Revision For Nodal Analysis and Frequency Responses

Revision Lecture 1:
Nodal Analysis &

Frequency Responses
Exam
Nodal Analysis
Op Amps
Block Diagrams
Diodes
Reactive Components
Phasors
Plotting Frequency
Responses
LF and HF
Asymptotes
Revision Lecture 1: Nodal Analysis &

Frequency Responses
Corner frequencies
(linear factors)
Sketching Magnitude
Responses (linear
factors)
Filters
Resonance
E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2015-5997)
Revision Lecture 1 1 / 14
Exam
Revision Lecture 1:
Nodal Analysis &
Frequency Responses
Exam
Nodal Analysis
Op Amps
Block Diagrams
Diodes
Reactive Components
Phasors
Plotting Frequency
Responses
Exam Format
Question 1 (40%): eight short parts covering the whole syllabus.
Questions 2 and 3: single topic questions (answer both)
Syllabus
LF and HF
Asymptotes
Corner frequencies
(linear factors)
Sketching Magnitude
Responses (linear
factors)
Filters
Resonance
Does include: Everything in the notes.

Does not include: Two-port parameters (2008:1j), Gaussian elimination
(2007:2c), Application areas (2008:3d), Nullators and Norators (2008:4c),
Small-signal component models (2008:4e), Gain-bandwidth product
(2006:4c), Zener Diodes (2008/9 syllabus), Non-ideal models of L, C and
transformer (2011/12 syllabus), Transmission lines VSWR and crank
diagram (2011/12 syllabus).
Nodal Analysis
Revision Lecture 1:
Nodal Analysis &
Frequency Responses
Exam
Nodal Analysis
Op Amps
Block Diagrams
Diodes
Reactive Components
Phasors
Plotting Frequency
Responses
LF and HF
Asymptotes
Corner frequencies
(linear factors)
Sketching Magnitude
Responses (linear
factors)
Filters
Resonance
(1) Pick reference node.

(2) Label nodes: 8, X and X + 2 since
it is joined to X via a voltage source.
(3) Write KCL equations but count all the
nodes connected via floating voltage
sources as a single super-node giving
one equation
X8
1
X
2
(X+2)0
3
1k
8V
2k
2V
X+2
3k
=0
Ohms law always involves the difference

between the voltages at either end of a
resistor. (Obvious but easily forgotten)
(4) Solve the equations: X = 4
Op Amps
Revision Lecture 1:
Nodal Analysis &
Frequency Responses
Exam
Nodal Analysis
Op Amps
Block Diagrams
Diodes
Reactive Components
Phasors
Plotting Frequency
Responses
LF and HF
Asymptotes
Ideal Op Amp: (a) Zero input current, (b) Infinite gain

(b) V+ = V provided the circuit has negative feedback.
Negative Feedback: An increase in Vout causes(V+ V ) to decrease.
Non-inverting amplifier

3
Y = 1+ 1 X
Corner frequencies
(linear factors)
Sketching Magnitude
Responses (linear
factors)
Filters
Resonance
Inverting amplifier
Y =
8
1 X1
8
2 X2
8
2 X3
Nodal Analysis: Use two separate KCL equations at V+ and V .

Do not do KCL at Vout except to find the op-amp output current.
Block Diagrams
Revision Lecture 1:
Nodal Analysis &
Frequency Responses
Exam
Nodal Analysis
Op Amps
Block Diagrams
Diodes
Reactive Components
Phasors
Plotting Frequency
Responses
Blocks are labelled with their gains and connected using adder/subtractors
shown as circles. Adder inputs are marked + for add or for subtract.
LF and HF
Asymptotes
Corner frequencies
(linear factors)
Sketching Magnitude
Responses (linear
factors)
Filters
Resonance
To analyse:
1. Label the inputs, the outputs and the output of each adder.
2. Write down an equation for each variable:
U = X F GU ,
Y = F U + F GHU
Follow signals back though the blocks until you meet a labelled node.
3. Solve the equations (eliminate intermediate node variables):
X
U (1 + F G) = X
U = 1+F
G
Y = (1 + GH)F U =
(1+GH)F
1+F G
[Note: Wires carry information not current: KCL not valid]

