LDP 616

GENDER ISSUES IN DEVELOPMENT

PAPER NO 1
1. a)Using examples, explain the meaning of the following terms in the
context of gender and development
i.

gender-2
Gender refers to roles that are created in our families, our culture, and
our society.
The concept of gender thus includes the characteristics, attitudes and
behavior held about men and women.
Gender roles and expectations are learnt.
They can change over time and they vary between cultures.

ii.

gender analysis-2
Gender Analysis is a close examination of a problem or situation in
order to identify the gender issues.
Gender analysis of a development program involves identifying the
gender issues within the problem which is being addressed and in the
obstacles to progress, so that these issues can be addressed in all
aspects of the program - in project objectives, in the choice of
intervention strategy and the methods of program implementation.

iii.

gender frameworks-2
Gender Analysis Frameworks are step-by-step tools for carrying out
gender analysis, which help to raise questions, analyze information,
and develop strategies to increase women's and men's participation in
and benefits from projects and programmes.

iv.

gender mainstreaming-2
Gender mainstreaming is the (re)organization, improvement,
development and evaluation of policy processes, so that a gender
equality perspective is incorporated in all policies at all levels and
at all stages, by the actors normally involved in policy-making
b) Examine the elements that can be used to explain gender
differences and inequalities-7

The elements below could be taken as starting points to explore how

and why gender differences and inequalities are relevant in a specific
situation
1.

Inequalities in political power (access to decision-making,

representation, etc.).
Women are under-represented in political processes throughout the
world. It is important to look at and understand gender differences in
power within formal decision-making structures (such as governments,
community, councils, and policy-making institutions).

2.

Inequalities within households.

Inequalities in negotiating and decision-making potential and access to
resources have been documented within households. This has
prompted questions about both research and policy which is based on
the assumption that households function as units where each member
benefits equally.

3.

Differences in legal status and entitlements.

Despite national constitutions and international instruments that
proclaim equal rights for women and men, there are many instances in
which equal rights to personal status, security, land, inheritance and
employment opportunities are denied to women by law or practice.
Action to secure womens rights is not just a concern of a small group
of women activists, but rather the responsibility of the international
community as a whole.

4.

Gender division of labor within the economy.

In most countries, women and men are distributed differently across
manufacturing sectors, between formal and informal sectors, within
agriculture, and among occupations. Women are also more likely than
men to be in low-paid jobs and non-standard work (part-time,
temporary, home-based), and likely to have less access than men to
productive assets such as education, skills, property and credit.
c) Discuss 4 critical areas of concern as reflected in the platform for
action of the 1995 fourth world conference on women held in Beijing12
The Platform for Action places particular emphasis on twelve critical
areas of concern:

enabling women to overcome poverty

ensuring womens equal access to quality education and

training

ensuring womens equal access to health care


eliminating violence against women

protecting women from armed and other conflicts

promoting womens economic self-reliance

promoting womens participation in decision-making

integrating gender equality dimensions into policy and

planning

promoting womens human rights

enhancing the medias role in promoting gender equality

integrating women in the ecologically sustainable

development process

eliminating all forms of discrimination against the girl child

The 1995 Beijing Platform for Action flagged 12 key areas where urgent
action was needed to ensure greater equality and opportunities for women
and men, girls and boys. It also laid out concrete ways for countries to bring
about change. UN Women works with governments and partners to ensure
such change is real for women and girls around the world.
Take a look at some of the efforts on each of the 12 Beijing critical areas of
concern:
Women and poverty
When women are poor, their rights are not protected and they face double
discrimination, on account of their gender and economic situation. Women,
their families, communities and economies suffer as a result.
Education and training of women
Education is essential for women to reach gender equality and become
leaders of change. While women and girls today are far more educated than
ever before, gaps remain. Educated women benefit entire societies,
contributing to flourishing economies and the improved health, nutrition and
education of their families. Education and training are also tools to help
change harmful gender stereotypes.
Women and health
Women need to be healthy in order to realize their full potential. This
includes proper nutrition, sexual and reproductive rights, and mental health,
as well as freedom from violence.
UN Women advocates for States to better coordinate the provision of health
services for women and girls including for survivors of violence and
supports non-governmental partners providing essential services. We work to
end practices that bring danger to women and girls, including child marriage,
female genital cutting, dietary restrictions, and others. We act to ensure that

womens needs are met during medical humanitarian crises, and support and
empower women living with HIV and AIDS.
Violence against women
Violence hurts women and girls and hampers their ability to thrive in multiple
ways. Since the Beijing Conference, an historic two-thirds of countries have
put laws on the books to stop domestic violence. Yet gaps in laws,
implementation of legal protection and lack of access to essential services
remain for women globally.
Women and armed conflict

Wars and armed conflict destroy families and societies and leave women and
girls particularly vulnerable. Sexual violence is widespread and often used as
a war tactic.
UN Womens programmes on women, peace and security engage women in all
aspects of negotiations, peacebuilding and reconstruction to build inclusive
societies. We train peacekeepers to detect, address and stop conflict-related
sexual violence, while also supporting the reform of justice and security
institutions and ensuring that public services that are fully responsive to
womens needs.
Women and the economy
Whether in businesses, on farms, as entrepreneurs or employees, or through
unpaid domestic or care work at home, women make enormous contributions
to economies. Gender discrimination means women often end up in insecure,
low-wage jobs, and constitute a small minority of those in senior positions.
To ensure that women can contribute fully and benefit from the economy, UN
Women runs multiple programmes for womens economic empowerment. We
promote womens ability to secure decent jobs, own land, accumulate assets,
and influence institutions and public policies determining growth and
development. We also work with partners to ensure that workplaces are free
of violence and sexual harassment.
Women in power and decision-making
Once in leadership roles, women make a difference. But they are underrepresented as voters and in top positions, whether in elected office, the civil
service, corporate boardrooms or academia.
UN Women advocates for reforms to ensure womens fair access to decisionmaking. Our programmes on leadership and participation provide training for women

political candidates to help build their skills, as well as voter and civic
education and sensitization campaigns on gender equality. We work with UN
country teams, unions and civil society to ensure that elections uphold
womens rights, including to vote and campaign free from violence. Through
the Fund for Gender Equality, we also support womens grass-roots groups and
help give women a greater voice on a range of issues.
Institutional mechanisms
Specialized institutions have played an important part in informing laws,
policies and programmes and advancing gender equality. Robust laws and
policies coupled with stronger mechanisms to coordinate various actors and
ensure their effective enforcement and implementation can push the
agenda.
Human rights of women
Women and girls are entitled to the full and equal enjoyment of all of their
human rights. The Beijing Platform for Action confirms that protection and
promotion of human rights is the first responsibility of governments and core
to the work of the United Nations.
UN Women provides technical assistance to ensure that States create
national laws, policies and plans to ensure womens rights and protect them
against violations. We promote international treaties, such as the Convention
on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW),
lobby decision-makers to ensure that adequate laws are passed and work
with partners to train and educate the law enforcement and justice officials
who must implement them.
Women and the media
The media plays a significant role in perpetuating and challenging social
norms that condone discrimination or violence against women. It can
objectify women but also showcase strong women leaders and protagonists
who can become role models for their audience.
UN Women collaborates closely with the media as a key ally in advancing
womens rights. Apart from working with the media to facilitate in-depth
coverage on womens rights, we undertake research on the portrayal of
women in news media as well as the entertainment industry. Additionally
theMedia Compact on Beijing+20, works to increase and sharpen the profile of
women in the news. We also conduct special workshops and trainings with
journalists globally to encourage gender-sensitive reporting.
Women and the environment

Women are among the most affected by climate change. They are often the
ones gathering water, fishing or farming land affected by flooding.
Meanwhile, their voices are often ignored in environmental planning and
management. They also have less access to land and productive resources.
UN Women seeks to ensure women are involved in environmental decisionmaking at all levels, integrating their concerns in policies and programmes,
and establishing ways to assess the impact of development and
environmental policies on women. We take part in international fora,
following negotiations and maintaining active outreach to ensure that the
decisions incorporate references to gender equality, womens rights and
womens contribution in climate change mitigation and adaptation.
The girl child
Specific forms of violence and harmful practices, including female genital
mutilation (FGM) and cutting, breast ironing and child marriage, affect girls in
particular, including child sexual abuse.
UN Women works to empower girls and young women to pursue their
dreams, confront discrimination, and prevent violence of all kinds. We raise
awareness of girls rights, support programmes that work with educators,
parents and fathers in particular, and with religious leaders. To advance girls'
education, health and well-being, we advocate with governments and other
partners, striving for a world where girls can live free from fear, violence and
discrimination.
2. Millennium development goal 3 has one target, and that is to eliminate
gender disparity in primary and secondary education preferably by
2005 and to all levels of education not later than 2015. Explain how the
Kenyan government has demonstrated the centrality of gender equality
and women empowerment to the development paradigm-15
MDG 3 is to promote equality and empower women.
The goal has one target: to eliminate gender disparity in primary and
secondary education, preferably by 2005 and to all levels of education
no later than 2015.
Four indicators are used to measure progress towards the goal:
1. the ratio of girls to boys in primary, secondary and tertiary
education
2. the ratio of literate women to men in the 15 to 24 year old age
group

3. the share of women in wage employment in the non-agricultural

sector and
4. the proportion of seats held by women in national parliaments

3. Give an account of feminist, masculinist and gender construction

theories and discuss how they can be positively applied in
development-15
4. Explain how affirmative action as a gender strategy has been utilized in
project management in Kenya-15
5. Outline the strategies that are utilized in gender integration and discuss
the factors that can impede gender integration in development projects
in the construction industry-15
Strategies to improve gender equalities in Economics
a) Gender-Responsive Budgets
A budget is the most comprehensive statement of a governments social and
economic plans and priorities.

It is now widely acknowledged that macroeconomic policy can, and does

influence gender inequality and gender inequality influences macroeconomic
outcomes (Elson 1998).
In tracking where the money comes from and where it goes, budgets
determine how public funds are raised, how they are used and who benefits
from them. Therefore, implementing commitments towards gender equality
requires intentional measures to incorporate a gender perspective in
planning and budgeting frameworks and concrete investment in addressing
gender gaps.
Gender-responsive budgeting is not about creating separate budgets for
women, or solely increasing spending on womens programs.
Rather gender-responsive budgeting seeks to ensure that the collection and
allocation of public resources is carried out in ways that are effective and
contribute to advancing gender equality and womens empowerment.
It should be based on in-depth analysis that identifies effective interventions
for implementing policies and laws that advance womens rights. It provides
tools to assess the different needs and contributions of men and women, and
boys and girls within the existing revenues, expenditures and allocations and
calls for adjusting budget policies to benefit all groups.
Gender-responsive budget analysis, along with legislation, and other
practical policy measures can address gender bias and discrimination. It is a
step not only towards accountability to womens rights, but also towards
greater public transparency and can shift economic policies leading to gains
across societies. In Mozambique, work on gender-responsive budgeting
helped to address gender equality gaps in the countrys poverty reduction
strategy. Following the call by womens organizations to prioritize ending
violence against women in the strategic plan as key to addressing gender
inequality, funds were provided to create facilities for victims of domestic
violence in police stations in all 129 districts, In Morocco every second
woman does not know how to read or write. To reverse this trend, the
Ministry of Education allocated funds to expand the school feeding programs,
extend medical services within schools, distribute books, and provide
transport for students living in remote areas. These measures were spelt out
in the gender budget statement, the first in the history of Morocco and
presented as an annex to the national budget for 2006. The statement
outlined how the allocation of public resources will address gender equality
priorities. In Kenya, the Institute of Economic Affairs carried out a study in
2004 on Mainstreaming Gender in National Budgets and they identified gaps
in the Kenyan Budget process
b) Women Migrant Workers

