Cds Tema 001

UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL AUTNOMA DE MXICO
FACULTAD DE INGENIERA
DIVISIN DE INGENIERAS CIVIL y GEOMTICA
DEPARTAMENTO DE GEOTECNIA
TEMA 1
INTRODUCCIN
Exploracin y Muestreo
ING. HCTOR A. LEGORRETA CUEVAS

Profesor del Departamento de Geotecnia
Copyright by HALC_2016
Importancia de la Geologa en la Ingeniera Civil

En ingeniero civil se enfrenta a una gran variedad de problemas, en los que el conocimiento de
la geologa es necesario. Indudablemente aprender ms geologa en el campo y en la prctica
que la que puede ensearle en las aulas o en el laboratorio de una escuela. Pero este aprendizaje
ser ms fcil y ms rpido y su aplicacin ms eficaz, si en sus cursos de ingeniera se han
incluido los principios bsico de la geologa. Merecen citarse especialmente algunas ventajas
especifica las cuales algunas de ellas al desarrollare con ms pausa a travs del trabajo.
1) Conocimiento sistematizado de los materiales.

2) Los problemas de cimentacin son esencialmente geolgico-geotecnico. Los edificios,
puentes, presas, y otras construcciones, se establecen sobre algn material natural.
3) Las excavaciones se pueden planear y dirigir ms inteligentemente y realizarse con
mayor seguridad.
4) El conocimiento de la existencia de aguas subterrneas, y los elementos de la
hidrologa subterrnea, son excelentes auxiliares en muchas ramas de la ingeniera
prctica.
5) El conocimiento de las aguas superficiales, sus efectos de erosin, su transporte y sus
sedimentaciones, es esencial para el control de las corrientes, los trabajos de defensa
de mrgenes y costas los de conservacin de suelos y otras actividades.
6) La capacidad para leer e interpretar informes geolgicos, mapas, planos geolgicos y
topogrficos y fotografa, es de gran utilidad para la planeacin de muchas obras.
7) La capacitacin para reconocer la naturaleza de los problemas geolgicos.
Interrelacin de ingenieras, Civil-Geologa.

Ingeniera Geolgica y del Entorno

Los ingenieros gelogos aplican los principios geolgicos a la investigacin de los materiales
naturales tierra, roca y agua superficial y subterrnea implicados en el diseo, la construccin y
la explotacin de proyectos de ingeniera civil. Son representativos de estos los diques, los
puentes, las autopistas, los acueductos, los desarrollos de zonas de alojamiento y los sistemas
de gestin de residuos. Una nueva rama, la geologa del entorno, recoge y analiza datos
geolgicos con el objetivo de resolver los problemas creados por el uso humano del entorne
natural. El ms importante de ellos es el peligro para la vida y la propiedad que deriva de la
construccin de casas y de otras estructuras en reas sometidas a sucesos geolgicos, en
particular terremotos, taludes (vase corrimiento de tierra), erosin de la costas e inundaciones.
El alcance de la geologa del entorno es muy grande al comprender ciencias fsicas como;
geoqumica e hidrolgica, ciencia biolgica y sociales e ingenieras.
Geologa en Obra Hidrulicas
La geologa se utiliza de diversas formas en obras hidrulicas entre las cuales podemos
mencionar las siguientes.
Pozos de punta captacin: la mayora de los problemas de drenaje en los trabajos de
ingeniera civil no tienen la magnitud de otros proyectos, por fortuna, se dispone de otros medios
para manejar el agua fretica en trabajos pequeos. Estos mtodos implican el uso de pozos de
captacin. El sistema se compone bsicamente de una bomba especial y varios pozos de punta
de captacin para abatir el nivel de agua fretica bajo el nivel de la excavacin ms profunda; as
el material que se ve a excavarse es comportamiento es incierto, al slido; de esta manera se
facilita el avance de la excavacin y se elimina los problemas causado por el agua. El control del
agua fretica en la obras de construccin urbana, tambin es de vital importancia, y solo puede
ser efectuado con base en un estricto conocimiento de la capa subyacente local de una detallada
geologa urbana.
Centrales hidroelctricas subterrneas: la idea de situar centrales hidroelctrica o de
bombeo subterrneas es casi tan conocida, que han dejado de ser novedad en el diseo. Estos
es un desarrollo que tuvo lugar a partir de la segunda guerra mundial; aunque a fines del siglo
XIX, una de las primeras centrales elctricas o hidroelctrica canadiense en Nigara Falls utilizo
el subsuelo en un cierto grado. Las turbinas impulsada por agua se situaron en le fondo de unas
excavaciones circulares profundas y se conectaron con los generadores situados en la superficie
por medio de flechas de acero, y por eso, esta no puede ser considera completamente
subterrnea.
Cimentacin de presas: la construccin de una presa almacenadora de agua altera ms
las condiciones naturales que cualquiera otra obra de la ingeniera civil. Esta es importante por la
funcin que desempean: en el almacenamiento de agua para el suministro de avenidas,
recreacin o irrigacin.
Obra de control fluvial: desde hace ms de 3000 aos el hombre ha tratado de amansar
algunos de los grandes ros del mundo. Las primeras obras de ingeniera civil fueron con toda
probabilidad las de control fluvial. La obras fluvial es esencia la regulacin de la corriente natural
del ro dentro de un curso bien definido, generalmente el que suele ocupar la corriente. Ya que la
desviacin del curso probablemente ocurrir durante los periodos de caudal de avenida, la obra
de control consiste en regular la avenida.
Geologa en obras viales

La geologa en obra viales juega un papel muy importante pues la mayora de las carreteras,
tneles, y dems obras viales utilizan la geologa para realizar estudio de suelo de los terrenos
que se utilizaran para dichas obras. Ahora veremos algn ejemplo donde se aplica la geologa.
Perforacin de Lumbreras: una de las partes ms especializadas en las excavaciones
abiertas es la perforacin de lumbreras para el acceso de trabajos de tneles. Existe una
experiencia abundante que nos ofrece la industria minera; por cierto, la perforacin de lumbreras
es una operacin de construccin compartida por los ingenieros civiles y los de minas, pues
muchas de las galeras de las grandes minas son obras de contratistas en ingeniera civil y
muchos ingenieros mineros se les consulta acerca del problema con lumbreras en obras civiles.
Cimentacin de Puentes: como antecedente necesario deber recalcarse la gran
importancia de la geologa en la cimentacin de los puentes. Por muy cientficamente que est
diseada una columna de un puente, en definitiva el peso total del puente y las cargas que soporta
debern descansar en el terreno de apoyo. Para el ingeniero estructural las columnas y los
estribos de un puente no son realmente interesantes. Sin embargo, debe prestarles un inters
ms que pasajero, ya que muy menudo el diseo de las cimentaciones compete al ingeniero
estructural responsable del diseo de la superestructura.
Campos de Aviacin: el crecimiento de la aviacin civil ha sido extraordinario en los
ltimos siglos; y es en este por su extensin en donde la geologa no es tan determinante como
en otros tipos de construcciones. Los campos de aviacin modernos tienen que se reas muy
grandes y bastante planas sin serios impedimentos para volar en los alrededores.
Carreteras: son contadas las obras de ingeniera civil que guardan relacin tan
estrechamente con la geologa como las carreteras. Se puede esperar que todo proyecto de
carreteras importante encuentre una gran variedad de condiciones geolgicas, puesto que se
extienden grandes distancias. Aunque ser extrao que una carretera requiera actividades
constructivas en las profundidades del subsuelo, los cortes que se realizan para lograr las
gradientes uniformes que demandan las autopistas modernas proporcionan por necesidad una
multitud de oportunidades de observar la geologa. No slo es atractivo para los conductores,
sino que tambin revelan detalles de la geologa local que de otro modo seran desconocidos.
Geologa en Edificaciones
La geologa en las edificaciones constituye la zapata en la cual se apoyan todas las edificaciones
existentes en la actualidad, pues, se debe realizar siempre un estudio del suelo sobre la cual
nosotros los ingenieros civiles debemos construir.
Al no realizar los estudios de mecnica de suelos de forma correcta la mayora de las
edificaciones con el tiempo pueden tener problemas los cuales son muy difciles de reparar
estando ya la edificacin terminada
Geologa Fsica. Conocimientos generales

La inscripcin borrosa de una piedra sepulcral, los cimientos de un antiguo edificio que se
desmoronan, las rocas situadas a lo largo de las cunetas de un camino, todo ello nos dice que
las rocas estn sujetas a una destruccin constante. Los cambios bruscos de temperatura, la
humedad que empapa el suelo, la incesante actividad de los seres vivos, todo tiende a destruir
las rocas. Este proceso de destruccin es lo que se llama intemperismo y se le define como los
cambios que tienen lugar en los minerales y rocas en o cerca de la superficie de la Tierra por
efectos de la atmsfera, del agua, de las plantas y de la vida animal.
Intemperismo
El intemperismo es la reaccin de los materiales que estuvieron una vez en equilibrio dentro de
la corteza terrestre a las nuevas condiciones en o cerca del contacto con el aire, el agua y la
materia viviente. El intemperismo es un proceso de rompimiento de las rocas debido a procesos
mecnicos y/o qumicos en pequeos fragmentos. El intemperismo mecnico (desintegracin)
puede ser causado por la expansin y contraccin de las rocas debido a la continua ganancia o
prdida de calor resultando por ltimo una desintegracin. Frecuentemente, el agua se infiltra
dentro de los poros o grietas existentes en las rocas, al presentarse una disminucin en la
temperatura a tal grado de que el agua se congele, existir un aumento de volumen por lo que la
presin ejercida por el hielo, provoca un rompimiento en fragmentos de la roca. Otros agentes
fsicos que ayudan a la desintegracin de las rocas as como a su transportacin, son los hielos
glaciares, las corrientes de agua (arroyos y ros) y las olas en los mares. Es importante hacer
notar que en el intemperismo mecnico, grandes rocas son desintegradas a pequeos pedazos
sin ningn cambio en su composicin qumica.
Para que acte cualquier tipo de accin del hielo, deben existir ciertas condiciones: 1) debe haber
un abastecimiento de humedad adecuado; 2) la humedad debe ser capaz de penetrar la roca o
suelo; y 3) la temperatura debe variar por encima y por debajo de la lnea de congelacin.
En el intemperismo qumico (descomposicin), los minerales originales de la roca son
transformados a nuevos minerales por reacciones qumicas. El agua y el bixido carbono de la
atmsfera forman el cido carbnico, el cual reacciona con los minerales existentes en rocas y
forman nuevos minerales as como sales solubles. Las sales solubles presentes en el agua del
suelo y los cidos orgnicos, que se crean por la descomposicin de la materia orgnica, causan
un intemperismo qumico. El proceso de intemperismo no esta limitado nicamente a las rocas
gneas sino que este sucede tambin en las rocas sedimentarias y metamrficas. Un ejemplo del
intemperismo qumico es de la ortoclasa la cual forma minerales de arcilla, slice y carbonato de
potasio. Algunos minerales ferromagnesianos forman por la descomposicin minerales de arcilla,
slice y sales.
Transportacin de los productos del intemperismo
Los productos del intemperismo pueden quedarse en el sitio o ser transportados por el hielo, el
agua, el viento, la gravedad y el hombre.
Los suelos formados como producto del intemperismo en el lugar de origen son llamados suelos
residuales. Una caracterstica de los suelos residuales es el escalonamiento en los tamaos de
sus partculas. Suelos de grano fino son encontrados en la superficie y los tamaos de los granos
se incrementan con la profundidad. A mayores profundidades, fragmentos angulosos de roca
pueden ser encontrados. Los suelos que se crearon fuera de su lugar de origen son los suelos
transportados, los cuales pueden ser clasificados en varios tipos, dependiendo de su modo de
transportacin y depositacin:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
Suelos Glaciales
Formados por transportacin y depositacin de glaciares

