slope of the canal walls is 2 horizontal to 1 vertical, the width of the
canal bottom is 1 m and the canal height is 2, 1.85, 1.6, and 1.35 m
at pools one to four (from upstream to downstream), respectively.
In the transition between the pools, the trapezoidal cross-sections
become rectangular (width: 2.5 m; height: 2.4 m). In addition, the
rst 89 m of the rst pool has a rectangular cross-section (also
2.5 m 2.4 m), with a bottom slope of 0.00058. The bottom slope
of the rest of the canal is 0.0002. An inverted siphon is located in
the fourth pool to cross a drainage ditch. Side weirs acting as
spillways are placed just upstream of the check gates. The
elevations of the weir crests are presented in Table 1.
The study canal was constructed during the 1970s. The canal is
operated manually using local upstream control. Two operators
control both the pumps and the canal check gates. The operation
aims to satisfy changes in on-farm water demand. This operation is
cumbersome and inefcient. However, the irrigation scheme is
currently being modernized, so this is an opportunity to consider
canal control alternatives. The possibility of a level canal bank has
been dismissed because the construction cost would be prohibitive. Thus, an evaluation of local upstream control versus distant
downstream control for canal automation is pertinent.
The canal geometry was surveyed in detail using an electronic
total station (GTS-210, TOPCON). Water levels upstream and
downstream of each check gate and downstream of the inverted
siphon were measured using ultrasonic The Probe sensors
manufactured by Milltronics, Siemens Milltronics Process Instruments Inc., Ontario, Canada. Water level upstream of the inverted
siphon was measured with a pressure transducer LMK 309
manufactured by SENSOTEC Instruments S.A., Barcelona, Spain.
The vertical gate opening was measured using UC2000-30GMIUR2-V15 ultrasonic sensors manufactured by Pepperl+Flush
GmbH in Mannheim, Germany. All the water level and gate
opening information was recorded using electronic data loggers.
3.2. Description of the hydraulic model SIC
The Simulation Irrigation Canal model, SIC (Malaterre and
Baume, 1997), is based on Saint-Venant equations. These
equations are nonlinear hyperbolic partial differential equations
dealing with mass and momentum conservation:
@A @Q
0
@t @ x
@Q @Q 2 =A
@h
@t
gA
gAJ 0
@x
@x
(1)
(2)
Pool
I
II
III
IV
101.55
101.25
100.82
100.15
101.50
101.00
100.64
100.15
where x (m) and t (s) are the distance and time dimensions,
respectively, A (m2) is the area of the ow cross-section, Q (m3 s1)
is the discharge, h (m) is the elevation of the water surface, g
(m s2) is the acceleration due to gravity, and J (m m1) is the
friction slope. In SIC, J is calculated on the basis of Mannings
formula.
Two boundary conditions are necessary for solving this system
of differential equations. Typically, Q(0,t) = Q0(t) is the upstream
boundary condition, where Q0(t) is a known inow hydrograph and
Q(L,t) = QL(t) is the downstream boundary condition, with L being
the length of the canal and QL(t) the discharge hydrograph at the
canal tail (usually determined using a discharge equation function
of the water level at x = L). The initial condition is given by the
water level prole at t = 0: h(x,0).
Eqs. (1) and (2) are not valid for modelling water ow through
hydraulic singularities like cross structures. Therefore, when gates
are present, SIC replaces the two equations for the continuity
equation and a discharge equation of the form Q = Q(hus, hds, W),
with hus (m) and hds (m) being, respectively, the water surface
elevations upstream and downstream of the gates, and W (m2)
being the area of the ow cross-section below the gates. In the case
of a weir, the general form of the discharge equation is Q = Q(hus),
i.e., it assumes free ow, with hus in this case referring to the weir
crest (Baume et al., 2005).
In the SIC model, Eqs. (1) and (2) and the discharge equations
are linearized and discretized in time (Dt, time step) and space (Dx,
space step) using the well known, Preissmann implicit scheme
(Cunge et al., 1980).
The version of SIC used in this study was SIC 3.9.
3.3. Tuning and validation of SIC in the study canal
First, the following gate discharge equation was chosen:
q
Q Cd W
2ghus hds
(3)
94
weir (9.28 m for the spillway in pool IV, the only pool where spill
ow occurred in the simulations) and hus (m) the elevation of the
water surface in relation to the weir crest.