Globalization has contributed to an increasing flow of migrant workers from

countries with limited economic opportunities to fill gaps in nations with a
dwindling labor supply. While globalization may foster the acceleration of
trade and investment, it does not create an environment that protects
migrant workers economic, social and physical security. This is even more so
when it comes to women migrant workers, whose numbers have been
increasing, now constituting 50 percent or more of the migrant workforce in
Asia and Latin America.
By creating new economic opportunities, migration can promote economic
independence and status for women workers, who provide safety nets that
sustain communities at home. Studies indicate that migrant women workers
contribute to the development of both sending and receiving countries
remittances from their incomes account for as much as 10 percent of the
GDP in some countries. In 2008, remittances were estimated by the World
Bank at US$305 billion. These monetary investments used for food,
housing, education and medical services along with newly acquired skills
of returnees, can potentially contribute significantly to poverty reduction and
the Millennium Development Goals.
Yet, while migration can bring new employment and opportunities, it also
bears great risks for women, many of whom end up at the lower end of the
job market. Female migrants often work as domestic workers and
entertainers a euphemism for sex workers in unregulated informal
sectors that do not fall under national labor laws. Migrant women routinely
lack access to social services and legal protection and are subjected to
abuses such as harsh working and living conditions, low wages, illegal
withholding of wages and premature termination of employment. The worst
abuses force women into sexual slavery.
UNIFEM for instance has worked with worked with governments, civil society
and the private sector, in an effort to promote safe migration for women,
eliminating trafficking, and enabling policy, institutional and socio-economic
environments that ensure womens equal opportunities and benefits from

migration. Specific program support goes towards establishing laws and

practices that protect women migrants human rights, drawing connections
to national poverty reduction strategies, strengthening migrants
organizations, and brokering exchanges between source and destination
countries to advance labor rights. For example, in Jordan, UNIFEM supported
efforts for inclusion of women migrant workers in the national labor code.
This resulted in the formulation of a minimum standard contract for migrant
women that stipulates their rights, such as the right to medical care, rest
days and timely payment of wages. Information on a shelter and hotline for
domestic workers was also included. In addition, the Government has
established a monitoring committee to assess the situations of migrant
women workers in their employers houses. Media campaigns have raised
awareness in this destination country regarding the rights of migrant
workers.
c) Womens Land & Property Rights

In many countries around the world, womens property rights are limited by
social norms, customs and at times legislation, hampering their economic
status and opportunities to overcome poverty. Even in countries where
women constitute the majority of small farmers and do more than 75 percent
of the agricultural work, they are routinely denied the right to own the land
they cultivate and on which they are dependent to raise their families.
Ownership of land and property empowers women and provides income and
security. Without resources such as land, women have limited say in
household decision-making, and no recourse to the assets during crises. This
often relates to other vulnerabilities such as domestic violence and HIV and
AIDS.
In regions of conflict, the impact of unequal land rights has serious
consequences for women often the only survivors. In conflict and postconflict situations, the number of women-headed households often increases
sharply as many men have either been killed or are absent. Without their

husbands, brothers or fathers in whose name land and property titles are
traditionally held they find themselves denied access to their homes and
fields by male family members, former in-laws or neighbors. Without the
security of a home or income, women and their families fall into poverty
traps and struggle for livelihoods, education, sanitation, health care, and
other basic rights.
In recent years, international agreements have repeatedly reiterated the
importance of womens land and property rights. The Beijing Platform for
Action affirmed that womens right to inheritance and ownership of land and
property should be recognized. The Convention on the Elimination of All
Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) has underscored it,
referring to rural womens rights to equal treatment in land and agrarian
reform processes. Womens property rights are an implicit part of achieving
the Millennium Development Goals, specifically Goal 1 on eradicating
extreme poverty and Goal 3 on gender equality. Advocacy for womens land
and property rights enhances womens economic security and rights and
reduce feminized poverty.
Let us conclude this part by rephrasing the words of UNIFEM coordinator in
Nepal who said that a growing body of evidence suggests that gender
equality fuels thriving economies. When women can find decent jobs and
acquire assets, they earn incomes and accumulate savings to help
themselves and their families. The pool of human resources, talents and
economic contributions expands, spurring productivity and growth (UNIFEM,
2008)

6. Highlight gender issues that affect development and describe strategies

that can be employed by stakeholders in development to address
gender inequality-15

7.5 Gender Issues that affect Development

1. Women, Poverty & Economics
Women bear a disproportionate burden of the worlds poverty. Statistics
indicate that women are more likely than men to be poor and at risk of
hunger because of the systematic discrimination they face in education,
health care, employment and control of assets. Poverty implications are
widespread for women, leaving many without even basic rights such as
access to clean drinking water, sanitation, medical care and decent
employment. Being poor can also mean they have little protection from
violence and have no role in decision making.
According to some estimates, women represent 70 percent of the worlds
poor. They are often paid less than men for their work, with the average
wage gap in 2008 being 17 percent. Eight out of ten women workers are
considered to be in vulnerable employment in sub-Saharan Africa and South
Asia, with global economic changes taking a huge toll on their livelihoods.
2. Violence Against Women
Violence against women and girls continues unabated in every continent,
country and culture. It takes a devastating toll on womens lives, on their
families, and on society as a whole. Most societies prohibit such violence

yet the reality is that too often, it is covered up or tacitly condone. UN

Secretary-General Ban Ki-Moon, 8 March 2007
Violence against women and girls is one of the most widespread violations of
human rights. It can include physical, sexual, psychological and economic
abuse, and it cuts across boundaries of age, race, culture, wealth and
geography. It takes place in the home, on the streets, in schools, the
workplace, in farm fields, refugee camps, during conflicts and crises. It has
many manifestations from the most universally prevalent forms of
domestic and sexual violence, to harmful practices, abuse during pregnancy,
so-called honor killings and other types of femicide.

3. HIV & AIDS

More than 30 million people are today living with HIV. Globally, women now
account for half of all infections. Yet women increasingly make up the
majority in sub-Saharan Africa, where the epidemic has stretched the
furthest. In parts of Africa and the Caribbean, young women ages 1524 are
up to six times more likely to be HIV-positive than young men of the same
age. The proportions of women living with HIV in Latin America, Asia and
Eastern Europe are also growing slowly.
Gender inequality and violations of womens rights make women and girls
particularly susceptible, leaving them with less control than men over their
bodies and their lives. Women and girls often have less information about
HIV and fewer resources to take preventive measures. They face barriers to
the negotiation of safer sex, including economic dependency and unequal
power relations. Sexual violence, a widespread and brutal violation of
womens rights, exacerbates the risk of transmission. And while it is widely
assumed that marriage provides protection from AIDS, evidence suggests
that in parts of the world it can be a major HIV risk factor, especially for
young women and girls.
4. Democratic Governance
Studies show higher numbers of women in parliament generally contribute to
stronger attention to womens issues. Womens political participation is a
fundamental prerequisite for gender equality and genuine democracy. It
facilitates womens direct engagement in public decision-making and is a
means of ensuring better accountability to women.
Political accountability to women begins with increasing the number of
women in decision-making positions, but it cannot stop there. What are
required are gender-sensitive governance reforms that will make all elected

officials more effective at promoting gender equality in public policy and

ensuring their implementation.
5. Peace & Security
The changing nature of conflict in recent decades has altered the way it
affects men and women. While women remain a minority of combatants and
perpetrators of war, they increasingly suffer the greatest harm. In
contemporary conflicts, more than 70 percent of casualties have been
civilians most of them women and children. Women face specific and
devastating forms of gender-based violence, including widespread sexual
violence, deployed systematically for military or political objectives. As
women in war-torn societies struggle to keep families together and care for
the wounded, they are the first to be affected by infrastructure breakdown,
and may be forced into survival strategies that involve sexual exploitation.
6. Human Rights
Across the globe, women confront manifold violations of their human rights
when they cannot participate in the decisions that affect their lives or
claim fair political representation, when they face discrimination in
employment, when they are denied entitlement to land and property, or
when they suffer violence within their own home. Other obstacles to rights
arise when women and girls are prevented from going to school or attaining
health care, or are subject to harmful traditional practices.
General issues and trends
Although each situation must be considered on its own merits, there are
broad
issues or themes which apply in many contexts.
Gender is an issue because of the fundamental differences and inequalities
between women and men. These differences and inequalities may manifest
themselves in different ways in specific countries or sectors but there are
some broad patterns that point to questions that should always be
considered.
The elements below could be taken as starting points to explore how and
why
gender differences and inequalities are relevant in a specific situation.
Inequalities in political power (access to decision-making,
representation,
etc.)
Women are under-represented in political processes throughout the
world. It is important to look at and understand gender differences in
power within formal decision-making structures (such as governments,
community councils, and policy-making institutions). Given the
underrepresentation

of women and the low visibility of womens perspectives,

the fact that women often have different priorities, needs and interests
than men is often not apparent. National, regional or sub-regional priorities,
or even the specific needs and priorities of a community, are often
defined without meaningful input from women.
Inequalities within households
Inequalities in negotiating and decision-making potential and access to
resources have been documented within households. This has prompted
questions about both research and policy which is based on the assumption
that households function as units where each member benefits
equally. The investigation of differences and inequalities at the household
level is relevant to an understanding of a range of key issues, including
the ability of women and men to respond to economic incentives,
the design of effective strategies for HIV/AIDS prevention, and appropriate
and equitable social security policies.
6
Differences in legal status and entitlements
Despite national constitutions and international instruments that proclaim
equal rights for women and men, there are many instances in which
equal rights to personal status, security, land, inheritance and employment
opportunities are denied to women by law or practice. Addressing
the resulting constraints for women is important as an end in itself, but it
is also essential for formulating effective national strategies for increasing
economic productivity and growth, reducing poverty and achieving
sustainable resource management. Action to secure womens rights is not
just a concern of a small group of women activists, but rather the
responsibility
of the international community as a whole.
Gender division of labour within the economy
In most countries, women and men are distributed differently across
manufacturing sectors, between formal and informal sectors, within
agriculture,
and among occupations. Women are also more likely than men
to be in low-paid jobs and non-standard work (part-time, temporary,
home-based), and likely to have less access than men to productive assets
such as education, skills, property and credit. These patterns mean that
economic trends and economic policies are likely to have different
implications
for women and men. For example, trade liberalization has had
uneven impacts by sector, with consequences for both gender equality
and economic growth that have only recently become the subject of
investigation.
Inequalities in the domestic/unpaid sector
In many countries it is women who shoulder most of the responsibilities
and tasks related to the care and nurturing of the family (including laundry,
food preparation, childcare, care of the sick and cleaning). In many

countries in the South, women also make an important contribution to

family food production and water and firewood provision. These tasks
add to womens workload and are often an obstacle to engaging in political
action or expanding economic activities. Recent research has sought
to demonstrate the relationships between this reproductive work and
the productive sector of the economy in particular the dependence of
all productive activities on the creation and maintenance of a healthy labour
force through this work at the household level, and the way in
which the reproductive sector can be affected by the consequences of
economic policies related to trade, investment and public expenditure.
There has been an important shift from focusing on how economic policies
have affected welfare in a gender-specific manner, to illustrating
7
how gender biases negatively affect the outcome of these same economic
policies.
Violence against women
Gender inequality is also manifested in gender-based violence, either by
a womans intimate partner (domestic violence), by an enemy army as a
weapon of attempted ethnic cleansing or in sexual exploitation through,
for example, trafficking of women and girls.
Discriminatory attitudes
Gender inequalities are not only economic, but are also reflected in other
ways that are difficult to measure and change. Ideas about appropriate
behaviour, independence, and aptitudes are often grounded in gender
stereotypes and vary for women and men. Ideas and practices tend to reflect
and reinforce each other (the one providing the rationale for the
other), which contributes to the complexity of achieving change.
PAPER NO 2
1. a)explain the meaning of the following terms as used in gender issues-6
i. gender analysis
Gender Analysis is thus a close examination of a problem or
situation in order to identify the gender issues. Gender analysis of
a development program involves identifying the gender issues
within the problem which is being addressed and in the obstacles
to progress, so that these issues can be addressed in all aspects
of the program - in project objectives, in the choice of intervention
strategy and the methods of program implementation.
ii.

gender discrimination
This means to give differential treatment to individuals on the
grounds of their gender. In many societies, this involves

systematic and structural discrimination against women in the

distribution of income, access to resources and participation in
decision making
iii.

gender division of labor

Gender Division of labour refers to beliefs which define the kinds
of work that men and women can do or should do in terms of
supposedly essential differences between them. It means an
overall societal pattern where women are allotted one set of
gender roles, and men allotted another set. Unequal gender
division of labor refers to a gender division of labor where there is
an unequal gender division of reward i.e. high paid work is
appropriate for men because men are supposed to be the
breadwinners.

iv.