Transportados por el agua corriente y depositados en las orillas de
Suelos Aluviales
arroyos y ros
Suelos Lacustres
Formados por la depositacin en lagos tranquilos
Suelos Marinos
Formados por la depositacin en mares (fondo marino)
Suelos Elicos
Transportados y depositados por el viento (desiertos)
Suelos de Pie de Formados por el movimiento del suelo de su lugar de origen por la
Monte
gravedad (deslizamiento de tierra)
Los depsitos de grava, arena, limo y arcilla que se han formado por el intemperismo pueden
llegar a compactarse por la presin de una sobrecarga, por peso propio y por la presencia de
agentes cementantes como el xido de hierro, calcita, dolomita y cuarzo. Estos agentes
cementantes son generalmente acarreados, en forma disuelta, por el agua que circula contenida
en la masa de suelo. Estas llenan los espacios entre las partculas y forman las rocas
sedimentarias. Las rocas formadas de esta manera son las llamadas rocas sedimentarias
detrticas. Conglomerado, brecha, arenisca, lodolita, pizarra son algunos ejemplos de este tipo
de rocas.
Las rocas sedimentarias se pueden formar tambin por procesos qumicos, llamndose rocas
sedimentarias qumicas. La caliza, creta (gis), dolomita, yeso y anhidrita son rocas de este tipo.
En la figura 1 se observa en ciclo de la roca en sus diferentes etapas, as como la dureza de las
mismas.
Figura 1. Ciclo de la Roca

El Suelo y la Mecnica de Suelos

El recuerdo de la persona que utiliz por primera vez el suelo como un material de construccin
se encuentra perdido en la antigedad. Por aos, el arte de la ingeniera de suelos estuvo basado
nicamente en la experiencia transmitida y adquirida de generacin a generacin. Con el
crecimiento de la ciencia y tecnologa, la necesidad por mejorar y hacer m s econmicos; los
diseos estructurales y los procedimientos constructivos fue una meta primordial. Esto condujo a
un estudio detallado de la naturaleza y propiedades del suelo relacionadas con la ingeniera
durante los primeros aos del siglo XX. La publicacin de Erdbaumechanik por Karl Terzaghi en
1925, fue el punto de partida de la moderna mecnica de suelos. En este libro se presentan los
principios fundamentales de la mecnica de suelos en los cuales muchos de los estudios
avanzados se encuentran basados.
Desde un punto de vista ingenieril, el suelo es definido como un agregado no cementado de
partculas de mineral y materia orgnica en descomposicin (partculas slidas) junto con
el lquido y/o gas que ocupan los espacios vacos entre las partculas slidas.
Tambin al suelo se le define como el material formado por partculas minerales (producto de la
descomposicin y/o desintegracin de las rocas) y vacos (que pueden o no estar ocupados por
agua), figura 2.
Suelo y la Ingeniera de Suelos
* The term Soil has various meanings, depending upon the general field in which it is being
considered.
*To a Pedologist ... Soil is the substance existing on the earth's surface, which grows and
develops plant life.
*To a Geologist ..... Soil is the material in the relative thin surface zone within which roots
occur, and all the rest of the crust is grouped under the term ROCK irrespective of its
hardness.
*To an Engineer .... Soil is the un-aggregated or un-cemented deposits of mineral and/or
organic particles or fragments covering large portion of the earth's crust.
** Soil Mechanics is one of the youngest disciplines of Civil Engineering involving the study
of soil, its behavior and application as an engineering material.
*According to Terzaghi (1948): "Soil Mechanics is the application of laws of mechanics and
hydraulics to engineering problems dealing with sediments and other unconsolidated
accumulations of solid particles produced by the mechanical and chemical disintegration
of rocks regardless of whether or not they contain an admixture of organic constituent."
* Geotechnical Engineering ..... Is a broader term for Soil Mechanics.
* Geotechnical Engineering contains:

- Soil Mechanics (Soil Properties and Behavior)
- Soil Dynamics (Dynamic Properties of Soils, Earthquake Engineering, Machine
Foundation)
- Foundation Engineering (Deep & Shallow Foundation)
- Pavement Engineering (Flexible & Rigid Pavement)
- Rock Mechanics (Rock Stability and Tunneling)
- Geosynthetics (Soil Improvement)
El suelo es usado como un material de construccin en varias obras de ingeniera civil y soporta
estructuras con diferentes tipos de cimentaciones. Por ello, la ingeniera civil debe estudiar las
propiedades del suelo como son; su origen, las distribucin granulomtrica, capacidad para
drenar agua, compresibilidad, resistencia al corte, capacidad de carga, etc.
Figura 2. Esquema del suelo

La mecnica de suelos es la rama de la ciencia que trata con el estudio de las propiedades fsicas
del suelo y el comportamiento de las masas de suelo sujetas a varios tipos de fuerzas. La
ingeniera de suelos es la aplicacin de los principios de la mecnica de suelos a problemas

prcticos.
El trmino de ingeniera geotcnica est definido como la ciencia y prctica de la parte de la
ingeniera civil que involucra los materiales naturales localizados cerca de la superficie de la tierra.
En un sentido general, esto incluye la aplicacin de los principios fundamentales de la mecnica
de suelos y la mecnica de rocas a problemas enfocados al diseo de cimentaciones.
A Partculas menores que 0.074mm que forman suelos o pueden estar contenidas en suelos con
partculas de tamaos mayores. Las partculas de este tamao no se distinguen (limos, arcillas).
B Partculas de tamaos comprendidos entre 0.074 mm y 76.2 mm que forman suelos o pueden
estar contenidos en suelos con partculas de tamaos menores (gravas, arenas)
C Partculas de tamaos mayores que 76.2 mm que no forman suelos pero pueden estar
contenidos en suelos de tamaos menores. Por costumbre se les conoce como: fragmentos de
roca.
Los granos minerales que forman la fase slida de un suelo son producto del intemperismo de
las rocas. El tamao de los granos, en forma individual, vara en un amplio rango. Muchas de las
propiedades fsicas del suelo son determinadas por el tamao, forma y composicin qumica de
los granos. Para tener un mejor entendimiento de estos factores, uno debe estar familiarizado
con los tipos bsicos de roca que forman la corteza de la tierra, los minerales formadores de roca
y los procesos de intemperismo, figura 3.
Figura 3. Formas de partculas en la Arena de Ottawa, mineral cuarzo.

Soil Forming Factors

(Factores Formadores de Suelo)
About Minerals
A mineral is defined as being a naturally occuring element or compound that is formed by inorganic
processes and contains a crystalline structure. Pedologists are primarily concerned with minerals
in soil because minerals form the basic framework of soil. Minerals originally form when onceheated Earth material magma (molten rock) cools and forms solid igneous rock. During the cooling
process of magma, ions (an atom, a group of atoms or compound that is electrically charged when
the loss or gain of electrons occurs) become bonded together, due to electrical attraction. The
attracted, bonded ions remain fixed in position and produce solid crystalline minerals within
igneous rock.The Earth's crust formed and continues to form in this manner.
Earth's crust contains a combination of naturally occurring elements, of which eight elements are
predominant: oxygen (O), silicon (Si), aluminum (Al), iron (Fe), calcium (Ca), Sodium (Na),
potassium (K), and magnesium (Mg). As you can imagine, combinations of these elements along
with the other naturally occuring elements that form Earth's crust produce a wide variety of
minerals.
Igneous rocks contain original minerals that form as magma cools but sedimentary rocks are
formed by secondary minerals that grow and join sediment particles together and become
cemented. Metamorphic rocks were once igneous rocks and sedimentary rocks that become
chemically altered to form different minerals. Minerals that combine to create inorganic parent
material can be released from their attractive bond, during chemical weathering, and become
deposited as soil. Deposits that come from parent material are either residual or transported.
Residual deposits result when a rock is weathered in situ (in place). In contrast, transported
deposits get moved by transport agents, often long distances.
Original Minerals
NAME
Quartz
CHEMICAL FORMULA
SiO2
Microcline
KAlSi3O8
Orthoclase
KAlSi3O8
Na-Plagioclase
NaAlSi3O8
Ca-Plagioclase
CaAlSi3O8
Muscovite
KAlSi3O10
Biotite
KAl(Mg-Fe)3Si3O10 (OH)2
Horneblende
Ca2Al2Mg2Fe3, Si6O (OH)2
Augite
Ca2(Al-Fe)4(Mg-Fe)4Si6O24
(Extracted from The Geography of Soils, by Donald Steila. Prentice Hall, Inc., New Jersey)
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Secondary Minerals
NAME
CHEMICAL FORMULA
Calcite
CaCo3
Dolomite
CaMg(CO3)2
Gypsum
CaSO4-2H20
Apatite
Ca5(PO4)3 - (Cl, F)
Limonite
Fe2-O3-3H20
Hematite
Fe2O3
Gibbsite
Al2-O3-3H2O
Clay Minerals
Al silicates
( Extracted from The Geography of Soils, by Donald Steila. Prentice Hall, Inc., New Jersey )
About Weathering
As you drive or ride in a car, take a train or plane, ride a bike ride, or go for a nature walk you see
the spectacular and varied landscapes on Earth's surface. As Earth's crust is built up by volcanic
and tectonic forces (thrusting and deformation of Earth's crust), weathering forces simultaneously
reduce landforms and release minerals from rocks. Natural weathering processes occur around
us everyday, continually rearranging and building landforms on Earth's surface.
Chemical Weathering Processes
Chemical weathering occurs as minerals in rocks are chemically altered, and subsequently
decompose and decay. Increasing precipitation (rain) speeds up the chemical weathering of
minerals in rocks, as seen on tombstones and monuments made of limestone and marble. In fact,
water is an essential factor of chemical weathering. Increasing temperature also accelerates the
chemical reaction that causes minerals to degrade. This is why humid, tropical climates have
highly weathered landforms, soils, and buildings.
Carbonation and Solution: this weathering process occurs when precipitation (H20)
combines with carbon dioxide (CO2) to form carbonic acid (H2CO3). When carbonic acid comes in
contact with rocks that contain lime, soda, and potash, the minerals calcium, magenesium and
potassium in these rocks chemically change into carbonates and dissolve in rain water. Karst
topography, originally named after the Krs Plateau in Yugoslavia where it was first studied, is a
result of this type of chemical weathering that possesses characteristic sinkholes, caves, and
caverns.
Hydrolysis: this chemical weathering process occurs when water (H20), usually in the form
of precipitation, disrupts the chemical composition and size of a mineral and creates less stable
minerals, thus less stable rocks, that weather more readily.
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Hydration: water (H20) combines with compounds in rocks, causing a chemical change in a
mineral's structure, but more likely will physically alter a mineral's grain surface and edges. A good
example of this is the mineral Anhydrite (CaSO4). Anhydrite chemically changes to Gypsum
(CaSO4-2H20) when water is added. Gypsum is used in the construction industry, to build buildings
and houses.
Oxidation: this process occurs when oxygen combines with compound elements in rocks to
form oxides. When an object is chemically altered in this manner it is weakened and appears as
"oxidized" . A good example of this is a "rusting" sign post . The iron in the metal post is oxidizing.
Increased temperatures and the presence of precipitation will accelerate the oxidation process.
Spheroidal Weathering: water penetrates through cracks in rocks and dissolves the cement
that binds particles together and also erodes sharp edges and corners of rocks, making a rock
appear spheroidal. Physical weathering processes, such as frost wedging, can then act upon the
enlargened cracks in rocks.
Physical Weathering Processes
Rocks that are broken and degrade by processes other than chemical alteration are physically or
mechanically weathered. A rock broken in to smaller pieces exposes more surface area of the
original rock. Increasing the exposed surface area of a rock will increase its weathering potential.
Animals and Plants: Animals burrow into Earth's substrate and move rock fragments and
sediment on Earth's surface, thereby aiding in the disintegration of rocks and rock fragments.
Fungi and Lichens are acid-producing microorganisms that live on rocks and dissolve nutrients
(phosphorus, calcium) within rocks. These microorganisms assist in the breakdown and
weathering of rocks.
Crystallization: As water evaporates moisture from rocks located in arid climates mineral
salts develop from mineral crystals. The crystals grow, spreading apart mineral grains in the
process, and eventually break apart rocks.
Temperature Variation: minerals in rocks expand and contract in climates where