Diodes
Revision Lecture 1:
Nodal Analysis &
Frequency Responses
Exam
Nodal Analysis
Op Amps
Block Diagrams
Diodes
Reactive Components
Phasors
Plotting Frequency
Responses
LF and HF
Asymptotes
Corner frequencies
(linear factors)
Sketching Magnitude
Responses (linear
factors)
Filters
Resonance
Each diode in a circuit is in one of two modes; each has an equality

condition and an inequality condition:

Off: ID = 0, VD < 0.7

On: VD = 0.7, ID > 0
(a) Guess the mode

(b) Do nodal analysis assuming the equality condition
(c) Check the inequality condition. If the inequality condition fails, you
made the wrong guess.
Assume Diode Off
X =5+2=7
VD = 2 Fail: VD > 0.7
Assume Diode On
X = 5 + 0.7 = 5.7
ID + 0.7 = 2 mA OK: ID > 0
1k
Reactive Components
Revision Lecture 1:
Nodal Analysis &
Frequency Responses
Exam
Nodal Analysis
Op Amps
Block Diagrams
Diodes
Reactive
Components
Phasors
Plotting Frequency
Responses
LF and HF
Asymptotes
Corner frequencies
(linear factors)
Sketching Magnitude
Responses (linear
factors)
Filters
Resonance
Admittances:
1
jC
j
C .
1
1
R , jL
j
L ,
Impedances: R, jL,
jC
In a capacitor or inductor, the Current and Voltage are 90 apart :

CIVIL: Capacitor - I leads V ; Inductor - I lags V

Average current (or DC current) through a capacitor is always zero

Average voltage across an inductor is always zero
Average power absorbed by a capacitor or inductor is always zero
Phasors
Revision Lecture 1:
Nodal Analysis &
Frequency Responses
Exam
Nodal Analysis
Op Amps
Block Diagrams
Diodes
Reactive Components
Phasors
Plotting Frequency
Responses
LF and HF
Asymptotes
A phasor represents a time-varying sinusoidal waveform by a fixed complex

number.
Waveform
x(t) = F cos t G sin t
x(t) = A cos (t + )
max (x(t)) = A
Corner frequencies
(linear factors)
Phasor
X = F + jG
X = Aej = A
|X| = A
[Note minus sign]
x(t) is the projection of a rotating rod onto the

real (horizontal) axis.
Sketching Magnitude
Responses (linear
factors)
Filters
Resonance
X = F + jG is its starting position at t = 0.

RMS Phasor: Ve =
1 V
2
2Z =
Complex Power: Ve I = |I|

e
2
V = x (t)
e |2
|V
Z
= P + jQ
P is average power (Watts), Q is reactive power (VARs)
Plotting Frequency Responses

Revision Lecture 1:
Nodal Analysis &
Frequency Responses
Exam
Nodal Analysis
Op Amps
Block Diagrams
Diodes
Reactive Components
Phasors
Plotting Frequency
Responses
LF and HF
Asymptotes
Corner frequencies
(linear factors)
Sketching Magnitude
Responses (linear
factors)
Filters
Resonance
Plot the magnitude response and phase response as separate graphs.

Use log scale for frequency and magnitude and linear scale for phase:
this gives graphs that can be approximated by straight line segments.
If VV12 = A (j)k = A j k k
magnitude
is a straight line with gradient k:

log VV12 = log |A| + k log
phase is a constant

k
2 (+ if A < 0):

V2
V1
= A + kj = A + k 2
|V2 |
Measure magnitude using decibels = 20 log10 |V
.
1|
A gradient of k on log axes is the same as a gradient of 20k dB/decade
(10 in frequency) or 6k dB/octave ( 2 in frequency).
0
-10
-20
-30
Y
X
1
jC
1
R+ jC
Phase/
|Gain| (dB)
1
jRC+1 =
-0.2
-0.4
0.1/RC
1
+1
j
c
1/RC
(rad/s)
10/RC
where c =
0.1/RC
1/RC
(rad/s)
10/RC
1
RC
LF and HF Asymptotes
Revision Lecture 1:
Nodal Analysis &
Frequency Responses
Exam
Nodal Analysis
Op Amps
Block Diagrams
Diodes
Reactive Components
Phasors
Plotting Frequency
Responses
Frequency response is always a ratio of two polynomials in j with

real coefficients that depend on the component values.
The terms with the lowest power of j on top and bottom gives
the low-frequency asymptote