gender planning
The technical and political processes and procedures
necessary to implement gender-sensitive policy

b) Discuss how women in development WID and gender and

development GAD impacted on gender and development approaches in
1960s and 1970s -9
Differences Between Integration of Women in Development and
Integration of
Gender in Development
Integration of women in development (IWD): this approach
identifies women (or their absence) as an important factor indicating
the effectiveness of development program (or lack thereof). This
integration takes shape in projects (or parts of projects) focused on
women, whose aim is to increase women revenues and their ability to
assume their (often traditional) roles, thus contributing to the
mobilization of all available human resources for development. The
focus here is on women as a category, and the idea is that women must
be added in to development projects if they are absent.
Integration of gender in development (IGD): this approach
identifies inequalities and disparities of power, between men and
women, as an obstacle to or brake on equitable development and the
full participation of women. This integration is manifested in a gender
analysis from which two types of strategies are derived: Mainstreaming
and Affirmative Actions. Gender analysis is a tool which makes it
possible to highlight the possibly different needs of women and men
(especially in terms of access to and control of factors of production
such as water, land, capital, and knowledge), their specific limitations
and opportunities and their respective survival strategies. This analysis
includes the practical needs determined by women and men, with a
view to improving

Mainstreaming and Affirmative Action benefit the under-represented or

disadvantaged group.
Let us know define the two new terms so that we may understand the
meaning of integration of gender in development. In lecture one, we
defined gender mainstreaming. Let us remind ourselves once again.

c) Explain 5 factors which have led to changes in gender roles in the

current societies-10

2. a)define the term empowerment -1

Make (someone) stronger and more confident, especially in controlling
their life and claiming their rights:
movements to empower the poor
b) Discuss 7 strategies which have been implemented in Kenya to
ensure women and men empowerment-14
National Policy Initiatives include:
1. National Policy on Gender and development (January 2000):
Overall objective is to ensure womens empowerment and
mainstreaming the needs and of women, men, girls and boys in all
sectors of development in the country so that they can participate
and benefit equally from development initiatives. The policy
framework underlines the need to focus on empowerment
strategies that demonstrate understanding of essential linkages
within sectors. In addition it recognizes that gender is central and
cross-cutting, and therefore programme strategies should
incorporate gender equality as a goal. To achieve these,
mechanisms aimed at achieving gender balanced development
through the removal of disparities between men and women should
be put in place. It also underscores social, cultural, legal, and
political factors that perpetuate inequalities.
2. Sessional Paper No. 2 of May 2006 on Gender Equality and
Development : The Sessional Paper provides a framework for
gender mainstreaming and recognizes PLAN OF ACTION FOR THE
NATIONAL POLICY ON GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT (2000) 15 that
socio-cultural attitudes held by men and women, and socialization
process are of great significance in determining the unequal status
between men and women. It also recognizes that development
initiatives impact differently on men and women and in turn women
and men impact differently on development process. National
Poverty Eradication Plan (NPEP, 1999-2015): One of the objectives
of the plan is to strengthen the capacities of the poor and
vulnerable groups to earn income, narrow gender and geographical

disparities and engender a healthy, better educated and a more

productive population.
3. Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP 2001-2004): The Paper
reaffirms the commitment of the government to address gender
issues by providing an engendered poverty diagnosis. Millennium
Development Goals: The key elements of the framework of the
Global Agenda in the context of goals, targets and indicators
provides a road map for the implementation of the Millennium
Declaration signed by UN member states in the year 2000
demonstrating the commitment of the international community to
sharply reduce extreme poverty around the world. MDG 3 commits
Kenya to promote gender equality and women empowerment as an
effective way to combat poverty, hunger and disease and to
stimulate development that is truly sustainable
4. The Economic Recovery Strategy (ERS 2003-2007): It adopts the
approach of revamping growth , raising productivity, facilitating
private investments and alleviating unemployment while
simultaneously addressing the socio-economic agenda and equity
concerns. The ERS recognizes that women and men have
differential needs, constraints, options, incentives and expectations
regarding the out comes and impacts on macro- economic
management. The Investment Programme for ERS (IP-ERS) which
facilitate implementation, monitoring and evaluation of ERS
provides an opportunity for genderising the outcome indicators of
the same.
5. PLAN OF ACTION FOR THE NATIONAL POLICY ON GENDER AND
DEVELOPMENT (2000) 16 Medium-Term Expenditure Framework
(MTEF): It recognizes the need to introduce gender indicators in the
macro framework and encourages a paradigm shift in resource
allocation mechanisms. Annual Budget Strategy Paper (BSP): It is
formulated to provide estimates of available resources and set firm
ministerial ceilings through providing guidance to government
ministries and departments on aligning public spending patterns
with stated national priorities. This enhances efficiency in public
spending, provides an opportunity for gender responsive
programming and gender focused implementation.
6. Kenya Joint Assistance Strategy(KJAS): This is a statement of 17
development partners, on how to carry forward the Rome and Paris
declaration on development aid effectives (March 2007) by working
with the government and the people of Kenya to consolidate and
scale up the gains that have been made by ERS with one
overarching tangible result of achieving MDGs targets while

anchoring on the 3 pillars of vision 2030, and improving the

development impacts of available aid resources
7. Vision 2030: It identifies the best options for fulfilling Kenyas
enormous potential to realize the goal of becoming a middle
income, prosperous country, providing a high quality of life for all
our people. This will be achieved by building on the competitive
advantages in the key sectors of the economy to substantially
expand Kenyas share of the global market. The Vision 2030 singles
out three pillars on which to realize our goal. The first pillar seeks to
ensure achievement and sustainability of an average economic
growth of over 10 percent per annum over the next twenty-five
years. The second pillar seeks to build a just and cohesive society,
with equitable social development, and a clean and secure
environment. The third pillar aims at producing a democratic
political system that nurtures issue-based politics, the rule
of law, and protects all the rights and freedoms of every individual
and society

3. discuss 5 cultural changes which has led to rapid development in

Kenya-15
4. discuss the emerging gender trends in relation to the following
concepts-15
i. violence
ii.
women and political representation
iii.
gender and decision making
iv.
health services
v. social justice

5. a)explain the meaning of the term gender mainstreaming-3

Gender mainstreaming is the (re)organization, improvement,
development and evaluation of policy processes, so that a gender
equality perspective is incorporated in all policies at all levels and at all
stages, by the actors normally involved in policy-making
b) Discuss 4 challenges of gender mainstreaming as a development
strategy in Africa-12
10.5 Challenges facing Gender Mainstreaming.

a)

Involving and defining responsibilities of parties directly

concerned, in particular the political and administrative
leadership

The success of a gender mainstreaming project goes through a process

of mobilization and involvement of the various actors concerned: from
civil servants to political representatives. It is not enough to have a
minister and a department responsible for equality. Collective,
transversal and preventive action is needed by everyone in the whole of
the process. To make a success of a gender mainstreaming project
requires identifying these partners, raising their awareness of the
importance of taking gender into account, and also getting them to
make reports on how gender was encountered in their work. Finally,
commitment at the level of policy makers is absolutely necessary. If
they convey the message, support within the ministries will be
strengthened. However, at times the commitment and the support is
not there.
b)
Mobilizing resources, instruments and expertise
Gender mainstreaming is an investment in the overall quality of policy
and for it to be implemented by all members of the policy-making staff
(who are also normally involved in that policy), extra resources are
needed. The costs of this quality improvement should therefore be
counted as regular policy costs. Staff and budgets should be made
available. In addition it is important that there are adequate
instruments for gender mainstreaming, if necessary tailored to the
needs of the specific ministries. Amongst the most important
instruments we can mention

Sex-disaggregated statistics and gender indicators.

Carrying out gender mainstreaming projects requires having
disaggregated data available, but that goes beyond using the sex
variable as an independent variable. It is a matter of using these
disaggregated data and sex-differentiated analysis to tackle the sources
of inequalities between women and men, which are the feminine and
masculine stereotypes or the roles and representations customarily
assigned to the sexes.

Another type of instruments is manuals designed to provide

support for implementing gender mainstreaming that make it possible
to verify that concerns about equality between women and men have
been integrated into the different phases of a policy. The Ministry of
Gender, Children and Social Development has a Manual on Gender
Mainstreaming which was launched in June, 2008.
c)

Establishing adequate internal structures

There have been a number of individuals who are sceptic on the idea of
gender mainstreaming. It is therefore important that it is clear to
everyone who is responsible for gender mainstreaming within his or her
department, and how the internal gender mainstreaming structure is
organized. Without an executive and without a structure it is difficult to
get things regulated. For this reason the lines of responsibility must be
clear to everyone, including such things as who the contact person is
and who bears the ultimate responsibility. There should be gender
mainstreaming coordinators in each department with a final
responsibility in the hands of the top management
5.

Defining key concepts and clear objectives

There is low in-house knowledge in gender mainstreaming. If clear

objectives are not defined, it is hard or even impossible to design or
employ appropriate instruments and to keep people motivated to
pursue a cause. The goals and plans should be clear and available for
all concerned within and outside the ministry. This is the only way by
which the effectiveness of gender mainstreaming can be measured and
can contribute to more awareness and support within the ministries and
government departments concerned.
e)
Womens access to equal opportunity and equal pay in
work, labor and organizing rights have been severely eroded in the
global economy.
f)
Inexistence or very few concrete programs that aim at lifting
women from structural poverty and discrimination.
g)
The absence of synergy between the various programs
initiated by the government and the gap between policies and
practices. Sometimes there is conflict between women machinery and
women organizations. The gap between the policies and practices can
be addressed by:

Increasing investment in human capital for women

Support Government in developing and implementing an action

plan including a regular monitoring of the achievements

Support Women Machineries to play a strategic role in

positioning Gender Equality into key strategies (PRSP) and budgeting
processes.

Improve accountability mechanisms for both Donors and

Governments.

Increase financial support for women issue

h)

Gender national policy is a standalone document

i)
Donor community does not effectively commit resources
for gender equality:

Major Obstacles to the Promotion of Gender Equality and

1. Empowerment
Notwithstanding the widespread commitment shown through the ratification
of international and regional gender equality frameworks, normative gains
are not yet fully reflected in substantial changes in womens lives, as shown
in the preceding section. Large gaps remain between policy and practice and
it is the aim of this section to discuss some of the major challenges that have
been experienced.
2. Continued presence of strong cultural and traditional
practices constraining progress in achieving gender parity
The continued presence of long standing cultural and traditional practices
that discriminate against women and girls have constrained the progress
towards achieving gender equality. Discriminatory practices and public
attitudes towards the advancement of women and gender equality have not
changed at the same pace as policy, legal and institutional frameworks.
3. Lack of ratification of the instruments that promote gender
equality
Previous sections have identified the status with respect to a number of
regional instruments,
particularly the African Womens Protocol. Some countries are yet to sign this
instrument, while a
considerable number are yet to ratify it.
4. Ineffective institutional and policy implementation
mechanisms
Thirteen years after the adoption of the BPFA by the Fourth World Conference
on Women in 1995,the greatest challenge facing countries and regional
institutions is the effective implementation ofthe adopted commitments.
Good policies that do not have well formulated implementation plansand
resources render the policies ineffective. In some countries, the capacity of
gender machinerieshas also contributed to the slow pace. Some policies are
not effectively implemented because theywere not developed in a
participatory way inclusive of both men and women. Lack of targets withwell
defined time-frames are also some of the factors that have hampered
effective implementationof policies. Lack of monitoring and evaluation
mechanisms also plays a significant role in the lack ofimplementation.
Moreover, some policies tend to focus on the symptoms rather than
addressingthe persistent underlying causes of gender inequality. African
women, especially those living in ruralcommunities and those with
disabilities, still face exclusion from participating in development processes