temperature ranges are extreme, like in glacial regions of the world, or when exposed to extreme
heat, like during a forest fire. Crystal structures of minerals become stressed during contraction
and expansion and the mineral crystals separate. For instance, repeated cycles of freezing and
thawing (known as Freeze-Thaw) of water in rock cracks further widens cracks and splits rocks
apart. Frost-wedging forces portions of rock to split apart.
Unloading and Exfoliation: Cracks in rocks appear when pressure is released as overlying
rocks or sediment are removed, thus allowing the expansion of the newly exposed rock. Exfoliation
occurs as sheets or slabs of the cracked rock slip off and become further eroded. Domes form as
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the unloading and exfoliation weathering processes continue. Half Dome at Yosemite National
Park , California is a result of unloading (pressure-release jointing) and exfoliation.
COMENTARIOS
Although one weathering process can dominate in a given area, physical and chemical weathering
processes occur simultaneously to break down rock parent material. Rocks that are formed under
intense temperature and pressure and cool rapidly forms crystalline structures in minerals that are
less stable when exposed to low temperatures and pressures at Earth's surface, so they will
weather more rapidly.
Rocks that are formed under intense temperature and pressure, but cool more slowly and later in
the volcanic magma cooling process, are more stable when exposed to the low temperatures and
pressures at Earth's surface. Bonds holding atoms together determine mineral hardness. Rocks
that have cooled more slowly have time to build stronger bonds, so they are more resistant to the
forces of weathering.
Friedrich Mohs, an Austrian mineralogist, devised a scale of mineral hardness in 1812. He used
ten minerals, listed below, as standards by which to determine the hardness of minerals and other
objects. These ten minerals were arranged on a scale of increasing hardness. For instance,
gypsum can scratch talc, and apatite can scratch fluorite, calcite, gypsum, and talc.Your fingernail
has a general hardness of 2.5, so you can scratch gypsum and talc! Diamonds are the hardest
mineral in existence and are used as cutting instruments.
Moh's Scale Of Mineral Hardness
Talc Gypsum Calcite Flourite Apatite Orthoclase Quartz Topaz Corundum Diamond
1
10
(Information derived from Rocks and Minerals, an Eyewitness Book produced and published by
Dorling Kindersley Limited, London, England. Also published by Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., New York.
1988.)
Since some minerals weather more rapidly than others and weathering processes vary in intensity
and combination, weathering products contain different mineral combinations. Pedologists, or soil
scientists, classify these weathered mineral products as soil separates. Soil separates range in
size and are known as sand, silt, and clay.
Earth Deposits: A Basis for Creating Landforms and Soil
Physical and chemical weathering processes erode parent material into mineral particles and
dissolve minerals in solution, but weathering does not transport or deposit weathered minerals.
Volcanoes, wind, water, ice, and waves transport and deposit weathered minerals, they are
influenced by gravity, and upon deposition create landforms from which soil formation begins.
Minerals weathered from parent material determine the mineral content in sand, silt, and clay.
Sand: The major mineral in sand is called quartz and it is composed of silica and oxygen (SiO2).
Sand grains vary in size depending on how long they are exposed to weathering. Quartz is very
resistant to weathering; therefore, sand grains are larger in diameter compared to silt and clay
particles:
13
very coarse sand: 2.00 - 1.00 mm diameter

coarse sand: 1.00 - .50 mm diameter
medium sand: 0.50 - 0.25 mm diameter
fine sand: 0.25 - 0.10 mm diameter
very fine sand: 0.10 - 0.05 mm
Because sand is larger in diameter than other soil separates, sand grains provide larger spaces
in which water and air can more easily move through soil. Sandy soils are limited in nutrients
because the nutrients leach out from the large pore spaces between sand grains, so crops are
generally not grown in sandy soils.
Silt: Silt contains silicate minerals like sand but the diameter of silt particles is smaller, 0.05 - 0.002
mm, and so the pore space between silt particles are smaller. Therefore, silt has the ability to hold
water between particles and retains nutrients for plant use. Silt is an ideal soil for growing crops.
Clay: Silicates, mica, iron, and aluminum hydrous-oxide minerals are found in clay. The silicate
clay group is primarily located in the mid-latitudes, while the iron and aluminum clays are found in
the tropic zones. Clay particles are 0.002 mm in diameter or smaller, so the pore spaces between
clay particles are very small. Thus, water and air movement through clays particles is significantly
decreased. When clay becomes wet it swells, sticks together (cohesion), and feels "sticky". As
wet clay dries it shrinks and cracks. Clay also becomes dense, hard, and brittle making it difficult
for plant roots to grow through. Clay soils containing laterite and smectite properties are not
desirable to grow crops in or to build on.
Depositional Environments and Landforms
Landforms are constantly developing and changing as weathering forces continually erode rocks
and transport agents (volcanoes, wind, water, ice, and waves) continually deposit the eroded
rocks and sediment in to different depositional environments, on Earth's surface.
Alluvial Deposits: rock debris that has been eroded into fine sediments that are subsequently
transported by a mountain stream or river to the valley floor, as the gradient of the mountain
decreases. Sediment is carried by either ephemeral (intermitant) water flow that occurs in arid
climates or perennial stream water flow that occurs in humid climates, and is subsequently
distributed into fan shaped landforms called alluvial fans.
Alluvial fans are known to be either wet or dry, depending on if the fans are located in humid or
arid climates. Alluvial soils are finely layered and are very deep. Closer to river banks and on
natural levees alluvial soils are more sandy, however alluvial soils are more clayey to peaty when
closer to swampy areas. Alluvial deposits such as the Mississippi River Delta and China's vast
alluvial plains have rich top soil and are known for being very fertile, crop growing regions.
Las corrientes de Agua, son el agente
erosivo ms importante en los continentes.
En disolucin: sustancias solubles