The terms with the highest power of j on top and bottom
gives the high-frequency asymptote.
LF and HF
Asymptotes
Sketching Magnitude
Responses (linear
factors)
Filters
Resonance
Example: H(j) =
60(j)2 +720(j)
3(j)3 +165(j)2 +762(j)+600
0.5
Corner frequencies
(linear factors)
-20
-40
-0.5
0.1
10
(rad/s)
100
1000
0.1
10
(rad/s)
100
1000
LF: H(j) 1.2j

HF: H(j) 20 (j)1
Corner frequencies (linear factors)

Revision Lecture 1:
Nodal Analysis &
Frequency Responses
Exam
Nodal Analysis
Op Amps
Block Diagrams
Diodes
Reactive Components
Phasors
Plotting Frequency
Responses
LF and HF
Asymptotes
Corner frequencies
(linear factors)
Sketching Magnitude
Responses (linear
factors)
Filters
Resonance
We can factorize the numerator

and denominator
into linear terms of
(

b
< ab
b.
the form (aj + b)
aj > a
b
At the corner frequency, c = a , the slope of the magnitude
response changes by 1 ( 20 dB/decade) because the linear term
introduces another factor of into the numerator or denominator for
> c .
The phase changes by 2 because the linear term introduces another
factor of j into the numerator or denominator for > c .
The phase change is gradual and takes place over the range
0.1c to 10c ( 2 spread over two decades in ).
When a and b are real and positive, it is often convenient to write

(aj + b) = b j
c + 1 .
The corner frequencies are the absolute values of the roots of the
numerator and denominator polynomials (values of j).
Sketching Magnitude Responses (linear factors)

Revision Lecture 1:
Nodal Analysis &
Frequency Responses
Exam
Nodal Analysis
Op Amps
Block Diagrams
Diodes
Reactive Components
Phasors
Plotting Frequency
Responses
LF and HF
Asymptotes
Corner frequencies
(linear factors)
Sketching
Magnitude
Responses (linear
factors)
Filters
Resonance
1. Find corner frequencies: (a) factorize the numerator/denominator

polynomials or (b) find their roots
2. Find LF and HF asymptotes. A (j)k has a slope of k; substitute
= c to get the response at first/last corner frequency.
3. At a corner frequency, the gradient of the magnitude response
changes by 1 (20 dB/decade). + for numerator (top line) and
for denominator (bottom line).
k
2
4. |H(j2 )| =
|H(j1 )| if the gradient between them is k.
1
H(j) = 1.2
j ( j
12 +1)
j
j
( j
1 +1)( 4 +1)( 50 +1)
-20
LF: 1.2j |H(j1)| = 1.2 (1.6 dB)

-40
4 0
0.1
1
10
100
|H(j4)| = 1 1.2 = 1.2
(rad/s)

1
|H(j12)| = 12
1.2 = 0.4
4

50 0
|H(j50)| = 12 0.4 = 0.4 (8 dB). As a check: HF: 20 (j)1
1000
Filters
Revision Lecture 1:
Nodal Analysis &
Frequency Responses
Exam
Nodal Analysis
Op Amps
Block Diagrams
Diodes
Reactive Components
Phasors
Plotting Frequency
Responses

Filter: a circuit designed to amplify some frequencies and/or

attenuate others. Very widely used.
The order of the filter is the highest power of j in the denominator
of the frequency response.
Often use op-amps to provide a low impedance output.
LF and HF
Asymptotes
Corner frequencies
(linear factors)
-10
Sketching Magnitude
Responses (linear
factors)
Filters
Resonance
-20
-30
0.1a
Y
X
Z
X