that can empower them and improve gender equality. It is crucial to

undertake inclusive participatoryapproaches in policy development that
involve women as equal partners.
5. Lack of adequate resources
Lack of human and financial resources severely limits gender mainstreaming
to achieve gender equalityand womens empowerment. Even in situations
where a comprehensive plan of action for gendermainstreaming has been
developed, countries may not have adequate resources to implement
theplan. In particular National Gender Machineries (NGMs) experience limited
financial and other material
resource base to enhance the implementation of gender equality mandates,
roles and responsibilities.In addition, there are gaps in human capacity, there
is generally a challenge with respect to gendercompetence skills of officers in
the NGMs to influence the engendering of macro-economic and sectorpolicy
frameworks. There is high staff turn over of experts, and low staff retention,
most countries arefacing difficulties of retaining and sustaining staff with the
necessary expertise.
27
6. Continued presence of strong cultural and traditional
practices constraining progress in achieving
gender parity in education
In taking decisions with respect to the education of their children, some
families continue to havepreference for educating boys rather than girls. As
noted female-to-male school enrolment, retentionand completion favor boys
in a majority of countries. Very few countries have female to maleenrolment
rates that favour girls over boys and these countries have been making
progress to redressthe situation.
7. Continued presence of strong cultural and traditional
practices constraining progress in achieving
gender parity in health
Some cultural and traditional practices continue to inhibit progress in the
area of sexual and reproductiverights. Women and girls continue to risk
death from maternal mortality. There is need to provideaccessible sexual and
reproductive healthcare services and education to reduce maternal
mortality.Such interventions need to address the roles of both men and
women. The rate of HIV infection is muchhigher among women than men
and in this regard, governments must establish and monitor strict
legalframeworks to address the vulnerability of women and girls.
Furthermore, access to anti-retroviraltreatment should be ensured.
8. Continued presence of strong cultural and traditional
practices constraining progress in achieving
gender parity in ownership of property and land
With regard to womens and girls rights to own and inherit land and
property, some cultural andpatriarchal behaviors are still the major sources
of discrimination. Some customary systems are fairlydemocratic and
functional whilst others are conservative, it is important to find ways to

support wellfunctioning customary systems while engendering and

strengthening the channels for change in thosethat are not (UNECA-SA,
2003). There is need to review, reform and harmonise customary and
statutorylaws, and legislation to address sources of discrimination against
women owning land. However theremoval of legal clauses that discriminate
against women can not change cultural and social behaviour.The result is
that not much will change on the ground, because women will still be
discriminated againstunder customary law. This calls for the need to actively
engage in sensitisation and education campaignsto influence traditional
norms, values and laws to allow women to own and control land and
property.There is need to disseminate information about new laws that
promote the rights of women to landand property so that they are familiar to
all stakeholders working on the issues. Governments anddevelopment
partners need to support the training of legal personnel, including those who
administercustomary law ie. traditional leaders, on womens land rights
issues.
9. Lack of enforcement of laws that promote gender equality
and lack of knowledge of laws
In some countries laws that promote gender equality are in place, however
lack of enforcement of suchlaws leads to the perpetuation of gender
inequalities and violence against women. In some countries,laws are in
place, but interpretation of these laws is lacking and as such, they are not
enforced.
10. Lack of full involvement of men and boys
Changing cultural and traditional beliefs including patriarchy requires the
involvement of men, and boysin the promotion of gender equality through
innovative rights-based, culturally sensitive programmesand continued
education and sensitization.
11. Continued lack of recognition of womens unpaid work
The continued lack of recognition of unpaid work (domestic, reproductive,
care and support) performedby women hampers the development of policies
that can effectively promote gender equality. There istherefore need for such
work to be given due recognition in the computation of national income.
28
12. Violation of womens human rights
Women and girls continue to be seriously affected by gender-specific
violations of their human rights.The protection of girl-child against
discrimination, ill health, malnutrition, violence, FGM, forcedmarriage,
trafficking and exploitation has been partly constrained by lack of knowledge
by those whocan offer such protection. Direct advocacy to achieve this
should start with the parents, traditional andreligious leaders and
parliamentarians. It is also important that the girl children are
knowledgeableof their rights. The continuation of armed conflicts have
affected the pace towards achieving genderequality. Armed conflicts have
continued to bring different forms of sexual violence to which womenand
girls. Governments should ensure that measures are put in place to ensure

that women are givenopportunities to participate at all levels of negotiation,

disarmament, demobilization, and reconstructionphases as set in the UN
Resolution 1325.
13. Limited gender equality in decision making and
governance
Although some progress has been achieved towards gender equality in
parliaments, women continue tobe under-represented in most structures of
power and decision-making, including leadership positionsin political parties,
local government, the public and private sector and civil society
organizations. Passingof laws and policies alone does not bring about
substantial gender equality in political participation.It is important to
implement key supportive mechanisms that include transparent selection
processeswithin political parties; access to public funding; the provision of
training for women candidatesand elected officials; and awareness raising for
voters and the public at large (Ballington, 2004). The
Committee for the Elimination of Discrimination against Women has
repeatedly noted theimportanceof ensuring equal opportunities for womens
participation and emphasized that where there isfull andequal participation
of women in public life and decision-making, the implementation of their
rights andcompliance with the Convention improves (UNDAW, 2005).
14. Lack of supportive complementary policies
Promoting gender equality requires a multi-sectoral approach with all the
sectors playing their role.
For example although in some countries such as Cameroon the credit
legislation in force does notdiscriminate against women, there are several
factors preventing the majority of them from obtainingaccess to formal
loans. Some of these include lack of basic training in managementand
bookkeeping;poor understanding of the notion of the return on a loan;
ignorance of banking and tax procedures;and lack of collateral and security.
15. Inadequate documentation and dissemination of
successful practices for replication
There is still limited documentation and sharing on effective practices for
achieving gender equalityin particular in areas such as violence against
women, governance and HIV and AIDS. Sharing ofinformation is important
within countries, between countries and internationally and is critical to
thesuccess of achieving gender parity. There is need to intensify information
sharing and disseminationthrough various channels such as the printed
media, radios, television programmes, national eventsand the internet. It is
important for member states, development partners and
internationalandregional bodies to document best practices for wide
dissemination and identify institutions that canhost information exchange
system for best practices at national and regional levels.
16. Limited role of the media
The media can play a major role in promoting gender equality beyond what it
is currently doing.

In particular in creating awareness, sensitization and education campaigns to

changepatriarchal
attitudes. As noted before establishing new laws alone is not enough;
existing gendered social relationsand cultural norms may quickly shape
these laws. There is need for measures to counter preexistingActionsocial
forces through education and training of both men and women. The media
can make a majorcontribution towards promoting these gender equality
messages.
17. Lack of sex disaggregated and gender responsive data
Sex-disaggregated data and information from gender-sensitive indicators are
often not collected, lost inaggregation of published data, or not used. Gender
responsive data would help in tracking the progressmade towards
achievement of gender equality.
18. Weak monitoring and evaluation systems
There is a lack of good monitoring and evaluation systems to monitor the
impact and results of thegender mainstreaming initiatives. In this context,
governments and all stakeholders should developguidelines and indicators
for the monitoring and evaluation of gender equality interventions and
establish benchmarks and databases, using, for example the AGDI as a basic
tool.

6. a)distinguish between the two terms-4

i. gender equality
Gender equality refers to equal opportunities and outcomes for
women and men i.e. no discrimination on grounds of a person's sex
in the allocation of resources or benefits, or in the access to service.
This involves the removal of discrimination and structural
inequalities in access to resources
Gender equality means women and men have equal opportunities to
realize their individual potential to contribute to their countrys
economic and social development and to benefit equally from their
participation in society. Gender inequality restricts a countrys
economic growth.

ii.

gender equity

Equity means fairness and justice in the distribution of benefits and

responsibilities

Gender equity requires equal enjoyment by women and men of socially

valued goods, opportunities, resources and rewards. Gender equity
does not mean that women and men become the same, but that their
opportunities and life chances are equal. Gender equity is thus an
approach using gender equity is directed towards ensuring that
development policies and interventions leave women no worse off
economically or in terms of social responsibility than before the
intervention
.b) Discuss the strategies the Kenya government has put in place to
achieve gender equality in development-11
STATEMENT
The Post-2015 Development Agenda and Gender Equality in Kenya
Naivaisha, 16 18 September 2013
Expert Meeting convened by UN Women
The deliberation on the Post 2015 Development Agenda and Gender Equality in Kenya held in Naivasha included 37
experts from Kenya, with representation from diverse backgrounds, constituencies and professional backgrounds
including community organisers and women grassroots organisations, persons with disability, the youth and
pastoralist communities, civil society, the government, the gender sector, the UN civil society advisory group,
development partners and academia. The expertise covered a range of thematic areas, including agriculture, poverty,
economic development, health, Hiv/Aids, gender based violence, education, sustainable development and climate
change, peace and security, governance and womens leadership.
We are committed to the attainment of the Millennium Development Goals and the acceleration of their
implementation and to the prior commitments in the Beijing Platform of Action. We resolve to contribute to the Post2015 Development Agenda and Beijing + 20, recognising other relevant resolutions such as UNSCR 1325 and the
New Deal. We recognize the challenges we face in our country and in the world and the contribution we can make to
ensure the safety of this planet and of our people. We have been inspired by the sharing of the specific expertise and
experiences and discovering the common challenges we face and interests we have. We believe the problems we
face are interconnected and we call for a transformative approach to address the fragility and vulnerability of our
communities so that our needs and priorities are addressed in the post-2015 development framework:
1. Womens role in sustainable livelihoods
Humankind is the custodian of the planet and the threat posed by climate change challenges everyone without
distinction. The commoditisation of traditional resources and criminalisation of the use of traditional seeds threatens
livelihoods. Women in our communities carry valuable knowledge and expertise to stop, adapt and mitigate the risks
associated with climate change. The rights of our indigenous communities, practices, access to seeds, land and
indigenous assets must be protected. The right to produce our traditional food, crops and use of traditional methods
and lifestyles, such as pastoralism, must be upheld and protected so that we can feed the people of our land.
2. Natural resources
Opportunities emerging in the context of mining and exploitation of natural resources must be set against the costs to
our sustainable livelihoods, and the costs in terms of environmental damage, harm to sustainable farming practices
and pastoralism and traditional protection mechanisms to feed the majority of people in our country. The competition
over increasingly scarce resources emerging from globalisation threatens basic needs, such as access to water, land,
food and livelihoods. Conflicts emerging over these resources, appear in many forms and many levels which are
interrelated. Land should be protected so that communities can sustain themselves and help feed and sustain our
country. Womens rights must be respected so that they have access to safe drinking water, cultivable land and
shelter.
3. Food
Food production is a vital economic activity of our country and women are the key providers of food crops. Food
sovereignty should be enhanced by recognising the value of smallholder farmers, pastoralists and communities in
providing food to their communities and enhance their supply to the national market and food chains so that it can

feed the people of our country. Access to indigenous seeds, water and renewable energy are central to sustain
healthy, nutritious and affordable, food production.
4. Poverty
Poverty must be understood in terms of inequality and justice. Women and girls are bearing the brunt of poverty and
inequality in our country has increased. Poverty affects our families and communities. Gender equality must be at the
core of any strategy aiming at the eradication of poverty. Gender disaggregate data must be collected and
understood so that the dimensions of inequality between women and men are analysed in terms of understanding
root causes of poverty. Communities must be enhanced to collect and use data to effectively drive demand for
accountability to the needs of citizens. The eradication of poverty must be a primary concern of our country and of the
international community so as to respect the dignity of all.
5. Economic Development and the burden of unpaid care work
Women actively contribute to society and the economy and this contribution must be accounted. Inclusive
development requires investments in rural and urban informal settlements. Women must get access to credit and
economic resources. Womens economic sector activities should be enhanced by widening their skills and technology
capacity to improve their productive base. Women participate disproportionally to the informal sector, lacking social
protection whilst the burden of care in relation to child care, elderly care, care for the sick, and care for the household
is carried by women and girls often as low or unpaid work. Inclusive economic models that enhance decent work and
youth employment are central to decrease gender inequalities. The economic value of care work must be recognised
and women must get access to social services. Universal social protection must be put in place to ensure dignity of
all and alleviate the multiple burdens on women and girls.
6. The crisis of violence against women and girls
Violence against women and girls is increasingly becoming a crisis and is heightened in conflict settings, creating
fear, discrimination and powerlessness. Violence against women and girls in the culture of impunity impacts on their
health, dignity and economic productivity and is compounded by the stigma carried by violence. Sexual and gender
based violence also affect boys and men, and they should be engaged to help end violence against women and girls
so that socio-cultural practices that perpetuate inequality are challenged. Capacities of traditional and community
conflict resolution mechanisms must be made responsive to women and girls, while empowering women and girls to
demand and ensure that their rights are respected. The participation of women and girls to fully share in decisionmaking in households and communities should be reinforced. Justice, prosecution and reconciliation mechanisms to
address violence against women and girls must be equally strengthened so that rights of women and girls are upheld.
Legal aid, service delivery and access to justice and services are vitally important to address the crisis of violence
against women and girls.
7. Womens Health
Increased maternal mortality rates in Kenya is alarming and efforts are required to address this worrying trend. Every
person has a right to the highest attainable standard of health, including sexual reproductive health. Women must
have access to Reproductive Health and Rights. The fight against HIV/Aids crucially requires that women can make
decisions in relation to sexuality within and outside marriage. Girls must be protected from harmful cultural practices
such as early marriage and Female Genital Mutilation. Women must have access to quality maternal health services
with quality nursing and social staff.
8. Education
Women and girls continue to experience discrimination and exclusion from access to quality education, have lower
retention rates and are underrepresented at the secondary and tertiary levels leading to reduced economic
opportunities, poorer health, and increased poverty and marginalisation. Education plays a crucial role in human
development and the realisation of human potential. Education for women and girls has a transformative effect on
communities and societies and is the single most effective strategy to enhance the health, economic development
and general well being of society. Structural socio-economic and cultural barriers to womens education include cost,
distance and harmful cultural practices and attitudes (early marriage, gender stereotypes etc). Measures must be
taken to ensure equal access by women and girls to quality education, including mobile schools for pastoralist
communities and boarding schools. Quality Education must be available at all levels through policies and
interventions that remove structural barriers to their education and facilitate their full participation in development.
9. Women, peace and security