En suspensin: de pequeo tamao, circulan
en el seno del fluido
El conjunto de materiales que transporte el ro se
Por el fondo: se distinguen por saltacin,
denomina carga, y es variable, dependiendo del
rodadura o arrastre,
tamao. La capacidad del ro es la carga mxima
dependiendo del tamao o
que puede transportar y depende de su caudal y
forma.
velocidad.
14
Colluvial Deposits: materials that move downslope by force of gravity and/or erosion and collect
at the base of mountains or foothills, with little or no sorting. Talus cones are a type of colluvial
deposit. Soils from colluvial deposition are generally deep and fragipans (hard clay soil) are
common.
Eolian Deposits: eolian deserts form in arid regions of the world where dry air masses create
wind systems that transport and deposit loose sediments. Silt particles, called loess, are carried
by wind even longer distances than sand and collect around the fringe of deserts. Large areas of
the desert environment that receive more than 125 square kilometers of eolian sand are called
sand seas or ergs, such as Erg Chech in Algeria. The largest desert in the world, the Sahara
Desert, is 7 million square kilometers and contains several ergs. Smaller areas are called dune
fields. Wind force and variable wind directions transport and deposit sand and in the process
create different types of dunes. Some dunes are shaped by the wind into ridges, strings, domes,
stars, or barchans (half-moon shaped dunes). Deserts primarily consist of wind-deposited sand
which originated from sandstone that eroded over time.
Glacial Deposits: Glaciers are large and small ice masses that are found at high latitudes on
Earth.Mountains located at all latitudes have small glaciers. During the Pleistocene, 10,000 years
ago, glaciers extended into much lower latitudes and elevations than are currently located. As the
climate changed and weather got warmer, glaciers began to melt and abrade bedrock lying below
the glaciers. Varying rates of ice melt caused eroded sediment to "drop out" of retreating, melting
glaciers. This "glacial till" formed deposits called moraines and drumlins. Glacial till consists of
unstratified (unlayered) and unsorted glacial deposits, some the size of huge boulders.
Meltwaters flowing upon, under, within or at the margin of glaciers accumulate deposits known as
outwash plains and kettles (depressions), kames (small, mound shaped accumulations of sand or
gravel), and eskers (narrow, sinuous ridges of sediment).Where glaciers extend beyond the
15
mouths of river valleys and enter the sea, their glaciomarine sediment load is dumped into the
ocean.
As climates warm glaciers melt and retreat. Glaciofluvial (glacier stream water) sediment is
transported downstream by way of glacial meltwater and is deposited in braided streams.
Glaciolacustrine (glacier lake water) sediment is deposited in glacial lakes when damming of ice
or moraines occurs, and fluctuations of meltwater flow create distinctive varve deposits. Fine
glacial debris consisting of silt and clay becomes airborne where vegetation is not present to hold
this sediment down, and often traveling hundreds of kilometers before landing and forming loess
deposits. The Muir Glacier and Margerie Glacier in Glacier Bay, Alaska are actively retreating
glaciers.
Lacustrine Deposits: Lakes are different than marine environments in that sedimentation of lakes
is ten times higher than in marine environments. Lakes are also smaller, are nearly closed
systems, and tides in lakes are less pronounced. Therefore energy levels in lakes are lower,
coarser sediment (sand and gravel) is deposited in shallow water areas of lakes, especially during
summer, while finer-grained sediment (silt and clay) is deposited in deeper water areas of lakes,
and more so during winter. Varves, alternating thin layers of light-colored coarser grained
sediment and dark-colored finer grained sediment, are one type of lacustrine deposit and form in
both glacial and nonglacial lakes.
Deposits in open lakes come mainly from rivers but may also be deposited by wind, ice-rafting,
and volcanic rock erosion. Sedimentation in closed lake systems consists of evaporite minerals,
carbonate muds, sands, and silts. Lacustrine deposits are often rich in organic shales which are
important source rocks for petroleum. Well-known lacustrine shale deposits in the world include
the Eocene Green River Formation in Wyoming,Utah and Colorado; the Jurassic Morrison
Formation of the Colorado Plateau; Devonian sediments from the Old Red Sandstone of the
Orcadian Basin in northeast Scotland; and the Triassic Keuper Marl of South Wales, just to name
a few.
Modelo de distribucin de sedimentos de Twenhofel (1932).
16
Loess Deposits: Loess is comprised primarily of silt grains, with less significant anounts of clay
and sand. The mineral quartz is most dominant in loess with feldspars, carbonates, and clay
minerals present in smaller amounts. For instance, in arid regions loess contains larger amounts
of calcium carbonate; whereas, in humid regions clay minerals in loess are more prevalent. Desert
regions of the world may be thought of as prime locations for loess deposition because of the
availability of loose sediment, sparse vegetal cover, and moderate to strong winds. However, loess
deposits are more commonly located in or near glacial regions.
Glacial outwash debris containing sand, silt, and clay is transported to floodplains by rivers that
drained glacial meltwater. The glacial debris, primarily the silt and clay, becomes airborne via
strong winds as vegetation is not present to hold sediment down. Loess can sometimes become
suspended several kilometers high and hundreds of kilometers in distance, with tens to hundreds
of tons of sediment being transported in a single "dust storm", as was the case in the 1935 dust
storm over the midwest United States. Near Wichita, Kansas a dust storm had suspended about
five million tons of sediment over a 78 square kilometer area and around 300 tons per square
kilometer of dust was deposited from the same storm near Lincoln, Nebraska.
Marine Deposits: physical processes mainly rework and distribute carbonate materials on marine
shelf but can also help in the production of carbonates. Moderate water ciruculation on marine
shelf brings nutrients from deeper water to shallow shelf region which aids in organic growth of
ooids, fecal pellets that eventually become cemented together. Waves constantly move fine
carbonate mud and coarser sediment to form sand or gravel covered tidal flats, beaches, dunes,
marshes, lagoons, and swamps or transports these sediments seaward to form spits, tidal deltas
and bars, and barrier islands. Waves pounding against coastal rocks also contribute rock particles
and sediment to the coastal shelf and seaward. The Outer Banks of North Carolina are a chain of
barrier islands that contain beaches, lagoons, and spits. Reefs can be characterized as either
thick masses of living carbonate "rock", or structures produced by sediment-binding, live
organisms. The Great Barrier Reef, Australia, is the largest coral reef in the world.
Bioherms are mounds of dead organic material that have collected in rocks of different
composition. Organisms are able to extract calcium carbonate (CaCO3) from seawater to build
protective shells or skeletons, although the availability of CaCO3 in seawater is controlled by pH,
temperature, and carbon dioxide content. When these organisms die their remains collect and
form carbonate deposits known as bioherms. Carbonate formers in Earth's current oceans are not
the same as those that formed carbonates in ancient oceans.
Other marine depositional environments include deltas, beaches, barrier bars, estuaries, lagoons,
and tidal flats. Beach and barrier bar deposits are mostly contain fine to medium grained, well
sorted sand as well as placer gold, platinum, and other minerals.
Estuarine deposits, like in the Chesapeake Bay and San Francisco Bay, consist of cross-bedded
sands and mud, or a mixture of both sand and mud. Lagoonal deposits include evaporites, finegrained sediments, and black shales. Delta deposits and tidal flat deposits, like the Mississippi
River Delta, primarily contain muds in the upper zone, mud and sand in the middle zone, and sand
in the lower zone.
Volcanic Deposits: Volcanoes produce magmas consisting of various mineral compositions that
in turn create various rock types. The amount of gas in magma and the viscosity (thickness) of
magma determine the volatility of a volcanic eruption and the types of landforms that are formed.
Continents and oceanic environments contain highly fluid, basaltic magma whereas magma
17
forming as island arcs at the margins of some continents consists of high silica lavas that are more
viscous and crystallize into rhyolites, andesites, and dacites.
Lava in orogenic (mountain building) environments is most viscous (thick) and has a higher gas
content so eruptions are more explosive and form an extrusive, solid volcanic material called
tephra. Volcanic ash is found in the United States primarily in Hawaii, Washington, Oregon, and
also in Japan, Indonesia, Central America, and other mountainous regions of the world. Most
volcanic ash forms into very fertile soil that is used for growing crops.
Three major volcanic landforms are created as a result of volcanic activity.
Lava Plains and Plateaus - these types of volcanic landforms are created as a large volume of
fluid lava flows over an expansive surface area. The resulting topography are extremely flat
surfaces that aggrade with each successive lava flow that is mafic in composition. An example of
a lava plain is located in the Columbia River Plain in Washington and Oregon. Oceanic plains and
plateaus can also form, even more extensively, from this type of lava flow.
Cones or Shields - most volcanoes form into composite cones that have a distinctive appearance
of layers of interbedded, blocky lava with tephra that is mostly ash or cinder. The peaks of
composite cones have narrow, circular bases whose peaks rise several thousands of meters.
Mount Ranier, in Washington is a composite volcano. Conversely, shield volcanoes are comprised
of fluid basaltic magma with very little tephra and therefore have lower peaks than composite cone
volcanoes. The chain of Hawaiian volcanoes are shield volcanoes.
Calderas- this type of volcanic landform is created once eruptions occur and subsequently the
upper part of a volcano collapses inward. Volcanoes containing tephra sheets, such as the
composite cones, are more prone to forming calderas once an eruption occurs. Crater Lake,
Oregon and Yellowstone Plateau, Wyoming are calderas.
Landforms are not always formed by deposition alone. For instance, the spectacular Grand
Canyon land formation has been cut and etched by the erosive forces of wind and water over
millions of years. The Colorado River has deeply cut gorges into less resistant rock and created a
canyon while more resistant, less weathered rocks, such as sandstones, give the Grand Canyon
its statuesque appearance.
Also, human activity on the land can have a significant affect on erosion due to construction and
agricultural practices, as is seen in this picture of eroded sediment entering and filling the San
Francisco Bay, in California.
Can you think of other landforms that have been created by erosional and depositional
forces?
Can you think of ways we can improve how land is used and how we can protect sediment from
eroding from the land and entering into rivers, lakes, deltas, and bays?
18
EXPLORACIN y MUESTREO
OBJETIVO
Conocer la secuencia litolgica del subsuelo.
Obtencin muestra de las diferentes capas del subsuelo.
Conocer el espesor de cada capa o estrato.
Conocer y determinar la profundidad del nivel del agua subterrnea
Obtener muestras de agua para determinar su calidad.
Determinacin de la capacidad de resistencia de un suelo o una roca.
Ver si sirven de material de prstamo para obras civiles.
Ver si es apto para fundacin.
Se conocen dos mtodos de investigacin del subsuelo los cuales son:
MTODOS DIRECTOS
Se conocen directamente las muestras del suelo.
Se conocen directamente los problemas del suelo o de la roca.
Se perfora el suelo o roca con un equipo o maquinaria de pendiendo del tipo de material a perforar
y luego se elige el tipo de estructura a necesitar.
Tienen un costo elevado.
Informaciones que se obtienen
Muestras alteradas.
Muestras no alteradas.
La profundidad de inicio y fin de los estratos, por tanto el espesor de los estratos.
La profundidad del agua subterrnea (nivel fretico).
El grado de saturacin de una roca o un suelo.
Se determina la porosidad.
Se determina la permeabilidad.
El fracturamiento del subsuelo.
Tipos de mtodos
Mtodo a cielo abierto.
Mtodo a percusin a cable.
Mtodo a rotacin con circulacin de lodos.
Mtodo a rotacin con circulacin de agua.
Mtodo con gusano helicoidal o core barril.
Mtodo con rotacin a diamantina.
Mtodo de muestras lavadas.
Mtodo de penetracin cnica.
Mtodo estndar (STP).
Pozo a cielo abierto.
Barrenos helicoidales
19
MTODOS INDIRECTOS
No se perfora el suelo.
Tiene un costo econmico.
No se obtienen muestras.
Informaciones que se obtienen
La profundidad de las capas.
El espesor de las capas.
La profundidad del agua subterrnea (nivel fretico).
El fracturamiento del subsuelo.
Tipos de mtodos
Mtodo de resistividad.
Mtodo ssmico a fraccin.
Mtodo ssmico a reflexin.
Mtodo geo-radar.
Mtodo gravimtrico.
Para obras de envergadura se utilizan los dos mtodos.

Estudios preliminares, con ellos se conocen:
Profundidad de los estratos atravesados o capas.
Espesor de los estratos.
Tipo de litologa del mineral.
Con estos estudios preliminares se pueden definir:
El tipo de mtodo a utilizar.
El tipo de equipo a utilizar.
El costo del trabajo a realizarse (costo de la perforacin).
El tiempo de duracin del trabajo, etc.
20
Copyright HALC
16
Semestre 2010 - 1
Copyright HALC
17
Semestre 2010 - 1
Copyright HALC
18
Semestre 2010 - 1
Copyright HALC
19
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Indice
FUNDACIONES SUPERFICIALES
Informe Geotcnico en proyectos de edificios
Antecedentes e
informacin previa
Reconocimiento
geotcnico
Pruebas y ensayos
Tipo de edificio,
cargas, etc.
Tipo de terreno
Terreno granular
( arenas, gravas )
Roca aflorante a
pequea prof.
Influencia del NF
sobre la const.
Optimizacin
de excavaciones
Terreno cohesivo
( arcillas )
Alta
Baja
Resistencia
Media
Baja
Deformabilidad
Alta
Media
Tolerancias
del edificio
Estrictas
Baja
Media
Problemas de
interaccin con
edif.adyacentes
Anlisis segn
tipo de edificio
No
Positivo
Amplias
Si
Cimentacin
directa (zapatas,losas )
Alta
Deformabilidad
Negativo
Cimentacin
profunda ( pilotes )
Etapas de un Proyecto de Fundaciones

Estudio Geotcnico
Antecedentes
Geologa
Normativa
Condicionantes
Tecnologa
Coeficientes de
seguridad
Implantacin
Tipologa
Hidrogeologa
Reconocimientos
Definicin de
la cimentacin
Correlaciones
Proyecto
Ensayos
Modelos de
comportamiento
Informe Geotcnico
Ejecucin
Sistema de
estructuramiento
del terreno
Parmetros
geotcnicos
Problemas
constructivos
Interaccin con el
entorno
Control del
comportamiento
Acumulacin de
experiencia
Resultado
Mejora del
proyecto
RECONOCIMIENTO DEL TERRENO