= 1+
R+1/jC
=

RB
RA
jRC
jRC+1
10a
jRC
j
a +1
jRC
j
a +1
Resonance
Resonant circuits have quadratic factors
cannot be factorized

that

2
j
j
+
2
H(j) = a (j)2 + bj + c = c
0
0 + 1
pc
determines the horizontal position
Resonant frequency: 0 = a
0
b
Damping Factor: = b
determines the response shape
=
2c
4ac
Equivalently Quality Factor: Q ,
Stored
Energy
Power Dissipation
1
2
c
b0
At = 0 , outer terms cancel (a (j) = c): H(j) = jb0 = 2jc

|H(j0 )| = 2 times the straight line approximation at 0 .
3 dB bandwidth of peak 20 Q0 . phase = over 2 decades
R = 5, 20, 60, 120
=
Q=
20
0
1
3
6
1
,
,
,
40 10 10 10
|ZC (0 )
Gain@ 0
CornerGain
or
ZL (0 )|
R
1
2
R=5
R=120
-20
= 20, 5,
5 5
3, 6
-40
100
X
U
1k
(rad/s)
1
jC
1
= (j)2 LC+jRC+1
q
q
0 L
1
R
1
0 = LC , = 2 C
,
Q
=
=
L
R
2
10k
1
R+jL+ jC
Revision Lecture 2:
Transients & Lines

Transients: Basic
Ideas
Steady States
Determining Time
Constant
Determining
Transient Amplitude
Transmission Lines
Basics
Reflections
Sinewaves and
Phasors
Standing Waves
Revision Lecture 2: Transients & Lines
Transients: Basic Ideas

Revision Lecture 2:
Transients & Lines
Transients: Basic
Ideas
Steady States
Determining Time
Constant
Determining
Transient Amplitude
Transmission Lines
Basics
Reflections
Sinewaves and
Phasors
Standing Waves
Transients happen in response to a sudden change

Input voltage/current abruptly changes its magnitude, frequency
or phase
A switch alters the circuit

1st order circuits only: one capacitor/inductor

All voltage/current waveforms are: Steady State + Transient
Steady States: find with nodal analysis or transfer function
Note: Steady State is not the same as DC Level

Need steady states before and after the sudden change
t
Transient: Always a negative exponential: Ae
L
Time Constant: = RC or R
where R is the Thvenin
resistance at the terminals of C or L
Find transient amplitude, A, from continuity since VC or IL
cannot change instantly.
and A can also be found from the transfer function.
Steady States
Revision Lecture 2:
Transients & Lines
Transients: Basic
Ideas
Steady States
Determining Time
Constant
Determining
Transient Amplitude
Transmission Lines
Basics
Reflections
Sinewaves and
Phasors
Standing Waves
A steady-state output assumes the input frequency, phase and amplitude

are constant forever. You need to determine two ySS (t) steady state
outputs: one for before the transient (t < 0) and one after (t 0).
At t = 0, ySS (0) means the first one and ySS (0+) means the second.
Method 1: Nodal analysis
Input voltage is DC ( = 0)
ZL = 0 (for capacitor: ZC = )
So L acts as a short citcuit
Potential divider: ySS = 21 x
ySS (0) = 1, ySS (0+) = 3
6
4
2
0
-5
10
15
20
t (s)
Method 2: Transfer function

R+jL
Y
X (j) = 2R+jL
Y
set = 0: X
(0) = 21
ySS (0) = 1, ySS (0+) = 3
Sinusoidal input Sinusoidal steady state use phasors.
Then convert phasors to time waveforms to calculate the actual output
voltages ySS (0) and ySS (0+) at t = 0.
Determining Time Constant

Revision Lecture 2:
Transients & Lines
Transients: Basic
Ideas
Steady States
Determining Time
Constant
Determining
Transient Amplitude
Transmission Lines
Basics
Reflections
Sinewaves and
Phasors
Standing Waves
Method 1: Thvenin
(a) Remove the capacitor/inductor
(b) Set all sources to zero (including the
input voltage source). Leave output
unconnected.
(c) Calculate the Thvenin resistance
between the capacitor/inductor terminals:
RT h = 8R||4R||(6R + 2R) = 2R
(d) Time constant: = RT h C or RLT h
= RT h C = 2RC
Method 2: Transfer function
(a) Calculate transfer function using nodal analysis
X
V
Y
KCL @ V: V4R
+ 8R
+ jCV + V2R
=0
X
V
+ Y6R
=0
KCL @ Y: Y2R
8jRC+13
Y
= 32jRC+16
Eliminate V to get transfer Function: X
1
(b) Time Constant =
Denominator corner frequency
16
d = 32RC
= 1d = 2RC
Determining Transient Amplitude