Next, the SIC model was validated. The data set used for this
purpose was independent of that used for the model calibration. As
in the case of the calibration, the validation had to be restricted to
steady-state conditions, but it was done with two different SIC
modules.
First, the SIC module that simulates steady-state regimes was
validated. Seven steady-state regimes corresponding to seven days
during the 2005 irrigation season were selected. The canal inows
during these periods were between 1.82 and 3.2 m3 s1. The
outows at the pumping stations were calculated by the difference
between discharges under consecutive gates. The water depths
upstream of the gates and at the canal end were input into the
steady-state computations. Therefore, the model was validated by
comparing measured and simulated water depths downstream of
the gates and gate openings.
Second, the SIC module that simulates unsteady-state regimes
was tested. A transitory ow from a known initial steady-state
regime to a known nal steady-state regime was selected. The
actual inow hydrograph was entered into the model, along with
the actual gate movements, and approximated outow hydrographs at the offtakes (estimated by the difference between ows
under consecutive gates). After running the ow variation, the
resulting water depths were compared with those observed in the
canal under the nal steady-state regime.
3.4. Application of the SIC model to the study canal
Once the model was validated, two automatic control methods
were evaluated: distant downstream and local upstream. These
two control methods were selected in view of the actual canal
characteristics and the potential changes that might result from
modernization.
The scenarios used to evaluate the control methods were of two
types. First, the response of the controllers to two theoretical
outow changes was simulated: (1) a sudden increase in outow at
PS IV from 50 to 60% of its capacity; and (2) a sudden decrease in
outow at PS IV from 50 to 40% of its capacity. Secondly, the
response of the controllers to two real demand hydrographs, which
were produced in the canal during two days in May, were
simulated: (1) one week day when demand increased throughout
the day, with a plateau in the early afternoon and another plateau
in the late evening; and (2) one Sunday, when demand typically
decreases throughout the day. Thus, both the theoretical and the
real scenarios included increasing and decreasing demands.
The controller response is totally automatic under distant
downstream control. The control scenarios for distant downstream
control were called DS-In and DS-De, where DS refers to
downstream and In and De refer to the increase and decrease of
demand, respectively. For upstream control, three operation
hypotheses were considered (that are referred to using nomenclature equivalent to that used for distant downstream control):
- Skilful operation: this represents the activities of a very
experienced and skilful operator, who adjusts the gates optimally
and immediately after the demand changes occur. The upstream
control skilful operations are referred to as US-In 1 and US-De 1.
- Delayed-decit ow operation: the operator does not have the
ability to respond immediately, thus the gates are adjusted half
an hour after the changes in demand occur, and the primary
operational criterion is to reduce spill ows, irrespective of
whether the controller is able to maintain the target water levels.
The delayed-decit ow operations under upstream control are
referred to as US-In 2 and US-De 2.
- Delayed-surplus ow operation: as in the previous hypothesis, the
operator does not have the ability to respond immediately, thus
the gates are adjusted half an hour after the changes in demand
occur. However, the primary criterion under delayed-surplus
ow operation is maintaining the target water levels even at the
cost of signicant spill ows. The delayed-surplus ow
operations under upstream control are referred to as US-In 3
and US-De 3. This hypothesis is closest to the actual operation of
the study canal.
In the theoretical scenarios, the initial canal state was dened
by a constant outow at the offtakes, set at 50% of the capacity of
each pumping stations; a constant inow, resulting from adding
the outows at the offtakes; and predetermined gate openings.
To generate the real scenarios, the response of the canal
controller to the demand variations at the pumping stations that
mirrored real water demands was simulated. The model used to
generate the demand hydrographs at the pumping stations was
described in Lozano and Mateos (2008). This model is based on a
soil water balance applicable to each eld. The spatially distributed
crop irrigation requirements are aggregated rst from eld to farm
and then from downstream to upstream in the collective
distribution network. In order to produce realistic simulations,
the model simulates farmers irrigation tactics, strategies and
habits, and their variability. Therefore, irrigation time, duration
and depth vary from eld to eld and from farm to farm. The
hydrant capacity at the farms was set to 16.5 L s1. With this
hydrant capacity, the pipe system does not limit the water
distribution (Lozano and Mateos, 2008). Therefore, this model
resulted in demand hydrographs for each pumping station using an
on-demand delivery schedule.