Estudio Geotcnico
Antes de construir cualquier obra de ingeniera, se debe tener presente :
Las condiciones del subsuelo y sus posibles problemas

Su capacidad portante y deformabilidad
Sus caractersticas como material de construccin
Un estudio geotcnico debe incluir entre otros temas:

Caractersticas del proyecto y objetivo del estudio
Caractersticas geotcnicas del sitio
Solucin de fundacin o del tema geotcnico de estudio
Recomendaciones para el procedimiento constructivo

Estudio Geotcnico
Mtodo de estudio
Reconocimiento
geolgico
Ensayos
geotcnicos
Naturaleza
del suelo
Problemas
a resolver
Geologa
del lugar
Topografa
Problema Habituales
a resolver
Cimientos
Asientos
Estabilidad
Contenciones
Adaptacin
al lugar
En desniveles y
subterraneos
Estabilidad
de pendiente
Condiciones
de ejecucin
Agotamientos
Socalzados
Estabilidad de fondo
y paredes de la
excavacin

Trabajos a realizar
La cantidad y calidad de los trabajos de reconocimiento, queda definidos por :
Tipo de terreno
Nivel de estudio
( Factibilidad, previo,
anteproyecto,proyecto)
Importancia
de la obra
Tiempo disponible

Ubicacin de los sondajes
SONDAJE : Prospeccin que busca detectar en forma razonablemente
confiable, la extensin, espesor y carcter de suelos y rocas
existentes destacando irregularidades importantes del subsuelo.
Un criterio puede ser:
Reconocimiento
preliminar
Uniformidad
del subsuelo
Vas de
acceso
Variabilidad
del subsuelo
120 - 150 m
entre sondajes
30 m entre sondajes
o 1 c/ 1000 m2
15 a 7,5 m
entre sondajes

Otro Criterio de Ubicacin de Sondajes
ESPACIAMIENTO DE SONDEOS
Estructura u obra
Espaciamiento ( m )
Carretera
300 - 600
Presa de tierra - Diques
30 - 60
Excavacin para emprstito
30 - 120
Edificio de varios pisos
15 - 30
Edificio industrial de un piso
30 - 90

Profundidad de los sondajes
La profundidad de los sondajes depende de :
Tamao y caractersticas de la
estructura propuesta
Consideraciones
del diseo :
FS, asientos, infiltracin
de aguas, etc.
Profundidad del
estrato con capacidad
de soporte adecuado
Bulbo de presiones

Algunas recomendaciones son:
Teora
de sobrepresiones
Teora
de Boussinesq
Regla de
E. de Beer
Otras recomendaciones
Prof. mn.
10% del bulbo
Prof. que cumpla

= 0,10 o
Zapata aislada
1,5-2,0 B
Zapata corrida
2,5 B

Etapas del Estudio Geotcnico
1. Recopilacin de antecedentes
reconocimiento geolgico
2. Exploracin Preliminar
3. Exploracin detallada de muestras
representativas y no perturbadas
4. Exploracin
complementaria
exploraciones especiales
y/o

1.- RECOPILACION DE ANTECEDENTES Y RECONOCIMIENTO GEOLGICO.
Objetivo :
- Recopilar y evaluar los datos disponibles del subsuelo del sector
- Reducir la extensin de la exploracin.
Como fuentes preliminares de informacin se tienen :
Registros Geolgicos y Geofsicos

Comportamiento de estructuras existentes
Topografa y fotografa area
Zonificaciones de suelos
Servicios ( MOP, Municipalidades, etc )
Sismicidad
Clima
Napa fretica

2.- EXPLORACIN PRELIMINAR
Objetivo :
- Obtener el Perfil del subsuelo y muestras representativas de los
estratos principales
- Obtener posicin del nivel fretico
- Determinar efecto de subpresiones
- Determinar la lnea de roca, etc.
Dentro de esta etapa algunos mtodos de exploracin son:
Reconocimiento Geofsico
Ensayos de Penetracin
y ssmica de pozos
- Sondajes por Presin, Percusin o Rotacin

- Veleta
- Mediciones presiomtricas

3.- EXPLORACIN DETALLADA
Objetivo :
- Obtener perfiles detallados del suelo (muestras
inalteradas de 2 a 3 de dimetro) y propiedades
principales.
- Obtener muestras aproximadamente continuas de
emprstitos de materiales
- Determinar el nivel de presin hidrosttica del agua
subterrnea
Mtodos segn la profundidad :
Superficiales : Calicatas y Zanjones
Profundas
: Muestradores tubulares abiertos, de pistn, testigos
de corona y sondeos de penetracin.

4.- EXPLORACIONES ESPECIALES
Objetivo :
Obtener muestras generalmente no perturbadas (a veces de 4 o ms
de dimetro) desde los estratos considerados como crticos
Se utilizan cuando :
La estructura es de gran tamao

Las condiciones del subsuelo se asocian a modelaciones
muy difciles.
Se quiere determinar simultneamente caractersticas de
resistencia y deformabilidad en una misma capa y profundidad.
Se trata de suelos o condiciones de fundacin especiales

Mtodos de Reconocimiento
Indirectos
Resultados no inmediatos
( Ensayos en Laboratorio )
Calicatas, Zanjas y Pozos

Manuales; por Presin;
por Rotacin y por
Sondajes
Percusin
Prospeccin Geofsica
METODOS
Ensayos de Penetracin
Veleta de Corte
Directos
Resultados inmediatos
( Ensayos In Situ )
Manual
Esttico
Dinmico:CPT,SPT
Placa de Carga
Ensayo Presiomtrico
Ensayo de Permeabilidad

Mtodo de Muestreo Indirectos
CALICATAS, ZANJAS Y POZOS
Excavacin en
el
terreno,
cuyo
propsito es obtener la
estratigrafa y muestras inalteradas, para someterlas a los ensayos
necesarios en laboratorio
El nmero mnimo de pozos por obra y su profundidad ya ha sido

comentado, pero sus dimensiones mnimas en planta y profundidad
estn en funcin del tipo de estructura y del tipo de suelo
Dentro de ellos se miden a distinta profundidad densidad , humedad,

pesos especficos y se retiran muestras representativas
Para suelos granulares limpios ( sin cohesin ) se moldean o

fabrican muestras a la humedad y densidad del terreno, como
alternativa a ensayos in situ

SONDAJES
Perforaciones de pequeo dimetro ( entre 3

a 6 ) y de gran profundidad ( hasta 150 m )
En caso de obtener muestras inalteradas,

stas se protegen con parafina slida y se
llevan al laboratorio.
ROTACION: testigos no perturbados ( rocas y suelos duros)

Tipos
de
Sondajes
PERCUSION : Muestras alteradas (gravas, suelos cementados)

POR PRESIN : inalterados (suelos blandos)

TIPOS DE SONDAJES
Sondaje por Presin
Se usa para perforaciones en suelos blandos

Profundidad mx. 5 - 6 m
Para la extraccin de la muestra, el barreno
se
reemplaza por un tubo de muestreo
Barreno manual y muestreador
10

Sondaje por Percusin
Equipo de perforacin
por Percusin
Eficiente en suelos granulares medios a finos
y menos en suelos blandos libres de piedras o

rocas.
El mtodo consiste en introducir mediante un
martinete, un conjunto de
barras con un
muestreador en la punta
Se obtienen muestras o testigos alterados
La obtencin de muestras inalteradas es
con muestreadores cilndricos del tipo Shelby
Muestreador Cilndrico
interno 1 3/8
externo 2
Largo variable ( 6 -42 )

Sondeo y ensayo
de Penetracin Dinmica
SPT
Se
hinca en el suelo el muestreador, por

medio de un martinete de 65kg de masa,
que cae desde 0,76 m de altura
Se registra el nmero de golpes N para los
ltimos 30 cm de penetracin
Dimetro de perforacin entre 150 y 300 mm
Profundidad mxima de 50 - 60 m
Se obtiene el ndice de resistencia a la
penetracin N y permite estimar la densidad
relativa y otros parmetros de resistencia y
deformacin.
11
SONDAJE S.P.T.
CUCHARA NORMAL
SPT
12

Ensayo de Penetracin Dinmica SPT
Informe estratigrfico obtenido mediante ensayo SPT

Sondaje por Rotacin
Utilizado en rocas y suelos duros

Obtiene
muestras
inalteradas,
mediante
rotacin, empuje vertical y lavado.
El muestreador emplea en la punta, un material
ms duro que el que se quiere penetrar, del tipo
corona diamantada.
Necesidad de un lquido lubricante, agua a
presin controlada
La calidad de la roca se puede medir
relacionando el n de trozos menores de 10 cm,
con el largo total: Indice de Recuperacin o
RQD
Existen otras alternativas de perforacin por
medio de Trepano
Perforadora con broca de corona que gira a

velocidad de 600 a 1200 rpm
El barril muestreador posee dimetro de 30 a
100 mm
13
SONDAJE POR ROTACION

Cabezal
conductos
Tubo
exterior
Tubo
interior
Broca
cortancleos
Muestreador
14

Mtodos de Muestreo Indirectos
PROSPECCIN GEOFSICA
Procedimientos
econmicos
para
determinar lmite de los estratos del
suelo, niveles de roca y freticos
Se basa en la variacin de un estrato a
otro de:
Resistencia elctrica
Elasticidad
Susceptibilidad magntica.
Se pueden emplear 3 mtodos:
- Mtodo de resistividad elctrica
- Mtodo de reflexin ssmica
- Mtodo de refraccin ssmica
Electrodo
de corriente
Electrodo
de potencial
E
ampermetro
I
voltmetro
d
Configuracin de Wenner
para Mtodo de Resistividad
Tiempo
x
Onda directa
Onda refractada
Curva de tiempo
de primer arribo
Distancia
Mtodo de Refraccin Ssmica

Mtodos de Muestreo Indirectos
Resistividad Elctrica
Refraccin Ssmica
Se basa en la presencia de aguas subterrneas que

contienen sales, las que conducen corrientes
apreciables a corta distancia.
Se hincan 4 elctrodos separados entre s y a medida
que cada uno cruza una interfase, se registran cambios
en la resistividad.
Se basa en la diferencia de velocidad de las ondas

ssmicas al atravesar diferentes materiales
Afectan a la velocidad : ondas de choque, humedad,
densidad, textura, presencia de vacos y elasticidad.
Se genera una onda snica recepcionada por gefonos,
los cuales registran los cambios de la velocidad de onda.
Reflexin Ssmica
Se utiliza en exploraciones profundas ( > 300 m ) y para

exploraciones bajo agua a poca profundidad.
Similar al anterior, se emite una pulsacin snica que se
refleja en el lecho marino y el arribo de ondas se detecta

con hidrfonos .
Se obtienen rpidamente perfiles laterales y verticales
15

Mtodos de Muestreo Directos
Mtodos Directos
Resultados inmediatos
( Ensayos In Situ )
MEDICIN REQUERIDA
Resistencia al corte
Capacidad de carga
Esfuerzo in situ
PRUEBAS
De Penetracin: SPT
Veleta de corte
Presimetro
Placa de carga
Piesmetro
MEDICIN REQUERIDA
Compacidad relativa y N
Compresibilidad
Presin de Poros
16