Conflict affects women and girls differently and they must be included as key actors in peace and security. Their
substantive inclusion should be organized around the pillars of participation, protection, promotion, relief and
recovery. The post 2015 development framework must incorporate UNSCR 1325 which acknowledges women as
agents of peace and presents an opportunity for Kenyan women through the Kenya National Action Plan that
expounds the priority areas for women, peace and security in the context of marginalized counties in Kenyas new
devolved structures. The post 2015 Development framework must take a human security approach which focuses
primarily on protecting people while promoting peace and assuring sustainable development. It has to adopt a
women-centred approach for resolving inequalities that affect security. It seeks to hold the government accountable
for the safety and security of Kenyan women. In the Post- 2015 Development Agenda there is need to design national
targets with gender specific indicators that build on the existing gender equality commitments that the country has
made. This link should prioritise the delivery of security and safety of women while stressing the importance of
involving women in security, justice, and economic empowerment programmes.
10. Womens Leadership
The exclusion of women from leadership and decision-making processes in Kenya has led to inequality and skewed
policies, increasing womens marginalisation, poverty and insecurity. Womens participation in leadership and
decision making in the social, economic and political spheres is crucial in ensuring good governance and
accountability. Socio-cultural impediments against womens leadership within communities, including pastoralist
communities, must be removed. Legitimate governance requires that affirmative action is taken to ensure
representation of women in governance at all levels. Decentralised governance and traditional leadership structures
must be responsive to womens needs and concerns and include women as actors in decisionmaking.
Comprehensive support and mentoring women into political leadership and strengthening of accountability of political
structures to women constituencies must be enhanced so that women can effectively influence policies through
political systems, while national election systems and mechanisms must be made more conducive to the participation
of women in local, county and national governance and leadership. Quality of governance must be audited by
measuring the representation of women in decision making in civil society, government and the private sector.
11. Monitoring and accountability
The monitoring of the implementation of the Millennium Development Goals has been weak because of the
inadequate baseline and sex-disaggregated data. The Millennium Development Goals Indicators lack a gender
dimension and the monitoring of the MDGs has remained weak while indicators were not sufficiently robust in
capturing the gender dimensions. The post-2015 Development Framework must use a human rights approach in its
implementation. The accountability mechanisms to womens machinery must be enhanced with a bottom up
approach in a human rights based framework and in full compliance with accountability and reporting mechanisms as
set out in the national constitution and international obligations. The post-2015 Development Framework must
provide clear and specific international and national indicators for monitoring progress in the area of poverty
eradication and womens equality in all relevant sectors, including government, civil society and the private sector.
12. Financial resources
Inequitable distribution of resources and allocation to wrong priorities and weak accountability have contributed to not
achieving the Millennium Development Goals. The post-2015 Development Framework must include gender
responsive budgeting, focusing on priorities such as: (i) the expansion of gender-sensitive public investment in quality
public goods, (ii) public infrastructure, (iii) economic and social services to create employment for women;
(iv)enhancing of womens labor market participation and productivity and (v) the provision of services to reduce the
burden of unpaid care work. Gender sensitive public finance reforms must be ensured. Efficiency, transparency and
accountability in budget processes must be improved through more efficient collection of revenues and targeting of
expenditures that ensure gender equal outcomes. The financial sector must be restructured to ensure that credit goes
to real investment and is accessible to small and medium enterprises especially in sectors dominated by women. The
formal banking system and financial institutions must enhance the provision of services reaching excluded groups of
poor women, small and medium enterprises, self employed workers, small holder farmers and youth, including those
without land and other collateral.

PAPER NO 3
1. a)explain the meaning of the following terms as used in gender issues-6

i.
ii.

gender equality-REPEATED
gender equity REPEATED

b) Discuss 5 achievements of women in the new Kenya constitution

2010-10
The gains summarised herein include how women can ensure that these gains
are realised.
These are prohibition of all forms of discrimination including violence
against women;
womens right to own and inherit land;
equality in marriage; right to matrimonial property;
invalidity of discriminatory customary law;
guaranteed womens representation;
womens right to bestow citizenship to their foreign spouses and or
children; and
equal parental responsibility;

c) Explain why women in development WID was not popular in the

1960s and had to be replaced by gender and development approach-11
2. a) distinguish between the following terms-4
i. affirmative action
Affirmative action (known as employment
equity in Canada, reservation in India and Nepal, and positive discrimination in
the UK) is the policy of favoring members of a disadvantaged group who currently
suffer or historically have suffered from discrimination within aculture.[1][2][3][4] Often,
these people are disadvantaged for historical reasons, such as oppression or slavery.
[5]
Historically and internationally, support for affirmative action has sought to achieve
goals such as bridging inequalities in employment and pay, increasing access to
education, promoting diversity, and redressing apparent past wrongs, harms, or
hindrances. The nature of affirmative action policies varies from region to region.
Some countries, such as India, use a quota system, whereby a certain percentage of
government jobs, political positions, and school vacancies must be reserved for
members of a certain group. In some other regions where quotas are not used,
minority group members are given preference or special consideration in selection
processes.

ii.

empowerment
. to give power or authority to; authorize, especially by legal or official means:
I empowered my agent to make the deal for me. The local ordinance empowers
the board of health to close unsanitary restaurants.

b) With reference to either affirmative action or empowerment discuss

an activity which has benefited local community members in a given
setting-11

3. discuss 5 emerging gender issues in Africa and how the issues can be
contained-15
i.
Peace and Security [with focus on violence against
women conflict]
ii.
HIV and AIDS
iii.
Governance and human rights
iv.
Participation in leadership and decision making
v.
Economic Justice [with a focus on the impact of corruption
on access to social service delivery]
The identified issues are noted as a guide of potential issues for the CCPAUs attention 1, taking into account that these are issues that the CCP- AU
has the opportunities and capacity to focus on both from a mandate and
feasibility perspective.
Peace and Security: The continent has been witness to several conflicts
since 1990, ranging from internal conflicts such as experienced in Central
Africa in the early 1990s to the current conflicts in North Africa 2. The
majority of these conflicts, have had similar traits, namely the fact that
women suffer the effects of war disproportionately from men because of
their roles and location in society, and yet consistently, when the peace
building processes are initiated women are absent from these spaces. This
led to the formulation of UN Resolution 1325 of 2000, aimed at increasing
the participation of women both in the prevention and resolution of
conflict as well as to in increase the participation of women in building
and maintaining peace. The provisions of UN Resolution 1325 have
provided the policy framework for addressing conflict prevention and
resolution, on the continent, as shown by the wholesale adoption of its
principles in African Womens Protocol, the Solemn Declaration on Gender
Equality and the SADC Womens Rights Protocol, in fairly specific terms.
While the policy frameworks on peace and security are fairly recent
phenomena both in international and continental context, the reality that
conflict has affected women and men disproportionately is to be noted in
the development of appropriate strategies for conflict prevention and
management. This is the basis of the Nairobi Declaration on Womens and
Girls Rights to Remedy and Reparation 3. In fact the Nairobi Declaration is
one of the key strategies through which efforts are being made to address
the issues of both the participation of women in conflict prevention and
1 The choice of five issues is so that CCP-AU itself can have a variety of issues to
choose the two or three issues for focus. All the issues will be discussed broadly as a
basis for further discussion and debate at the roundtable.
2 Of course Africa has not been alone in the experience of conflict hence the
development of the United Nations Resolution 1325 at
http://www.un.org/events/res_1325e.pdf
3http://www.womensrightscoalition.org/site/reparation/signature_en.php

management, from a womens rights perspective. The Nairobi Declaration

is premised on the fact that women and girls are more likely to suffer
gender based violence, in particular sexual violence more often than their
male counterparts. This is critical to note, as one of the key reasons UN
Resolution 1325 was put into place was to address the fact that conflict
entrenches discrimination against women, from not properly
acknowledging their experiences of conflict, to not having them
participate in conflict management as a key stakeholder and player.
A key issue emerging from the question of peace and conflict prevention
and management is the question of gender based violence against women
that occurs in pre and post conflict situations. The discussions on peace,
security and conflict management have almost created the impression
that violence against women is a phenomena only linked to broader
conflict, rarely existing in non-conflict/peaceful situations. This is
important to state in that, the issue of womens security and bodily
integrity outside of conflict seems to increasingly be fading away. More
often than not, in the discussion on violence, the tendency is to locate
violence against women only in the context of conflict, to the exclusion of
the violence women suffer in societies generally. Thus while the policy
frameworks on addressing violence against women in conflict are a
welcome development, there is also need to address the question of why
gender based violence outside of conflict is still almost invisible. Indeed
while an increasing number of countries do have violence against women
laws and policies, more often than not these are not supported by the
requisite budget support or political will 4.
Against this background, a critical issue for consideration by the CCP- AU
may be the need to motivate for a commitment at continental level [the
African Union] for a specific framework dealing with violence against
women outside of conflict; to complement the violence against women in
the context of conflict policies currently in place. The African Union
Commission on Human and Peoples Rights has a Special Rapporteur on
Violence against Women. It would be worthwhile for the CCP-AU to engage
with this office, in order to increase continental understand this offices
mandate with a view to enhancing its interaction and with civil society
organizations; which would ensure that civil society is strengthened to
deal more forcefully with issues of violence against women both in conflict
and non-conflict situations. The CCP- AU could also use reports from the
work by this office over the years to lobby for a special African Union
policy document on Violence against Women.

4 For example Seychelles, South Africa and Zimbabwe all have domestic
violence/gender based violence laws, that are difficult to implement more for lack of
resources rather than clarity of the policy framework.