The three operation hypotheses for local upstream control were
realized by assuming that the operator adjusts the head gate, if
necessary, at time intervals in multiples of one hour and that the
adjustments result in discrete discharge changes of 0.1 m3 s1.
3.5. Control algorithm
In this study, the Proportional-Integral (PI) control algorithm
was used. The PI algorithm is a simplication of the ProportionalIntegral-Derivative (PID) algorithm and is better adapted to canal
stro m and Hagglund, 1995), leading to its application in
control (A
recent canal control investigations (Clemmens and Schuurmans,
2004; Piao and Burt, 2005; Litrico et al., 2005).
95
DU j U j U j 1 K p e j e j 1] Kie j Dt
(5)
where U(j) and U(j 1) (m) are the gate openings at times j and
j 1, respectively, with time expressed in s, Dt is the regulation
time step, e(j) and e(j 1) (m) are the deviation of the controlled
variable (water level in this case) from its target value at times j
and j 1, respectively, and Kp (dimensionless) and Ki (s1) are the
proportional and integral gains, respectively.
Considering the dynamics of the canal pools (Fig. 1ac), the
target water levels at the downstream end of the pools were set to
the normal water depths for the design ow.
The method for optimizing the gains followed three steps
(Baume et al., 1999):
X
..
N ..
Q j Q j 1 jQ 0 Q N j
.
.
(9)
j0
where N is the number of time intervals for the test; hj (m) is the
simulated water level at time interval j; ht (m) is the target water
level; Dt (s) is the regulation time step, held constant over T (s), the
time period for the test (24 h); Qj (m3 s1) is the discharge under
the check gate at time j; and Q0 and QN (m3 s1) are, respectively,
the initial and nal discharges under the check gate.
The MAE (dimensionless) quanties the maximum deviation
from the target water depth of the actual water level. The IAE
(dimensionless) indicates how long (and how far) 3the1water level
stays away from the target water level. The IAQ (m s ) relates to
i1
Table 2
Optimized control gains for the PI algorithm.
Gate
G1
G2
G3
G4
Distant
control
downstream
Kp ()
Ki (s1)
Kp ()
Ki (s1)
2.42
2.60
4.34
785.8
128.7
776.7
3.60
3.64
3.91
1.13
24.63
27.98
12.47
2.11
96
97
Table 3
Maximum absolute error (MAE), integral of absolute error (IAE) and integrated absolute discharge change (IAQ) for local upstream and distant downstream controls in
response to an outow increase and an outow decrease at pumping station PS IV. The operation hypotheses are dened in Section 3.4 in the text.
Operation hypothesis
US-In 1
US-In 2
US-In 3
DS-In
US-De 1
US-De 2
US-De 3
DS-De
MAE (%)
IAE (%)
Pool I
Pool II
Pool III
Pool IV
Pool I
Pool II
Pool III
Pool IV
0.2
0.1
0.3
0.9
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.9
0.4
0.2
0.6
0.9
0.7
0.9
0.5
0.6
0.1
0.1
0.2
1.7
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.8
8.2
19.5
13.6
5.4
2.3
10.6
2.6
1.8
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.3
7.9
0.5
0.2
0.1
4.3
0.1
0.1
G1
0.6
0.3
G2
G3
G4
0.5
0.1
0.8
0.5
0.6
1.0
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.1
0.6
0.3
0.5
0.9
0.2
0.1
1.1
0.1
1.3
0.2
0.5
0.9
0.2
0.0
98
Fig. 7. Local upstream and distant downstream control responses to a real scenario
of demand on a week day in May: (a) pumping station outow, (b) canal inow, (c)
water level deviation at the tail of the canal (end of pool IV), (d) tail weir outow.
The operation hypotheses are dened in Section 3.4.
Fig. 8. Local upstream and distant downstream control responses to a real scenario
of demand on a Sunday in May: (a) pumping station outow, (b) canal inow, (c)
water level deviation at the tail of the canal (end of pool IV), (d) tail weir outow.