Fuerza variable
o continua
ENSAYOS DE PENETRACIN
Manmetro
Revestimiento
Ensayo de Penetracin
Esttica
( Deep soundering )
Popular a nivel mundial (poco en Chile)
Uso en obras de fundaciones profundas y
en suelos blandos
Se utiliza un gato hidrulico con carga, y
una camisa, en donde se introduce la
punta
Anclajes
Punta o barra
Presin ( barra ) Kg- f / cm2

Presin para
hundir barra
z
Presin para
hundir punta
Resistencia
de punta
Resistencia
de roce

Dinmica
CPT
Un conjunto de barras terminadas en un

cono normalizado, se hunde mediante la
energa de la masa de 63,5 kg que cae
desde 75 cm de altura
Se registra N ( n de golpes ) cada 30 cm.
Este sondaje no permite extraer muestras
La correlacin entre N y la resistencia del
suelo es buena en arenas y regular para
suelos cohesivos
Se limita su validez hasta profundidades
del orden de 10 m
Este sondaje no registra la profundidad de
la napa
Ver diagramas de equipo
17
Ver Ensayo portatil

Dinmica
CPT
N
<4
4-10
10-30
30-50
>50
COMPACIDAD
muy floja
floja
media
alta
muy alta
<29
29-30
30-36
30-41
>41
18

ENSAYO VANE TEST
Radio
Ensayo de Paleta o Veleta de corte

Se utiliza en suelos cohesivos blandos
Mide la resistencia al corte en funcin de la
cohesin, a travs del torque necesario para

hacer girar una paleta
= c
La paleta se introduce dentro del pozo de

sondaje
Dependiendo de la naturaleza del suelo es
posible aplicarlo hasta 60 o 70m

ENSAYO DE PLACA DE CARGA
El ensayo consiste en aplicar al suelo distintos

estados de carga y registrar la deflexin producida
en ellos.
Se utiliza para evaluar la capacidad de soporte

de subrasantes,
bases
o
pavimentos
completos.
La carga se aplica por medio de un gato

hidrulico y la deflexin producida se mide con
diales colocados cerca del borde inferior y
distribuidos regularmente en su permetro.
La deflexin para cada carga se alcanzar cuando

no se aprecie un mayor incremento de ella ,
generalmente cuando la deformacin no sea
mayor a 0,025 mm por minuto.
19

Tiempo
Presin Normal
Deformacin
Informacin por obtener de un ensayo de placa : E, Cc , K , Valor de soporte
Def.Plstica
Presin Normal
Presin Normal
Deformacin
Deformacin
Curva Presin v/s

Deformacin con descarga
Curva deformacin v/s tiempo
Ciclos
de def.
Rebote elstico
Curva con aplicacin

cclica de la presin
Curva de carga repetida

Con los resultados obtenidos del ensayo Placa de carga , se obtiene el

mdulo de reaccin segn :
K=p/
K = Mdulo de Reaccin
p = presin ( Kpa )
= reaccin o deflexin
El mdulo de reaccin del suelo depende de la deformacin que se tome

como referencia
La medicin del mdulo de reaccin es sensible al dimetro de placa
empleada
El valor del mdulo de reaccin depende del estado de humedad del
suelo.
20

ENSAYO PRESIOMTRICO
Manmetro
Ensayo de carga in situ , en el cual se

expande una membrana flexible en
el
interior
de un sondaje previamente
excavado, determinando caractersticas
mecnicas del suelo a un costo reducido y
en una situacin ms cercana al estado
natural del suelo.
Gas
Agua
Pared inalterada
Clula de medida
Clula de guarda
Los resultados que se obtienen son :

Presin lmite de ruptura ( Pl )
Mdulo presiomtrico ( Em )
Em / ( pi - po ) - Historia de la rigidez del
suelo
V = inc.total

Presin
Capacidad de soporte de fundaciones

superficiales o profundas
Asentamientos totales o diferenciales
Esfuerzos horizontales sobre muros
de contencin
Esfuerzos y desplazamientos de
pilotes solicitados horizontalmente
Aplicaciones del ensayo :
Curvas presiomtrica y de fluencia
21

ENSAYO DE PERMEABILIDAD
Tubo vidrio
IN SITU (Ejemplo)
Se mide la cantidad bombeada de agua de un
pozo o el nivel de descenso del agua en el
terreno
Se busca alcanzar un estado estacionario
cuando a flujo constante de bombeo, se
mantienen constantes los niveles en pozos de
observacin
Medicin de la velocidad de infiltracin:
Se utilizan dos perforaciones o pozos de
prueba, de tal forma de que exista entre ellos
un gradiente hidrulico natural.
En la perforacin superior se introduce
colorante y se mide el tiempo que demora en
llegar a la otra perforacin.
dh
h1
h2
h
L
suelo
Pozos de prueba
NF
h
L

PROFUNDIDAD DE LOS SONDAJES EN MUROS DE CONTENCIN :
Considerar : - Fallas por resistencia al corte

- Asentamientos
Estrato normal : D = 0,75 - 1,5 H
Estrato ancho : D = 2H
D
PROFUNDIDAD DE LOS SONDAJES EN CORTES PROFUNDOS :
Considerar : - Estabilidad de los taludes en
la altura de la excavacin
H
Material estable : D = 1,8 - 3,0 m

B <<< H
:D=H
22

PROFUNDIDAD DE LOS SONDAJES EN EMBALSES Y DIQUES :
Considerar : - Filtraciones de agua
H = Debe permitir estimar :

- Estabilidad
- Permeabilidad
- Presiones hidrostticas
D
PROFUNDIDAD DE LOS SONDAJES EN TERRAZAS Y TERRAPLENES :
2L
Considerar : - Cruzar zona meteorizada

- Definir condiciones de drenaje
- Definir riesgo de heladas
Cargas livianas : D = 1,0 - 1,5 m

Cargas pesadas : D = 2,0 - 3,0 m

PROFUNDIDAD DE SONDAJES EN TNELES :
B
Considerar : - Estabilidad del suelo
- Presin del suelo en las paredes
Condicin normal : D = B
PROFUNDIDAD DE SONDAJES EN FUNDACIN DE ESTRUCTURAS :
Profundidad
estimada
Prof. z
Sello de fundacin
z - incremento de
presin vertical
L < 2B => D = 0,8 pB

L > 2B => D = 0,1 p
( Zapata corrida )
L = largo fundacin
B = ancho fundacin
p = presin media en el rea
0,1 de la presin vertical
23

Caracterizacin Geohidrulica
En Ingeniera de Fundaciones , el agua juega un rol muy importante, ya
que genera variados problemas , los que se agrupan en :
Influencia del
tiempo en el
escurrimiento en
suelos saturados
Fuerzas de
Percolacin
en taludes
Depresin
de la Napa
Estanqueidad
y proteccin de
la contaminacin
El control del agua en la construccin tiene por finalidad :
Facilitar
faenas
constructivas en
compactar, rellenar, concretar,etc.
Aumentar la estabilidad de los taludes de las excavaciones (en

arenas podra excavarse cerca de la vertical)
Reducir solicitacin al sistema de entibacin
ambiente seco
para
Evitar riesgos de situaciones artesianas en sello de fundacin

Caracterizacin Geohidrulica
Los siguientes mtodos de control de napa y / o procesos geotcnicos
asociados, son utilizados en excavaciones de fundaciones y obras de
movimiento de tierras :
Bombeo de
resumideros abiertos
Bombeo
de
Pozos
Bombeo de pozo
filtrante de pequeo
dimetro
Bombeo
de pozos
horizontales
Electro - osmsis
Bitumen
Lechada con cemento
Suspensin de arcilla
Geosintticos
Consolidacin
qumica
Aire comprimido
Congelamiento
24
Detalles
Cono C.P.T
Volver al la diapositiva anterior
25
26
Department of Sustainable Natural Resources
SOIL SURVEY STANDARD TEST METHOD

UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION
SYSTEM: FIELD METHOD
ABBREVIATED NAME
TEST NUMBER
TEST METHOD TYPE
VERSION NUMBER
USCS
P13
B
2
SCOPE
This test method describes the engineering properties of a soil based on the size of the
particles, the amounts of the various sizes and the characteristics of the very fine grains. It can
be carried out by either field examination or laboratory testing.
SPECIAL APPARATUS
Sieves, 75 mm, 4.75 mm (ASTM No 4), 2.0 mm (ASTM No 10), 0.425 mm aperture (ASTM No
40).
Unified Soil Classification System: Field Method
PROCEDURE
Field Classification Technique for Coarse-Grained Soils
1. Take a representative sample of soil (excluding particles >75 mm) (see Note 1) and
classify the soil as coarse-grained or fine-grained by estimating whether 50% by weight, of
the particles can be seen individually by the naked eye. Soils containing >50% of particles
that can be seen are coarse-grained soils; soils containing <50% of particles smaller than
the eye can see are fine-grained soils. If the soil is predominantly coarse-grained, identify
as being a gravel or a sand by estimating whether 50% or more, by weight, of the coarse
grains are larger or smaller than 4.75 mm (No 4 sieve size).
2. If the soil is a gravel, identify as being "clean" (containing little or no fines, <5%) or "dirty"
(containing an appreciable amount of fines, >12%). For clean gravels final classification is
made by estimating the gradation: the well-graded gravels belong to the GW groups and
uniform and gap-graded gravels belong to the GP group. Dirty gravels are of two types:
those with non-plastic (silty) fines (GM) and those with plastic (clayey) fines (GC). The
determination of whether the fines are silty or clayey is made by the three manual tests for
fine-graded soils.
3. If a soil is a sand, the same steps and criteria are used as for gravels in order to determine
whether the soil is a well-graded clean sand (SW), poorly-graded clean sand (SP), sand
with silty fines (SM) or sand with clayey fines (SC).
4. If a material is predominantly (>50% by weight) fine-grained, it is classified into one of six
groups (ML, CL, OL, MH, CH, OH) by estimating its dilatancy (reaction to shaking), dry
strength (crushing characteristics), and toughness (consistency near the plastic limit) and
by identifying it as being organic or inorganic. (See Note 2.)
Table 1. Summary of Field Identification Tests

COARSE-GRAINED
GRAVELLY SOILS
CLEAN GRAVELS
SOILS
More than half of
Will not leave a stain on a
More than half the
coarse fraction is larger than
wet palm
material (by weight) is
4.75 mm
Substantial amounts of all grain particle sizes
GW
Predominantly one size or range of sizes with
GP
individual grains
visible to the
naked eye
some intermediate sizes missing