HIV and AIDS: As stated in the preamble to the Solemn Declaration on

Gender Equality in Africa, HIV and AIDS remain highly prevalent among
women and girls in Africa, with statistics indicating that women are the
majority of the affected and infected.The policy framework on HIV and
Aids is vast, from the Abuja Declaration on HIV/Aids 5, through the Maputo
Declaration on Health 6 to the recent UN General Assembly 2011 Political
Declaration on HIV and AIDS 7. HIV and AIDS, is possibly one area where
there is no shortage of policies at international and regional level, and
fairly comprehensive national level legislation and policies. This broad
policy environment has facilitated significant strides made in the various
attempts to curb the spread of HIV and AIDS.
However, there still remain challenges related to the lack of gender
equality in African communities. Research has shown links between the
prevalence of HIV and AIDS among women and their perceived
subordinate status in society. 8. Where women are perceived to be beneath
husbands/male partners and male family members, both in the context of
culture and religion; these perceptions have had far reaching implications
on womens sexual and reproductive health rights. This has translated
into womens lack of control over their own bodies, so that frequently
women lack or have limited control over their own bodies; ranging from
inability to protect themselves from sexual violations, to lack of control
whether or not to have children and the number of children to have and
whether or not the said children will be breastfed. A key emerging
dimension to the issue of HIV and AIDS is the return of fundamentalisms
both in culture and religion, which have emasculated women, making
them unable or limited in their decision making about accessing
healthcare. Increasingly the church [in the case of religion] and the family
[the man and society] make the decision about what healthcare/attention
is acceptable and proper in each situation, with little or no input from the
affected woman. This has seen women dying unnecessarily for lack of
urgent action on the part of their health decision makers.
What is worrying though, is over the years there has been enough
information communicated to communities on the prevalence and
effective ways to curb the spread of HIV and AIDS, and indeed information
5 ABUJA DECLARATION ON HIV/AIDS, TUBERCULOSIS AND OTHER RELATED
INFECTIOUS DISEASES, April 2001 at
http://www.un.org/ga/aids/pdf/abuja_declaration.pdf
6MAPUTO DECLARATION ON HIV/AIDS, TUBERCULOSIS AND OTHER RELATED
INFECTIOUS DISEASES, July 2003 at http://www.rbm.who.int/docs/maputo_declaration.pdf.in
addition to these are other policy documents such as the 2001 Declaration on
Commitment to HIV and AIDS, 2006 Political Declaration on HIV and AIDS.
7 At
http://www.unaids.org/en/media/unaids/contentassets/documents/document/2011/0
6/20110610_UN_A-RES-65-277_en.pdf
8 Echoed in all the policy documents related to HIV and AIDS

on access to treatment and support; however women still remain as

vulnerable to infections as they were when the Solemn Declaration on
Gender Equality in Africa was signed. While indeed infections may have
declined or reached a plateau, women still remain the majority of the
infected and affected. A worrying trend in all HIV aids reports with
statistics produced by bodies such as UNAIDS is the disproportionate
numbers of young women infected by HIV compared to young men. These
statistics tell the story of increased vulnerability of young women in our
continent. Thus a key issue for consideration must be an analysis of the
current strategies being employed to curb the spread of HIV and AIDS on
the continent. There must be an understanding of why the current policies
and strategies have failed to achieve the desired result of reduced
infections and management of pre-existing infections. The CCP- AU may
need to consider commissioning an analysis of the reasons why women
and especially young women continue to be disproportionately affected
by HIV and AIDS, despite the existence of policies aimed at the opposite,
with a view to providing background data for both the AU and civil society
to consider revision of the current policy frameworks to address the noted
anomalies.
Governance and Human Rights: The key issue for women in relation to
governance and human rights is arguably the question of discrimination
against women and their perceived lower status in society. As far back as
1979, United Nations adopted the Convention on the Elimination of All
Forms of Discrimination Against Women [CEDAW] 9, it was clear that the
definition of human rights seemed to exclude womens rights, hence the
need to formulate a specific treaty addressing womens rights and in
particular the critical issue of discrimination against women and the need
for creating equality between men and women. While CEDAW has
continued to exist as a framework for womens equality and ensuring their
access to public life at par with male counterparts, there have been other
developments both within the context of the United Nations 10 and at
continental level that has reaffirmed the fact that womens rights are also
human rights 11. The African Womens Protocol and the Solemn Declaration
on Gender, as stated above form the basis for regional and national
governance and human rights framework for women in Africa.
The various policies at continental level [and to some degree, national
levels] on governance and human rights are all premised on the fact that
women suffer discrimination on the basis of gender and sex and
9 At http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/cedaw.htm
10 The United Nations Millennium Development Goals at
http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/
11 Slogan of women present at the Vienna Conference on Human Rights; which led
to the Vienna Declaration and Platform of Action [at
http://www.unhchr.ch/huridocda/huridoca.nsf/%28symbol%29/a.conf.157.23.en] which consolidated
the fact that womens rights are an integral part of what human rights

significant progress has been made in recognition of these facts. This has
been achieved through deliberate efforts ranging from increasing the
enrolment of girls in school, through affirmative action initiatives to
accelerate womens rising in government and private institutions and
increased support for womens national economies; in different ways.
However womens lived realities generally seem to indicate that despite
the recognition of the discrimination and in the majority of cases, good
policies enunciated above, women continue to be discriminated against.
Reports on progress made in achieving gender equality indicate that
progress towards attaining full equality for women is far from being a
reality 12 and that in fact sub Saharan Africa seems to be the worst
performing continent in improving the lives of women.
What is clear from the foregoing is that the policy frameworks are not
consistent with the prevailing realities on the ground. Various
explanations have been proffered for the reason why women are generally
absent, or where they are present are invisible in governance and why
their rights are violated. The issues range from lack of political will on the
part of those in leadership to ensure that women realize their rights, while
in some cases resources are cited as the major factor state parties
become unable to meet their obligations to promoting the rights of
women. Whatever the cause, what is clear is that there is need for greater
recognition of the rights of women and their right to participate and
influence in governance processes in their countries and regions.
CCP- AU may need to consider advocating for more stringent monitoring
of the various womens rights policies and laws. They may also be need to
consider creating a structure for monitoring implementation of womens
rights and their engagement with governance processes at continental
civil society level, to be used as an information tool both for the AU and
the partners of the CCP-AU,
Participation in Leadership and Decision Making: Possibly the one
area that most signifies the challenge of gender inequality on the
continent is the womens participation in leadership and decision making.
The world over, womens participation in decision making has been at
best low and at worst impossible, largely due to women and mens
inequality and the impact of violence against women both in the private
and public spheres. Women constitute the majority in most countries on
the continent and yet they are not proportionately represented nor
adequately represented in key decision making bodies. This exclusion of
women from leadership and decision has also negatively impacted on
development of the continent, because as noted by the former UN

12 See Progress of the Worlds Women 2002 report at

http://www.unifem.org/materials/item_detail.php?ProductID=10

Secretary Generalthere is no tool for development more effective than

the empowerment of women.
From CEDAW, to the SADC Protocol on Gender Equality, the issue of
womens participation in decision making is reiterated in almost similar
terms to the effect that womens representation in decision making is
linked to good governance, including increased participation in
democratic and governance processes. The provisions in the various
instruments related to womens equality are all very clear on what needs
to be done to increase womens participation in decision making and
leadership. The proposed strategies include capacity building for women
to participate and compete effectively, support for the various womens
structure and working to change discriminatory attitudes to womens
leadership. There are even exhortations for political parties to ensure they
create mechanisms for increased participation by women in internal party
processes as a launching pad for enhanced womens participation in
national and international contests. The African Union itself came up with
its own Gender Policy aimed at increasing gender equality and fairness
between men and women on the continent.
As with governance and human rights, the challenge for womens
participation in leadership and decision making is lack of implementation
of policies, which in some cases have fairly clear strategies. It would be
prudent to propose that the CCP- AU seriously considers supporting civil
society initiatives aimed at increasing womens participation in leadership
and decision making within civil society and in political parties; and in
particular facilitating womens organizations access to the African Union
to enhance accountability for gender equality.Continued and sustained
engagement with political parties to implement their gender sensitive
policies and to encourage those without to have gender sensitive policies
is critical. Further reform of electoral laws in most African countries is
necessary in order to adopt electoral systems that promote the
participation of women.
Economic Justice: Consistent in all the policy documents alluded to
prior13, the question of economic justice is a pertinent one for African
women. Women on the continent provide significant labor and yet they
rarely have control of the resources they provide labor on. They are even
paid less for the same work done by their male counterparts. Thus for
example a significant number of women work the land, yet land
ownership by women and men on the continent is disproportionately in
favor of men. This inequality is rooted in the fact that women are rarely
seen independent majors in most communities. This has led to all the
major policy documents on womens rights and gender equality
13 CEDAW, Beijing Platform for Action, African Womens Protocol, the SADC Gender
Protocol etc

addressing the question of economic empowerment of women as a critical

issue. While the issue of economic empowerment, is a cross cutting one,
as evidenced by its prominence in issues of governance, peace building,
leadership and decision making, HIV and AIDS; its value as a standalone
issue cannot be overstated. As noted earlier, there can be no meaningful
development without womens participation in any society.
Key to economic justice, in the context of gender equality and womens
rights, is that there must equal opportunity for men and women to access
the means of production [such as land and other resources], access to
credit and access to markets and critically for women access to social
services as provided for by the state. As already shown above, women
have limited or no access to the said resources because of their
subordinate status, so that more often than not, poverty in Africa
characteristically affects women more than men. Even where women do
have access to resources, they tend to be involved in micro-level
economic activities because of stringent requirements for credit and their
general exclusion from platforms of decision making and leadership.
However a key for women in economic justice is the fact of corruption, in
particular with regards to accessing social services. Corruption is endemic
to most African communities, with devastating consequences on access to
services, especially for women. This led to the formulation of the African
Union Preventing and Combating Corruption in 2003 14 and the SADC
Protocol on Corruption 15, among other policies to regulate this cancer.
Over the years, various economic empowerment initiatives have been
launched within Africa targeting women and the poor, but more often than
not these have failed to yield positive results because of corruption which
has seen resources aimed at women diverted to other uses or service
providers that fail to deliver. This has resulted in lack of investor
confidence in Africa at the micro and macro levels, with significant impact
on women who then fail to access basic services. Including but not limited
to poor infrastructure, poor development and increased poverty.
The impact of corruption on womens lives is one area, though
acknowledged, that has not been addressed in depth. This is an area
which, while economic in nature, is critical to improving womens lives
and indeed a critical issue for citizens participation. It is proposed that
the CCP- AU considers creating a monitoring framework for
implementation of the continental corruption treaties in collaboration with
womens organizations. This is because while there are indeed very
comprehensive policies on corruption, there seems to be virtually little
implementation of the said policies. It is critical therefore for there be
14ttp://www.africa-union.org/root/au/Documents/Treaties/Text/Convention on
Combating Corruption.pdf
15http://www.sadc.int/english/key-documents/protocols/protocol-against-corruption/

effective monitoring of the various conventions which form the basis of

most national conventions for enhanced corruption prevention on the
continent with a view to enhancing economic justice for women.
Additionally, the CCP- AU should consider engaging in the development
and monitoring of continental economic policies from a gender
perspective and urging movement from engaging women only in microeconomic activity towards getting women involved in macro level
economic activities. It would be important in that process to pay attention
to the issue of womens unpaid labor and its contribution to national
economies. Aspects such as open borders, greater regional integration,
and removal of protectionist policies are all part of regional and subregional economic developments in Africa that will stand to benefit
women and could be part of the advocacy work by CCP-AU

4. women make a greater contribution to economic life than their menfolk

discuss-15
GENDER EQUALITY AND ECONOMIC EFFICIENCY
Research on agricultural productivity in Africa shows that reducing
gender
inequality could significantly increase agricultural yields. For instance,
studies have shown that giving women farmers in Kenya the same
level of agricultural inputs and education as men farmers could increase
yields of farmers by more than 20 per cent.
Research on economic growth and education shows that failing to
invest
in womens education can lower the gross national product (GNP).
Everything
else being equal, countries in which the ratio of female-to-male
enrolment in primary or secondary education is less than .75 can
expect
levels of GNP that are roughly 25 per cent lower than countries in which
there is less gender disparity in education.
Research on gender inequality in the labour market shows that
eliminating
gender discrimination in relation to occupation and pay could
both increase womens income and contribute to national income. For
instance, estimates reveal that if gender inequality in the labour market
in Latin America were to be eliminated, not only would womens wages
rise by about 50 per cent, but national output would rise by 5 per cent.
Gender inequality also reduces the productivity of the next
generation

the World Bank reports mounting evidence that increases in womens

well-being yield productivity gains in the future. The probability of
children
being enrolled in school increases with their mothers educational
level and extra income going to mothers has more positive impact on
household nutrition, health and education of children than extra income
going to fathers.
Research shows that gender inequality hampers a positive
supply response
to structural adjustment measures by reducing womens incentives
to produce tradable goods as a result of increases in womens time
burdens.
Womens time burdens are an important constraint on growth
and development
women are a much over-utilized resource, not an underutilized
resource. The benefits of reducing this gender-based constraint
can be considerable. For instance, a study in Tanzania shows that
reducing
such constraints in a community of smallholder coffee and banana
growers increases household cash incomes by 10 per cent, labour
productivity by 15 per cent, and capital productivity by 44 per cent.
5. a)define the following terms -4
i.
iii.