The operation hypotheses are dened in Section 3.4.
end, both during the week (Fig. 7c) and on Sunday (Fig. 8c). This
may not be critical in a canal like the one being studied, where the
turnouts are pumping stations. However, in other canals, where
reliable delivery depends on a constant water level, the inability of
US-In 2 and US-De 2 to maintain the target water level would be a
problem. On the other hand, hypotheses involving delayed-decit
ow operation that are slightly more restrictive than the one
dened herein (for instance an operation slightly more delayed on
the week day or an operation with an inow slightly lower than
that used for US-De 2) would empty the canal unless the pumping
was reduced. In this situation, the canal would have failed to
deliver water on-demand.
With respect to the water spills, Figs. 7d and 8d show the
overow hydrograph at the tail weir. As expected, the delayedsurplus ow operation resulted in more water spills than the other
operation hypotheses. The operation hypotheses that generated
99
Table 4
Maximum absolute error (MAE), integral of absolute error (IAE) and integrated absolute discharge change (IAQ) for local upstream and distant downstream controls in
response to a real outow increase (week day in May) and a real outow reduction (Sunday in May) at the canal pumping stations. The operation hypotheses are dened in
Section 3.4 in the text.
Operation hypothesis
US-In 1
US-In 2
US-In 3
DS-In
US-De 1
US-De 2
US-De 3
DS-De
MAE (%)
IAE (%)
Pool I
Pool II
Pool III
Pool IV
Pool I
Pool II
Pool III
Pool IV
0.2
0.2
0.3
0.7
0.3
0.4
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.8
1.1
1.0
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
1.7
6.6
19.8
3.5
2.0
2.1
16.8
2.4
1.5
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.3
0.8
3.9
1.2
0.3
0.6
4.7
0.8
0.3
lower spill losses were US-In 2 (no losses) and US-De 2 (0.4%). The
losses under distant downstream control were the lowest among
the operation hypotheses that allowed maintenance of the tail
water near the target level (0.1 and 0.8% for DS-In and DS-De,
respectively). The tail water losses during the simulation period
exceeded 1% of the water pumped in US-In 3, US-De 3 and US-De 1
(with losses of 6, 2.5 and 2%, respectively). Taking into account the
fact that delayed-surplus ow operation is the hypothesis
considered closest to the current operation of the study canal,
the advantage of distant downstream control is also evident when
viewed in terms of conveyance efciency.
The control performances illustrated in Figs. 7 and 8 were
quantied based on the same performance indicators used for the
simulations of theoretical scenarios. The values of these indicators
for the control options compared under real water demand
scenarios can be found in Table 4.
5. Conclusions
The SIC hydraulic model proved to be an extremely useful tool
for assessing canal control alternatives. Considering a demandoriented canal operation, local upstream control and distant
downstream control were the two options to be considered for an
existing, sloping canal divided into four pools. Of the two options,
the distant downstream control was able to adjust the entire canal
dynamics quickly and automatically in response to unexpected,
sudden demand variations and to variations that mirrored real
demands. The spills simulated at the canal tail, unavoidable for
conservative operation under upstream control, were smallest
when applying an operation hypothesis that did not maintain the
water at the canal tail near the target level. The operation losses
under distant downstream control were less than 1% in all
simulations. Estimates of the spill losses under the current
operational regime of the canal are about 6% on week days and
about 2.5% on Sundays, during periods in the irrigation campaign
when water demand is increasing (as it is in May).
Therefore, the tested digital local upstream control would be
an improvement on the current manual upstream control,
but automation could not be extended to the head canal gate,
thus operation would still rely on the skill of the operator. Only
the distant downstream control would guarantee a totally
automatic canal operation with minimal spill losses. In the case
study, the current complement of seven canal operators for the
irrigation scheme could be reduced to only one, and the delivery
service, improved.
Acknowledgements
This study was supported by the research project Control y
Automatizacio n de Canales de Riego, funded by Instituto Andaluz
de Reforma Agraria (Junta de Andaluc a, Spain), and the Integrated
G1
3.1
0.6
G2
G3
G4
3.0
3.0
2.4
3.1
1.4
1.5
1.4
0.5
2.2
2.3
1.7
1.3
0.8
1.0
1.1
0.4
2.7
2.8
2.2
0.6
1.3
1.5
1.5
0.3
Action Automatizacio n y Control de Canales de Riego (HP20040110), funded by the Ministries of Education and Science of Spain
and Portugal. The authors acknowledge the technical assistance of
Mr. Daniel Lozano.
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