DIRTY GRAVELS
Non-plastic fines (to identify, see ML below)
GM
Plastic fines (to identify, see CL below)
GC
Wide range in grain size and substantial
SW
Will leave a stain on a wet

palm
SANDY SOILS
CLEAN SANDS
More than half of
Will not leave a stain on a
coarse fraction
wet palm
amounts of all grain particle sizes.
is smaller than
4.75 mm
Predominantly one size or a range of sizes with
SP
some intermediate sizes missing
DIRTY SANDS
Non-plastic fines (to identify, see ML below)
SM
Plastic fines (to identify, see CL below)
SC
Will leave a stain on a wet

palm
FINE-GRAINED
SOILS
Ribbon
Liquid
Limit
Dry
Crushing
Strength
Dilatancy
Reaction
Toughness
Stickiness
More than half

the material (by
weight) is
individual grains
not visible to the
naked eye
None
<50
None to
Sight
Rapid
Low
None
ML
Weak
<50
Medium to
High
None to
Very Slow
Medium to
High
Medium
CL
Strong
>50
Slight to
Medium
Slow to
None
Medium
Low
MH
Very
Strong
>50
High to
Very High
None
High
Very High
CH
(<0.074 mm)
HIGHLY
ORGANIC
SOILS
Readily identified by colour, odour, spongy feel and frequently by fibrous texture
OL
OH
Pt
Dilatancy (Reaction to Shaking)

After moving particles >0.4 mm (No 40 sieve size), prepare a pat of moist soil with a volume of
about 10 cm3. Add enough water, if necessary, to make the soil soft but not sticky.
Place the pat in the open palm of one hand and shake horizontally, striking vigorously against
the other hand several times. A positive reaction consists of the appearance of water on the
surface of the pat which changes to a livery consistency and becomes glossy. When the
sample is squeezed between the fingers, the water and the gloss disappear from the surface,
and the pat stiffens and finally it cracks or crumbles. The rapidity of appearance of water
during shaking and of its disappearance during squeezing assist in identifying the character of
the fines in a soil.
Very fine clean sands give the quickest and most distinct reaction whereas a plastic clay has
no reaction. Inorganic silts, such as a typical rock flour, show a moderately quick reaction.
Dry Strength (Crushing characteristics)

After removing particles >0.4 mm (No 40 sieve size) mould a pat of soil to the consistency of
putty, adding water if necessary. Allow the pat to dry completely by oven, sun or air drying,
and then test its strength by breaking and crumbling between the fingers. This strength is a
measure of the character and quantity of the colloidal fraction contained in the soil. The dry
strength increases with increasing plasticity.
High dry strength is characteristic for clays of the CH group. A typical inorganic silt possesses
only very slight dry strength. Silty fine sands and silts have about the same slight dry strength,
but can be distinguished by the feel when powdering the dried specimen. Fine sand feels
gritty whereas a typical silt has the smooth feel of flour.
Toughness (Consistency near plastic limit)
After removing particles larger than the 0.4 mm (No 40 sieve size), a specimen of soil about 10
cm3 in size is moulded to the consistency of putty. If too dry, water must be added and if
sticky, the specimen should be spread out in a thin layer and allowed to lose some moisture by
evaporation. Then the specimen is rolled out by hand on a smooth surface or between the
palms into a thread about 3 mm in diameter. The thread is then folded and re-rolled
repeatedly. During this manipulation, the moisture content is gradually reduced and the
specimen stiffens, finally loses its plasticity and crumbles when the plastic limit is reached.
After the thread crumbles, the pieces should be lumped together and a slight kneading action
continued until the lump crumbles.
The tougher the thread near the plastic limit and the stiffer the lump when it finally crumbles,
the more potent is the colloidal clay fraction in the soil. Weakness of the thread at the plastic
limit and quick loss of coherence of the lump below the plastic limit indicate either inorganic
clay of low plasticity, or materials such as kaolin-type clays and organic clays.
Highly organic clays have a very weak and spongy feel at the plastic limit.
REFERENCES
Charman, PEV & Murphy, BW (eds) 1991, Soils: Their Properties and Management: A Soil
Conservation Handbook for New South Wales. Sydney University Press.
US Bureau of Reclamation 1960, Design of Small Dams. US Government Printing Office.
NOTES
1. This value is not included in the USCS. It is necessary to know the amount of particles >75
mm if gravel content is required.
2. Many natural soils will have property characteristics of two groups because they are close
to the borderline between the groups, either in percentages of the various sizes or in
plasticity characteristics. For this substantial number of soils, boundary classifications are
used i.e. the groups symbols most nearly describing the soil are connected by a hyphen,
such as GW-GC.
Proper boundary classification of a soil near the borderline between coarse-grained and
fine-grained soils is accomplished by classifying it first as a coarse-grained soil and then as
a fine-grained soil. Such classification as SM-ML and SC-CL are common.
T M 5 -8 1 8 -7
CHAPTER 3
FIELD EXPLORATION
3 -1 . Sc ope
The field study is used to determine the presence, extent, and nature of expansive soil and groundwater
conditions. The two major phases of field exploration
are surface examination and subsurface exploration.
The surface examination is conducted first since the
results help to determine the extent of the subsurface
exploration. In situ tests may also be helpful, particularly if a deep foundation, such as drilled shafts, is to
be used.
3 -2 . Surfa c e e x a m ina t ion
a. Site history. A study of the site history may reveal considerable qualitative data on the probable future behavior of the foundation soils. Maps of the proposed construction site should be examined to obtain
information on wooded areas, ponds and depressions,
water-courses, and existence of earlier buildings. Surface features, such as wooded areas, bushes, and other
deep-rooted vegetation in expansive soil areas, indicate potential heave from accumulation of moisture
following elimination of these sources of evapotranspiration. The growth of mesquite trees, such as found
in Texas, and other small trees may indicate subsurface soil with a high affinity for moisture, a characteristic of expansive soil. Ponds and depressions are often
filled with clayey, expansive sediments accumulated
from runoff. The existence of earlier structures on or
near the construction site has probably modified the
soil moisture profile and will influence the potential
for future heave beneath new structures.
b. Field reconnaissance. A thorough visual examina-
tion of the site by the geotechnical engineer is necessary (table 3-1). More extensive subsurface exploration is indicated if a potential for swelling soil is evident from damages observed in nearby structures. The
extent of desiccation cracks, plasticity, slickensides,
and textures of the surface soil can provide a relative
indication of the potential for damaging swell.
(1) Cracking in nearby structures. The appearance
of cracking in nearby structures should be especially
noted. The condition of on-site stucco facing, joints of
brick and stone structures, and interior plaster walls
can be a fair indication of the possible degree of swelling that has occurred. The differential heave that may
occur in the foundation soil beneath the proposed
structure. however, is not necessarily equal to the dif-
ferential heave of earlier or nearby structures. Differential heave depends on conditions such as variation of
soils beneath the structure, load distribution on the
foundation, foundation depth, and changes in groundwater since construction of the earlier structures.
(2) Soil gilgai. The surface soil at the site should
also be examined for gilgai. Soil gilgai are surface
mounds that form at locations where the subsurface
soil has a greater percentage of plastic fines and is
thus more expansive than the surface soil. Gilgai begin
to form at locations where vertical cracks penetrate
into the subsurface soil. Surface water enters and
swelling takes place around the cracks leaving fractured zones where plastic flow occurs. These mounds
usually have a higher pH than the adjacent low areas
or depressions and may indicate subsurface soil that
had extruded up the fractures.
(3) Site access and mobility. Indicators of site access and mobility (table 3-1) may also influence behavior of the completed structure. For example, nearby
water and sewer lines may alter the natural moisture
environment. Flat land with poor surface drainage, as
indicated by ponded water, may aggravate differential
heave of the completed structure if drainage is not corrected during construction. Construction on land with
slopes greater than 5 degrees may lead to structural
damage from creep of expansive clay surface soils.
Trees located within a distance of the proposed structure of 1 to 1.5 times the height of mature trees may
lead to shrinkage beneath the structure, particularly
during droughts.
c. Local design and construction experience. Local
experience is very helpful in indicating possible design

and construction problems and soil and groundwater
conditions at the site. Past successful methods of design and construction and recent innovations should
be examined to evaluate their usefulness for the proposed structure.
3 -3 . Subsurfa c e e x plora t ion
Subsurface exploration provides representative samples for visual classification and laboratory tests. Classification tests are used to determine the lateral and
vertical distribution and types of foundation soils. Soil
swell, consolidation, and strength tests are needed to
evaluate the load/displacement behavior and bearing
capacity of the foundation in swelling soil. The struc3 -1
ture interaction effects in swelling soil are complicated

by the foundation differential movement caused by
soil heave. Sufficient samples should be available to allow determination of the representative mean of the
swell and strength parameters of each distinctive soil
stratum. The lower limit of the scatter in strength
parameters should also be noted.
a. Sampling requirements. The design of lightly
loaded structures and residences can often be made
with minimal additional subsurface investigations and
soil testing if the site is developed, if subsurface features are generally known, and if the local practice has
consistently provided successful and economical designs of comparable structures. Additional subsurface
investigation is required for new undeveloped sites,
multistory or heavy buildings, structures with previously untested or new types of foundations, and special structures that require unusually limited differential movements of the foundation such as deflection/length ratios less than 1/1000. Where the local
practice has not consistently provided satisfactory designs, a careful review of the local practice is neces3-2
sary. Corrections to improve performance compared

with earlier structures may prove difficult to devise
and implement and may require evaluation of the behavior of the subsurface foundation soils and groundwater conditions.
b. Distribution and depth of borings. The distribution and depth of borings are chosen to determine the
soil profile and to obtain undisturbed samples required
to evaluate the potential total and differential heave of
the foundation soils from laboratory swell tests, as
well as to determine the bearing capacity and settlement. Consequently, greater quantities of undisturbed
samples may be required in swelling soils than normally needed for strength tests.
(1) Borings should be spaced to define the geology
and soil nonconformities. Spacings of 50 or 25 feet and
occasionally to even less distance may be required
when erratic subsurface conditions (e.g., soils of different swelling potential, bearing capacity, or settlement)
are encountered. Initial borings should be located close
to the corners of the foundation, and the number
should not be less than three unless subsurface condi-
tions are known to be uniform. Additional borings