gender analysis REPEATED

gender mainstreaming REPEATED

b) Discuss the benefits of gender mainstreaming in an organization-11

6. a) illustrate 5 challenges that affect both gender in achieving quality
education and training In africa-10
Despite the Kenyas government efforts towards the realization of Education For All
(EFA), it continues to experience a number of challenges. These include gender
disparities, high poverty levels, Teacher supply and quality, HIV/AIDS Pandemic and
Inadequate financial resources.
Gender Disparities
The girl child continues to be in vulnerable situation. Parental gender bias, cultural
norms, negative impacts of HIV/AIDS pandemic and poverty continue to impact
adversely on the girl childs participation in education. The world has made

continuous progress towards gender parity showing that gender differences in

education can be overcome through public policy and changes in attitude, but there
is still a long way to go as only 59 out of 176 countries have achieved gender parity
in both primary and secondary education. Gender equality in educational
opportunities and outcomes is the most challenging to achieve and is inherently
more difficult to measure. Clearly much remains to be done. Many Sub-Saharan
Countries (Kenya inclusive) are have miles to go before they achieve gender parity
and equity in education (EI, 2009).
Future prospects on the girl child education depends on the following factors if EFA
goals are to be realized: added commitment by all the stakeholders to the girls
education, enough and targeted funding by government and donors to the girl child
education, strengthening the gender unit by allocating enough financial and
material resources, strengthening the capacity of the National Task Force on
Gender and Education by allocating financial resources for activities, incorporating
gender programmes in pre-service and in-service teacher training, advocacy for the
girl child education be intensified, appointment of more women in key
administrative positions at school and policy making level, strategies and plans to
address the major disparities identified at primary and secondary school level be
formulated (UNESCO, 2000).
High Poverty Levels
Most countries were hopeful that opportunities provided by strengthened
democratic governance, and improving economies will accelerate progress.
However, poverty levels still remain high. On becoming a republic in 1964, Kenyan
leaders vowed to eradicate poverty, disease and illiteracy. Today the proportion of
the population living on less than one US dollar a day, that is the poverty line, is
higher than ever before (Sisule, 2001). With high poverty line, compounded by
economic crisis, prevalence of HIV/AIDS pandemic, it could be just a mere dream to
attain Education for all by 2015. Poverty has been recognized as one of the factor
that affects education.
Teacher Supply and Quality

Delivery of good-quality education is ultimately contingent on what happens in the

classroom, and teachers are in the front line of service. The most important
determinant of educational quality is the teacher. Thus education can be improved
through supply of quality teachers (EI, 2009). This remains the role of government.
It is estimated that the world will need approximately 18 million additional primary
school teachers
by 2015. The most pressing need is in sub-Saharan Africa, where an estimated 3.8
million additional posts must be recruited and trained by 2015. This remains a
challenging task for Kenyan government. Today, teacher-pupil ratio is still high and
teacher demand and supply remain a major issue. Good quality education depends
in part on reasonable class sizes and Pupil/Teacher ratios (PTR). Yet the GMR (2008)
reveals that there are large regional and national disparities in PTRs. The
approximate ceiling PTR usually used is 40:1, but there are large regional and
national disparities.
Research shows that there are a number of factors that affect teacher demand and
supply. One of the key factor is teacher motivation which is affected by other
inherent factors like salary. According to GMR (2006), many countries face a crisis of
teacher morale that is mostly related to poor salaries, working conditions and
limited opportunities for professional development. Other problems include the
doubtful use of contract teachers and the lack of evidence for introducing
performance related pay structures. Kenya is a victim of such. Thus there is all
likelihood that the state of affairs can only persist (as we move towards 2015),
hence making the achievement of EFA by 2015 a mere wishful thinking.
In regard to teacher deployment, there is need thus to address equal distribution of
primary teachers in districts, carry out registration of all pre-school teachers as a
symbol of recognition of ECCDE have all untrained teachers trained through inservice courses, put in place adequate staffing norms at all levels to make
maximum use of teachers, define the concept of a teacher as a professional within
acceptable professional principles (UNESCO, 2000).
HIV/AIDS Pandemic

In many countries, the devastating impact of HIV/AIDS on education systems

continues to be inadequately addressed in education planning. In many cases the
focus has been on curriculum reform in education to include teaching on HIV/AIDS
prevention rather than an integrated response aimed at addressing the multiple
disadvantages faced by children affected by HIV/AIDS. (GMR, p.192). Education
systems could play a key role in creating awareness and curbing HIV/AIDs pandemic
and thus increasing school enrolment. For instance in Kenya, access to medicine for
families living with HIV/AIDS has improved school attendance.
Despite this impact, many governments in Sub-Sahara Africa have not even
developed policies aimed at supporting children who live with HIV or who have lost
parents to the disease. AIDS-affected children are failing to go to school, and its
because their governments are failing them. In sub-Saharan Africa, there are more
than 12 million children orphaned by AIDS, not including the millions of children
whose parents are terminally ill. While overall school enrollment rates have risen to
approximately 66% in the continent, AIDS-affected children have been
systematically left behind. According to the report, children suffer de
factodiscrimination in access to education from the moment HIV/AIDS afflicts their
family. Children leave school to perform household labor or to bereave their
parents death. Many cannot afford school fees because their parents are too sick
to earn a living (HRW, 2005).
HIV/AIDs has not only have had effect on children but also teachers. HIV-related
health problems lead to teacher absenteeism (UNESCO, 2005). Although the
government has made certain effort in catering for their needs of the infected
teachers, the impact could still be far much reaching in terms of provision of quality
education.
Inadequate Financial Resources
Financing Education For All (EFA) remains one of the core challenges facing many
developing countries in Sub-Saharan Africa. Most of these governments depend
upon donor support which more often than not, come with strings attached (EI,
2009). These government and oftenly financially strained due to a number of
factors ranging from political and economic instability to weak governance. Thus
they are not able to support sustainable implementation of Education for all. Kenya

continues to face a number of challenges following the introduction of Free Primary

education in 2003 and Free Secondary Education in 2008. These challenges are
mainly associated with lack of adequate teachers (human resources), and
equipment and facilities (physical resources) (UNESCO, 2005). The root cause of all
these challenges is lack of adequate financial resources. Kenya is not about to be
free from its state of need, thus pushing far the dream of Education for All by 2015.
Conclusion
If Kenya is to achieve Education for all by 2015, the following are the key areas that
require particular attention. These include Early Childhood Care and Development
(ECCDE), Primary Education, Secondary Education, Training in other Essential skills
required by Youth, Special Education, Girl child education, Non-Formal Education
NFE (out of School Education, Adult Education, and Curriculum Development.
Various tangible measures have to be put in place through combined effort not
only from government, but also involving other development partners.

b) Explain 5 strategies for achieving gender equality in decision making

in africa-5
PAPER NO 4
1. a)define the following terms based on gender issues in development-5
i. gender analysis REPEATED
ii.

gender mainstreaming REPEATED

iii.

gender violence
Gender violence includes rape, sexual assault, relationship
violence in heterosexual and same sex partnerships, sexual
harassment, stalking, prostitution and sex trafficking. The term
"gender violence" reflects the idea that violence often serves to
maintain structural gender inequalities, and includes all types of
violence against men, women, children, adolescents, gay,
transgender people and gender non conforming. This type of
violence in some way influences or is influenced by gender
relations. To adequately address this violence, we have to address
cultural issues that encourage violence as part of masculinity.

Gender is also the most powerful predictor of rape, sexual assault

and relationship violence. These crimes are predominantly
against women and perpetrated by men. According to the
National Violence Against Women Survey (1998), 15% of women
will be the victim of a completed rape in their lifetimes and 2.1%
of men. According to the Department of Justice, 99% of all people
arrested for rape are men. While some men are rape victims, men
are almost always the perpetrator. That is not to say that all or
even most men are violent, or that women cannot perpetrate
such violence. Gender violence highlights a male-patterned
violence: a prevalent violence committed most often but not
always by men, often motivated by aggression, revenge,
competition, and entitlement, and includes sexual and other
violence against women, partners and children.
iv.

patriarchy
Patriarchy is a social system in which males hold primary power,
predominate in roles of political leadership, moral authority, social
privilege and control of property. In the domain of the family,
fathers or father-figures hold authority over women and children.
Some patriarchal societies are also patrilineal, meaning that
property and title are inherited by the male lineage and descent
is reckoned exclusively through the male line, sometimes to the
point where significantly more distant male relatives take
precedence over female relatives.
The female alternative is matriarchy.

v.

gender division of labor REPEATED

b) Identify and explain implementation strategies on gender equality

and development in kenya-20
THE POST-2015 DEVELOPMENT AGENDA AND GENDER EQUALITY IN KENYA
Published on Tue, 2013-09-24 00:00

From 16 till 18 September UN Women convened an expert meeting on the post-2015

development agenda and gender equality in Kenya. Approximately 40 experts with
representation from diverse backgrounds contributed to this meeting. A wide range of
challenges that the world is facing were discussed, varying from specific topics such as

womens role in sustainable livelihoods, womens health and violence against women, to
more general topics such as poverty, education, economic development, food and
natural resources. The expert meeting said to be committed to the attainment of the
Millennium Development Goals and the acceleration of their implementation and to the
prior commitments in the Beijing Platform of Action.
STATEMENT
The Post-2015 Development Agenda and Gender Equality in Kenya
Naivaisha, 16 18 September 2013
Expert Meeting convened by UN Women
The deliberation on the Post 2015 Development Agenda and Gender Equality in Kenya
held in Naivasha included 37 experts from Kenya, with representation from diverse
backgrounds, constituencies and professional backgrounds including community
organisers and women grassroots organisations, persons with disability, the youth and
pastoralist communities, civil society, the government, the gender sector, the UN civil
society advisory group, development partners and academia. The expertise covered a
range of thematic areas, including agriculture, poverty, economic development, health,
Hiv/Aids, gender based violence, education, sustainable development and climate
change, peace and security, governance and womens leadership.
We are committed to the attainment of the Millennium Development Goals and the
acceleration of their implementation and to the prior commitments in the Beijing
Platform of Action. We resolve to contribute to the Post-2015 Development Agenda and
Beijing + 20, recognising other relevant resolutions such as UNSCR 1325 and the New
Deal. We recognize the challenges we face in our country and in the world and the
contribution we can make to ensure the safety of this planet and of our people. We have
been inspired by the sharing of the specific expertise and experiences and discovering
the common challenges we face and interests we have. We believe the problems we
face are interconnected and we call for a transformative approach to address the
fragility and vulnerability of our communities so that our needs and priorities are
addressed in the post-2015 development framework:
1. Womens role in sustainable livelihoods
Humankind is the custodian of the planet and the threat posed by climate change
challenges everyone without distinction. The commoditisation of traditional resources
and criminalisation of the use of traditional seeds threatens livelihoods. Women in our
communities carry valuable knowledge and expertise to stop, adapt and mitigate the
risks associated with climate change. The rights of our indigenous communities,
practices, access to seeds, land and indigenous assets must be protected. The right to
produce our traditional food, crops and use of traditional methods and lifestyles, such as
pastoralism, must be upheld and protected so that we can feed the people of our land.
2. Natural resources
Opportunities emerging in the context of mining and exploitation of natural resources
must be set against the costs to our sustainable livelihoods, and the costs in terms of
environmental damage, harm to sustainable farming practices and pastoralism and