Revision Lecture 2:
Transients & Lines
Transients: Basic
Ideas
Steady States
Determining Time
Constant
Determining
Transient
Amplitude
Transmission Lines
Basics
Reflections
Sinewaves and
Phasors
Standing Waves
After an input change at t = 0, y(t) = ySS (t) + Ae .

y(0+) = ySS (0+) + A A = y(0+) ySS (0+)
Method: (a) calculate true output y(0+), (b) subtract ySS (0+) to get A
(i) Version 1: vC or iL continuity
x(0) = 2 iL (0) = 1 mA
Continuity iL (0+) = iL (0)
Replace L with a 1 mA current source
y(0+) = x(0+) iR = 6 1 = 5
6
(i) Version 2: Transfer function

R+jL
Y
H(j) = X
(j) = 2R+jL
Input step, x = x(0+) x(0) = +4
y(0+) = y(0) + H(j) x
=1+14=5
(ii) A = y(0+) ySS (0+) = 5 3 = 2
t/
(iii) y(t) = ySS (t) + Ae

= 3 + 2et/2
4
2
0
-5
10
15
20
10
15
20
t (s)
ySS
2
0
-5
yTr
0
5
t (s)
Transmission Lines Basics

Revision Lecture 2:
Transients & Lines
Transients: Basic
Ideas
Steady States
Determining Time
Constant
Determining
Transient Amplitude
Transmission Lines
Basics
Reflections
Sinewaves and
Phasors
Standing Waves
Transmission Line: constant L0 and C0 : inductance/capacitance per

metre.

x
Forward wave travels along the line: fx (t) = f0 t u .
q
Velocity u = L01C0 12 c = 15 cm/ns
fx (t) equals f0 (t) but
delayed by ux .
Knowing fx (t) for
x = x0 fixes it for all
other x.
f(t-0/u)
f(t-45/u)
f(t-90/u)
Time (ns)
Backward wave: gx (t) is the same but travelling : gx (t) = g0

Voltage and current are: vx = fx + gx and ix =
q
L0
in the +x direction () and Z0 = C
0
fx gx
Z0
10
x
u

t+ .
where ix is positive
Waveforms of fx and gx are determined by the connections at both ends.

Reflections
Revision Lecture 2:
Transients & Lines
Transients: Basic
Ideas
Steady States
Determining Time
Constant
Determining
Transient Amplitude
Transmission Lines
Basics
Reflections
Sinewaves and
Phasors
Standing Waves
vx = fx + gx
x
ix = fxZg
0
vL (t)
iL (t) = RL gL
(t)
L Z0
L = fgLL (t)
=R
RL +Z0
At x = L, Ohms law
(t) =
RL Z0
RL +Z0
fL (t).
Reflection coefficient:
L [1, +1] and increases with RL
Knowing fx (t) for x = x0 now tells you fx , gx , vx , ix x
At x = 0: f0 (t) =
Z0
RS +Z0 vS (t)
RS Z0
RS +Z0 g0 (t)
= 0 vS (t) + 0 g0 (t)
Wave bounces back and forth getting smaller with each reflection:
0
L
0
2L L
4L 0
)
)
f
(t
+
g
(t
+
vS (t)
f0 (t) g0 (t + 2L
0
0
u
u
u )
Infinite sum:
f0 (t) = 0 vS (t) + 0 L 0 vS (t
2L
u )
+ . . .=
i i
0
L 0 vS
i=0
2Li
u
Sinewaves and Phasors

Revision Lecture 2:
Transients & Lines
Transients: Basic
Ideas
Steady States
Determining Time
Constant
Determining
Transient Amplitude
Transmission Lines
Basics
Reflections
Sinewaves and
Phasors
Standing Waves
Sinewaves are easier because:

1. Use phasors to eliminate t: f0 (t) = A cos (t + ) F0 = Aej
2. Time delays are just phase shifts:

j (
x
u x) = F ejkx
fx (t) = A cos t u + Fx = Ae
0
k is the wavenumber: radians per metre (c.f. in rad per second)
As before: Vx = Fx + Gx and Ix =
Fx Gx
Z0
As before:
G L = L F L
F 0 = 0 VS + 0 G 0
But G0 = F0 L e2jkL : roundtrip delay of 2L
u + reflection at x = L.
Substituting for G0 in source end equation: F0 = 0 VS + 0 F0 L e2jkL
0
VS so no infinite sums needed ,
F0 = 10 L exp(2jkL)
Standing Waves
Revision Lecture 2:
Transients & Lines
Transients: Basic
Ideas
Steady States
Determining Time
Constant
Determining
Transient Amplitude
Transmission Lines
Basics
Reflections
Sinewaves and
Phasors
Standing Waves
Standing waves arise whenever a wave meets its reflection:

at places where the two waves are in phase their amplitudes add
but where they are anti-phase their amplitudes subtract.
At any point x,
delay of ux
Fx = F0 ejkx
Backward wave: Gx = L Fx e2jk(Lx) : reflection + delay of 2 Lx

u

jkx
2jk(Lx)
Voltage at x: Vx = Fx + Gx = F0 e
1 + L e
Voltage Magnitude : |Vx | = |F0 | 1 + L e2jk(Lx) : depends on x
If L 0, max magnitude is (1 + L ) |F0 | whenever e2jk(Lx) = +1

x = L or x = L k or x = L 2
k or . . .
Min magnitude is (1 L ) |F0 | whenever e2jk(Lx) = 1
5
x = L 2k
or x = L 3
2k or x = L 2k or . . .

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Revision Lecture 1:

Nodal Analysis &

Revision Lecture 1: Nodal Analysis &

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2015-5997)

Does include: Everything in the notes.

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2015-5997)

(1) Pick reference node.

Ohms law always involves the difference

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2015-5997)

Ideal Op Amp: (a) Zero input current, (b) Infinite gain

Nodal Analysis: Use two separate KCL equations at V+ and V .

[Note: Wires carry information not current: KCL not valid]

Each diode in a circuit is in one of two modes; each has an equality

Off: ID = 0, VD < 0.7

(a) Guess the mode

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2015-5997)

In a capacitor or inductor, the Current and Voltage are 90 apart :

Average current (or DC current) through a capacitor is always zero

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2015-5997)

A phasor represents a time-varying sinusoidal waveform by a fixed complex

[Note minus sign]

x(t) is the projection of a rotating rod onto the

X = F + jG is its starting position at t = 0.

P is average power (Watts), Q is reactive power (VARs)

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2015-5997)

Plotting Frequency Responses

Plot the magnitude response and phase response as separate graphs.

phase is a constant

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2015-5997)

Frequency response is always a ratio of two polynomials in j with

the low-frequency asymptote

LF: H(j) 1.2j

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2015-5997)

Corner frequencies (linear factors)

We can factorize the numerator

0.1c to 10c ( 2 spread over two decades in ).

When a and b are real and positive, it is often convenient to write

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2015-5997)

Sketching Magnitude Responses (linear factors)

1. Find corner frequencies: (a) factorize the numerator/denominator

LF: 1.2j |H(j1)| = 1.2 (1.6 dB)

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2015-5997)

Filter: a circuit designed to amplify some frequencies and/or

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2015-5997)

At = 0 , outer terms cancel (a (j) = c): H(j) = jb0 = 2jc

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2015-5997)

Transients & Lines

Revision Lecture 2: Transients & Lines

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2015-5997)

Transients: Basic Ideas

Transients happen in response to a sudden change

1st order circuits only: one capacitor/inductor

Note: Steady State is not the same as DC Level

Transient: Always a negative exponential: Ae

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2015-5997)

A steady-state output assumes the input frequency, phase and amplitude

Method 2: Transfer function

Determining Time Constant

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2015-5997)

Determining Transient Amplitude

After an input change at t = 0, y(t) = ySS (t) + Ae .

(i) Version 2: Transfer function

(iii) y(t) = ySS (t) + Ae

phase is a constant

When a and b are real and positive, it is often convenient to write