should be made as required by the extent of the area,
the location of deep foundations such as drilled shafts,
and the encountered soil conditions.
(2) The depth of sampling should be at least as
deep as the probable depth to which moisture changes
and heave may occur. This depth is called the depth of
down about 10 to 20 feet below the base of the foundation or to the depth of shallow water tables, but it may
be deeper (para 5-4c). A shallow water table is defined
as less than 20 feet below the ground surface or below
the base of the proposed foundation. The entire thickness of intensely jointed or fissured clays and shales
should be sampled until the groundwater level is encountered because the entire zone could swell, provided swelling pressures are sufficiently high, when given
access to moisture. Continuous sampling is required
for the depth range within the active zone for heave.
(3) Sampling should extend well below the anticipated base of the foundation and into strata of adequate bearing capacity. In general, sampling should
continue down to depths of 1.5 times the minimum
width of slab foundations to a maximum of 100 feet
and a minimum of three base diameters beneath the
base of shaft foundations. The presence of a weak,
compressible, or expansive stratum within the stress
field exerted by the entire foundation should be detected and analyzed to avoid unexpected differential
movement caused by long-term volume changes in this
stratum. Sampling should continue at least 20 feet beneath the base of the proposed foundation. Determination of the shear strength and stress/strain behavior
of each soil stratum down to depths of approximately
100 feet below the foundation is useful if numerical
analysis by the finite element method is considered.
c. Time of sampling. Sampling may be done when
soil moisture is expected to be similar to that during
construction. However, a design that must be adequate
for severe changes in climate, such as exposure to periods of drought and heavy rainfall, should be based on
maximum levels of potential soil heave. Maximum potential heaves are determined from swell tests using
soils sampled near the end of the dry season, which often occurs toward the end of summer or early fall.
Heave of the foundation soil tends to be less if samples
are taken or the foundation is placed following the wet
season, which often occurs during spring.
d. Sampling techniques. The disturbed samples and
the relatively undisturbed samples that provide minimal disturbance suitable for certain laboratory soil
tests may be obtained by the methods described in table 3-2. Drilling equipment should be well maintained
during sampling to avoid equipment failures, which
cause delays and can contribute to sample disturbance.
Personnel should be well trained to expedite proper

sampling, sealing, and storage in sample containers.
(1) Disturbed sampling. Disturbed auger, pit, or
split spoon samplers may be useful to roughly identify
the soil for qualitative estimates of the potential for
soil volume change (para 4-1). The water content of
these samples should not be altered artificially during
boring, for example, by pouring water down the hole
during augering.
(2) Undisturbed sampling. Minimization of sample disturbance during and after drilling is important
to the usefulness of undisturbed samples. This fact is
particularly true for expansive soils since small
changes in water content or soil structure will significantly affect the measured swelling properties.
(a) The sample should be taken as soon as possible, after advancing the hole to the proper depth and
cleaning out the hole, to minimize swelling or plastic
deformation of the soil to be sampled.
(b) The samples should be obtained using a push
tube sampler without drilling fluid, if possible, to
minimize changes in the sample water content. Drilling fluids tend to increase the natural water content
near the perimeter of the soil sample, particularly for
fissured soil.
(c) A piston Denisen or other sampler with a
cutting edge that precedes the rotating outer tube into
the formation is preferred, if drilling fluid is necessary, to minimize contamination of the soil sample by
the fluid.
e. Storage of samples. Samples should be immediately processed and sealed following removal from the
boring hole to minimize changes in water content.
Each container should be clearly labeled and stored under conditions that minimize large temperature and
humidity variations. A humid room with relative
humidity greater than 95 percent is recommended for
storage since the relative humidity of most natural
soils exceeds 95 percent.
(1) Disturbed samples. Auger, pit, or other disturbed samples should be thoroughly sealed in waterproof containers so that the natural water content can
be accurately measured.
(2) Undisturbed samples. Undisturbed samples
may be stored in the sampling tubes or extruded and
preserved, then stored. Storage in the sampling tube is
not recommended for swelling soils even though stress
relief may be minimal, The influence of rust and penetration of drilling fluid or free water into the sample
during sampling may adversely influence the laboratory test results and reduce the indicated potential
heave. Iron diffusing from steel tubes into the soil
sample will combine with oxygen and water to form
rust. Slight changes in Atterberg limits, erosion resistance, water content, and other physical properties may
occur. In addition, the outer perimeter of a soil sample
3-3
T M 5 -8 1 8 -7
stored in the sampling tube cannot be scraped to remove soil contaminated by water that may have penetrated into the perimeter of the sample during sampling. The sample may also later adhere to the tube
wall because of rust. If samples are stored in tubes, the
tubes should be brass or lacquered inside to inhibit corrosion. An expanding packer with a rubber O-ring in
both ends of the tube should be used to minimize moisture loss. The following procedures should be followed
in the care and storage of extruded samples.
(a) Expansive soil samples that are to be extrubed and stored should be removed from the sampling tubes immediately after sampling and thoroughly sealed to minimize further stress relief and moisture
loss. The sample should be extruded from the sampling
tube in the same direction when sampled to minimize
further sample disturbance.
(b) Samples extruded from tubes that were obtained with slurry drilling techniques should be wiped
clean to remove drilling fluid adhering to the surface
of the sample prior to sealing in the storage containers. An outer layer of 1/8 to 1/4 inch should be
trimmed from the cylindrical surface of the samples so
that moisture from the slurry will not penetrate into
the sample and alter the soil swelling potential and
strength. Trimming will also remove some disturbance
at the perimeter due to sidewall friction. The outer
perimeter of the soil sample should also be trimmed
away during preparation of specimens for laboratory
tests.
(c) Containers for storage of extruded samples
may be either cardboard or metal and should be
approximately 1 inch greater in diameter and 1.5 to 2
inches greater in length than the sample to be encased.
Three-ply, wax-coated cardboard tubes with metal bottoms are available in various diameters and lengths
and may be cut to desired lengths.
(d) Soil samples preserved in cardboard tubes
should be completely sealed in wax. The wax and cardboard containers provide an excellent seal against
moisture loss and give sufficient confinement to minimize stress relief and particle reorientation. A good
wax for sealing expansive soils consists of a 1 to 1 mixture of paraffin and microcrystalline wax or 100 percent beeswax. These mixtures adequately seal the sample and do not become brittle when cold. The temperature of the wax should be approximately 20 degrees
Fahrenheit above the melting point when applied to
the soil sample, since wax that is too hot will penetrate
pores and cracks in the sample and render it useless, as
well as dry the sample. Aluminum foil or plastic wrap
may be placed around the sample to prevent penetration of molten wax into open fissures. A small amount
of wax (about 0.5-inch thickness) should be placed in
the bottom of the tube and allowed to partly congeal.
The sample should subsequently be placed in the tube,
completely immersed and covered with the molten

wax, and then allowed to cool before moving.
(e) When the samples are being transported,
they should be protected from rough rides and bumps
to minimize further sample disturbance.
f. Inspection. A competent inspector or engineer
should accurately and visually classify materials as
they are recovered from the boring. Adequate classification ensures the proper selection of samples for laboratory tests. A qualified engineering geologist or
foundation engineer should closely monitor the drill
crew so that timely adjustments can be made during
drilling to obtain the best and most representative
samples. The inspector should also see that all open
borehoes are filled and sealed with a proper grout,
such as a mixture of 12 percent bentonite and 88 percent cement, to minimize penetration of surface water
or water from a perched water table into deeper strata
that might include moisture deficient expansive clays.
3 -4 . Groundw a t e r
Meaningful groundwater conditions and engineering
properties of subsurface materials can often best be
determined from in situ tests. In situ tests, however,
are not always amenable to simple interpretation. The
pore water conditions at the time of the test may differ
appreciably from those existing at the time of construction. A knowledge of groundwater and the negative pore water pressure are important in evaluating
the behavior of a foundation, particularly in expansive
soil. Every effort should be made to determine the position of the groundwater level, its seasonal variation,
and the effect of tides, adjacent rivers, or canals on it.
a. Measurement of groundwater level. The most reliable and frequently the only satisfactory method for
determining groundwater levels and positive pore
water pressures is by piezometers with tips installed at
different depths. Ceramic porous tube piezometers
with small diameters (3/8-inch) risers are usually adequate, and they are relatively simple, inexpensive, and
sufficient for soils of low permeability.
b. Measurement of in situ negative pore water pressure, Successful in situ measurements of negative pore
water pressure and soil suction have been performed

by such devices as tensiometers, negative pore pressure piezometers, gypsum blocks, and thermocouple
psychrometer. However, each of these devices has
certain limitations, The range of tensiometers and
negative pore pressure piezometers has been limited to
the cavitation stress of water under normal conditions,
which is near one atmosphere of negative pressure.
The fluid-filled tensiometer is restricted to shallow
soils less than 6 feet in depth. The useable range of the
tensiometer is reduced in proportion to the pressure
exerted by the column of fluid in the tensiometer. Gyp3-5

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UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL AUTNOMA DE MXICO

ING. HCTOR A. LEGORRETA CUEVAS

Importancia de la Geologa en la Ingeniera Civil

1) Conocimiento sistematizado de los materiales.

Interrelacin de ingenieras, Civil-Geologa.

Ingeniera Geolgica y del Entorno

Geologa en obras viales

Geologa Fsica. Conocimientos generales

Formados por transportacin y depositacin de glaciares

Figura 1. Ciclo de la Roca

El Suelo y la Mecnica de Suelos

* Geotechnical Engineering contains:

Figura 2. Esquema del suelo

ingeniera de suelos es la aplicacin de los principios de la mecnica de suelos a problemas

Figura 3. Formas de partculas en la Arena de Ottawa, mineral cuarzo.

Soil Forming Factors

Ca2Al2Mg2Fe3, Si6O (OH)2

Temperature Variation: minerals in rocks expand and contract in climates where

very coarse sand: 2.00 - 1.00 mm diameter

En disolucin: sustancias solubles

Modelo de distribucin de sedimentos de Twenhofel (1932).

Para obras de envergadura se utilizan los dos mtodos.

Subsurface saturated zone

Shallow depth, hollow-stem auger

LongYear 34 core drill

LongYear 44 core drill

HXY-5 Core Drill

B@-:G %8%&-2H &*8 G )- 2

Etapas de un Proyecto de Fundaciones

RECONOCIMIENTO DEL TERRENO

Las condiciones del subsuelo y sus posibles problemas

Un estudio geotcnico debe incluir entre otros temas:

RECONOCIMIENTO DEL TERRENO

RECONOCIMIENTO DEL TERRENO

RECONOCIMIENTO DEL TERRENO

Un criterio puede ser:

RECONOCIMIENTO DEL TERRENO

RECONOCIMIENTO DEL TERRENO

RECONOCIMIENTO DEL TERRENO

Prof. que cumpla

RECONOCIMIENTO DEL TERRENO

RECONOCIMIENTO DEL TERRENO

Registros Geolgicos y Geofsicos

RECONOCIMIENTO DEL TERRENO

- Sondajes por Presin, Percusin o Rotacin

RECONOCIMIENTO DEL TERRENO

RECONOCIMIENTO DEL TERRENO

La estructura es de gran tamao

RECONOCIMIENTO DEL TERRENO

Calicatas, Zanjas y Pozos

RECONOCIMIENTO DEL TERRENO

El nmero mnimo de pozos por obra y su profundidad ya ha sido

Dentro de ellos se miden a distinta profundidad densidad , humedad,

Para suelos granulares limpios ( sin cohesin ) se moldean o

RECONOCIMIENTO DEL TERRENO

Perforaciones de pequeo dimetro ( entre 3

En caso de obtener muestras inalteradas,

ROTACION: testigos no perturbados ( rocas y suelos duros)

PERCUSION : Muestras alteradas (gravas, suelos cementados)

RECONOCIMIENTO DEL TERRENO

Sondaje por Presin

Se usa para perforaciones en suelos blandos

reemplaza por un tubo de muestreo

Barreno manual y muestreador