traditional protection mechanisms to feed the majority of people in our country. The
competition over increasingly scarce resources emerging from globalisation threatens
basic needs, such as access to water, land, food and livelihoods. Conflicts emerging
over these resources, appear in many forms and many levels which are interrelated.
Land should be protected so that communities can sustain themselves and help feed
and sustain our country. Womens rights must be respected so that they have access to
safe drinking water, cultivable land and shelter.
3. Food
Food production is a vital economic activity of our country and women are the key
providers of food crops. Food sovereignty should be enhanced by recognising the value
of smallholder farmers, pastoralists and communities in providing food to their
communities and enhance their supply to the national market and food chains so that it
can feed the people of our country. Access to indigenous seeds, water and renewable
energy are central to sustain healthy, nutritious and affordable, food production.
4. Poverty
Poverty must be understood in terms of inequality and justice. Women and girls are
bearing the brunt of poverty and inequality in our country has increased. Poverty affects
our families and communities. Gender equality must be at the core of any strategy
aiming at the eradication of poverty. Gender disaggregate data must be collected and
understood so that the dimensions of inequality between women and men are analysed
in terms of understanding root causes of poverty. Communities must be enhanced to
collect and use data to effectively drive demand for accountability to the needs of
citizens. The eradication of poverty must be a primary concern of our country and of the
international community so as to respect the dignity of all.
5. Economic Development and the burden of unpaid care work
Women actively contribute to society and the economy and this contribution must be
accounted. Inclusive development requires investments in rural and urban informal
settlements. Women must get access to credit and economic resources. Womens
economic sector activities should be enhanced by widening their skills and technology
capacity to improve their productive base. Women participate disproportionally to the
informal sector, lacking social protection whilst the burden of care in relation to child
care, elderly care, care for the sick, and care for the household is carried by women and
girls often as low or unpaid work. Inclusive economic models that enhance decent work
and youth employment are central to decrease gender inequalities. The economic value
of care work must be recognised and women must get access to social services.
Universal social protection must be put in place to ensure dignity of all and alleviate the
multiple burdens on women and girls.
6. The crisis of violence against women and girls
Violence against women and girls is increasingly becoming a crisis and is heightened in
conflict settings, creating fear, discrimination and powerlessness. Violence against
women and girls in the culture of impunity impacts on their health, dignity and economic

productivity and is compounded by the stigma carried by violence. Sexual and gender
based violence also affect boys and men, and they should be engaged to help end
violence against women and girls so that socio-cultural practices that perpetuate
inequality are challenged. Capacities of traditional and community conflict resolution
mechanisms must be made responsive to women and girls, while empowering women
and girls to demand and ensure that their rights are respected. The participation of
women and girls to fully share in decision-making in households and communities
should be reinforced. Justice, prosecution and reconciliation mechanisms to address
violence against women and girls must be equally strengthened so that rights of women
and girls are upheld. Legal aid, service delivery and access to justice and services are
vitally important to address the crisis of violence against women and girls.
7. Womens Health
Increased maternal mortality rates in Kenya is alarming and efforts are required to
address this worrying trend. Every person has a right to the highest attainable standard
of health, including sexual reproductive health. Women must have access to
Reproductive Health and Rights. The fight against HIV/Aids crucially requires that
women can make decisions in relation to sexuality within and outside marriage. Girls
must be protected from harmful cultural practices such as early marriage and Female
Genital Mutilation. Women must have access to quality maternal health services with
quality nursing and social staff.
8. Education
Women and girls continue to experience discrimination and exclusion from access to
quality education, have lower retention rates and are underrepresented at the
secondary and tertiary levels leading to reduced economic opportunities, poorer health,
and increased poverty and marginalisation. Education plays a crucial role in human
development and the realisation of human potential. Education for women and girls has
a transformative effect on communities and societies and is the single most effective
strategy to enhance the health, economic development and general well being of
society. Structural socio-economic and cultural barriers to womens education include
cost, distance and harmful cultural practices and attitudes (early marriage, gender
stereotypes etc). Measures must be taken to ensure equal access by women and girls
to quality education, including mobile schools for pastoralist communities and boarding
schools. Quality Education must be available at all levels through policies and
interventions that remove structural barriers to their education and facilitate their full
participation in development.
9. Women, peace and security
Conflict affects women and girls differently and they must be included as key actors in
peace and security. Their substantive inclusion should be organized around the pillars of
participation, protection, promotion, relief and recovery. The post 2015 development
framework must incorporate UNSCR 1325 which acknowledges women as agents of
peace and presents an opportunity for Kenyan women through the Kenya National
Action Plan that expounds the priority areas for women, peace and security in the

context of marginalized counties in Kenyas new devolved structures. The post 2015
Development framework must take a human security approach which focuses primarily
on protecting people while promoting peace and assuring sustainable development. It
has to adopt a women-centred approach for resolving inequalities that affect security. It
seeks to hold the government accountable for the safety and security of Kenyan
women. In the Post- 2015 Development Agenda there is need to design national targets
with gender specific indicators that build on the existing gender equality commitments
that the country has made. This link should prioritise the delivery of security and safety
of women while stressing the importance of involving women in security, justice, and
economic empowerment programmes.
10. Womens Leadership
The exclusion of women from leadership and decision-making processes in Kenya has
led to inequality and skewed policies, increasing womens marginalisation, poverty and
insecurity. Womens participation in leadership and decision making in the social,
economic and political spheres is crucial in ensuring good governance and
accountability. Socio-cultural impediments against womens leadership within
communities, including pastoralist communities, must be removed. Legitimate
governance requires that affirmative action is taken to ensure representation of women
in governance at all levels. Decentralised governance and traditional leadership
structures must be responsive to womens needs and concerns and include women as
actors in decisionmaking. Comprehensive support and mentoring women into political
leadership and strengthening of accountability of political structures to women
constituencies must be enhanced so that women can effectively influence policies
through political systems, while national election systems and mechanisms must be
made more conducive to the participation of women in local, county and national
governance and leadership. Quality of governance must be audited by measuring the
representation of women in decision making in civil society, government and the private
sector.
11. Monitoring and accountability
The monitoring of the implementation of the Millennium Development Goals has been
weak because of the inadequate baseline and sex-disaggregated data. The Millennium
Development Goals Indicators lack a gender dimension and the monitoring of the MDGs
has remained weak while indicators were not sufficiently robust in capturing the gender
dimensions. The post-2015 Development Framework must use a human rights
approach in its implementation. The accountability mechanisms to womens machinery
must be enhanced with a bottom up approach in a human rights based framework and
in full compliance with accountability and reporting mechanisms as set out in the
national constitution and international obligations. The post-2015 Development
Framework must provide clear and specific international and national indicators for
monitoring progress in the area of poverty eradication and womens equality in all
relevant sectors, including government, civil society and the private sector.
12. Financial resources

Inequitable distribution of resources and allocation to wrong priorities and weak

accountability have contributed to not achieving the Millennium Development Goals.
The post-2015 Development Framework must include gender responsive budgeting,
focusing on priorities such as: (i) the expansion of gender-sensitive public investment in
quality public goods, (ii) public infrastructure, (iii) economic and social services to create
employment for women; (iv)enhancing of womens labor market participation and
productivity and (v) the provision of services to reduce the burden of unpaid care work.
Gender sensitive public finance reforms must be ensured. Efficiency, transparency and
accountability in budget processes must be improved through more efficient collection
of revenues and targeting of expenditures that ensure gender equal outcomes. The
financial sector must be restructured to ensure that credit goes to real investment and is
accessible to small and medium enterprises especially in sectors dominated by women.
The formal banking system and financial institutions must enhance the provision of
services reaching excluded groups of poor women, small and medium enterprises, self
employed workers, small holder farmers and youth, including those without land and
other collateral.

2. a) explain the importance of integrating gender considerations in

education-7
b) Discuss the roots of gender inequalities in developing countries-8
3. a) discuss 5 benefits of empowering women in society today-5
b) Gender is socially constructed. Discuss this statement using relevant
examples-10
4. a)explain 3 areas in society which can favor equal participation of men
and women-3
b) Discuss gender stereotypes as a major barrier for career
development of women in Africa and their possible solutions-12
5. critically examine the role of gender equality as a strategy towards
achieving the millennium development gosls-15
6. a) culture is overwhelmingly responsible for gender disparities
experienced in the development agenda In Africa discuss-10
b) Examine 5 constraints that prevent majority of women from using ICT
to participate and benefit from the development procees-5

PAPER NO 5
1. a) explain the following terms in light of gender issues in development6
i. gender
ii.
development
b) Both men and women create and maintain the society and shape
the division of labour. Discuss why greater focus on division of labor is
on women-9
2. discuss the contemporary challenges of gender in relation to ruralurban migration-15
3. discuss the steps taken by the Kenya government to address gender
disparity in education and training with special reference to girls and
women-15
4. discuss elaborately any 5 emerging issues in gender and development15
5. using examples from various countries in Africa discuss the challenges
facing gender mainstreaming in development agenda-15
6. discuss the history of gender and development GAD from 1960 to
present-15
PAPER NO 6
1.
(a)Define the following terms:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)

Empowerment
Gender discrimination
Gender roles
Gender issues
(8 marks)

(b)

Discuss factors that impact gender integration in development.

(17 marks)

2.
Explain factors that influence the role of a man and woman in society.
(15 marks)
3.
(a)
Define the term gender mainstreaming.
marks)
(b)

(3

Explain the challenges facing gender mainstreaming in development.

(12 marks)
4.

Discuss three (3) gains a Kenyan woman has achieved in the last five years
in following sectors.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)

Legal sector
Education Sector
Political Sector
Social Sector
Health Sector
marks)

(10

6.
Discuss how gender issues influence entrepreneurship and trade related
activities in Africa.
(15
marks)
7.
Explain the major concepts of the following approaches in develop discords.
(i)
(ii)

Women in development.
Gender and development.
marks)

(15

DEFINITION OF TERMS
Access To resources, benefits, information, decision-making for example)
is
influenced by acceptable gender and the established gender division of
labor.
Affirmative Action A policy or programme of taking steps to increase the
representation of
certain designed groups seeking to redress discrimination or bias through
active measures in education and employment. It is usually achieved
through discrimination against other groups.
Empowerment A process through which men, women, boys and girls
acquire knowledge,
skills and attitudes to critically analyze their situation and take appropriate
action to change the status quo of the underprivileged and other
marginalized groups in society.
Engender The process of ensuring that planning and programming is
appropriate for
and takes into account the female and male differences and concerns.
Gender This refers to the socially and culturally constructed differences
between
men and women; as distinct from sex which refers to their biological
differences. The social constructs vary across cultures and time.
Gender analysis This identifies analyzes and informs action. It addresses
inequalities that
arise from the different roles of men and women; the unequal power
relations between them; and other contextual factors like: ethnicity, sexual
orientation, employment, citizenship, etc.
Gender awareness This is the understanding that there are socially
determined differences
between men and women based on learned behaviour, which affect ability
to access and control resources.
Gender-Based Refers to any act of violence that results in, or is likely to
Violence result in
physical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering to women, girls, boys
and men on the basis of gender.
Gender Discrimination refers to unequal or preferential treatment of
individuals or groups on
the basis of their gender that results in reduced access to/ or control of
resources and opportunities
Gender Equality Refers to the equal treatment of women and men, girls
and boys so that
they can enjoy the benefits of development including equal access to and
control of opportunities and resources.

Gender Equity Refers to the practice of fairness and justice in the

distribution of benefits,
access to and control of resources, responsibilities, power, opportunities
and services.
Gender indicator An indicator is a measurement of change over time. It is
also a signal of a
change. The change may be measured in terms of quantity, quality and
timeliness. A gender indicator is that which is sex-disaggregated, specific,
logical, realistic, relevant, valid and sensitive.
Gender mainstreaming is the consistent integration of gender concerns
into the design,
implementation, monitoring, and evaluation of policies, plans,
programmes, activities and projects at all levels.
Gender needs Arise from the four components cited above. Since men and
women have
different gender roles, do different types of work, have different degrees of
access to services and resources, and experience unequal relations, the
needs of men and women are different. The practical and strategic gender
needs concepts are used to identify and address gender needs.
Gender parity This is a numerical concept referring to equal number of girls
and women,
boys and men relative to their respective numbers in the population.
Gender sensitivity This is the ability to perceive existing gender
differences, issues and
equalities, and incorporate these into strategies and actions.
Gender stereotyping The assigning of roles, tasks and responsibilities to a
particular sex
policy on the basis of pre-conceived prejudices.
Participation A general term used to refer to enrolment, retention,
progression,
performance and transition.
Patriarchy It means Rule of father and refers to the current male
dominated social
relations, ownership and control of power at many levels in society. It is
thought to be the root cause of the existing system of gender
discrimination.
Power relations Refers to capacity of individual or group to initiate action
and determine
outcomes which change existing social, political and economic systems
and norms, to equalize gender relations.
Provisions Refers to policy pronouncements on action to be taken.
Sex disaggregated Classification of information on the basis of sex; that is
male data and
female.
Sexual harassment Unwanted acts of sexual nature that cause discomfort
to the harassed.

They include words, persistent request for sexual favours or dates,

gestures, touching, uninvited sexual overtures, coerced sexual intercourse
and rape.
Strategic interests Refer to long term non-material needs. They focus on
getting more
choices, more options and more say.