1.

BASIC CONCEPTS OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT

Empiricism: a theory that states that knowledge comes only or primarily from sensory
experience. It emphasizes the role of experience and evidence, especially sensory
experience (imprinting), in the formation of ideas, over the notion of innate ideas or
traditions; empiricists may argue however that traditions (or customs) arise due to relations
of previous sense experiences. For instance, Locke believed in faculty of reason, which
gave us logical rules of thought. Its the idea that we all have a blank slate of mind when we
are born and our experiences and observations build our minds.
Rationalism/Cartesianism: the view that "regards reason as the chief source and test of
knowledge" or "any view appealing to reason as a source of knowledge or justification".
More formally, rationalism is defined as a methodology "in which truth is not sensory but
intellectual and deductive". Rationalists believe reality has an intrinsically logical structure.
There was an emphasis on innateness (that people already had pre-established morals
and ideas of the world), mindfulness, intuition, and rational insight. God-given truths.
Mainly Descartes and Leibniz (Voltaire makes fun on Leibniz in Candide)
Voltaires contribution to the debate:
Voltaires Candide largely contrasted the rationalism of Descartes and Leibniz against the
empiricism of Newton and Locke. Pangloss, a proponent of Cartesianism, believed that
people were born with a set of innate ideas including God, space, and the infinite. He also
believed that morality was innate, believing that everything is for the best in this best of all
possible worlds. Candide (naive in French), his student, believed this. The course of the
story revolves around Candide and Pangloss being exposed to the various atrocities and
horrors of the world around them, quickly destroying the idea of innate morality and ideas.
Candide makes fun of rationalism, focusing on human empiricism and how both
philosophies interact with the world, and is reflective of Voltaires anti-Cartesianism stance
on the debate. He doesnt explicitly pick a side, but his story reflects the flaws inherent in
rationalism/Cartesianism.
Social contract theory

The Social Contract (or Principles of Political Right) written by Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains.
o Modern states repress the physical freedom that is our birthright.
o Legitimate political authority only comes from a social contract agreed
upon by all citizens for their mutual preservation.;

The first model for political society = the family

o Natural bond between parents and children; bond is dissolved when children old
enough to take care of themselves.
o The ruler is the father, and the people are his children.
Force and slavery are not legitimate forms of political authority.

Each of us puts his person and all his power in common under the supreme direction of
the general will and, in our corporate capacity, we receive each member as an indivisible
part of the whole.
The Sovereign = the collective grouping of all citizens; should be treated as an
individual person; expresses the general will that aims for the common good

State of nature
The State of Nature represents the natural order of human society without the influence of
political authority governing our actions. Different thinkers had different opinions on what
this (seemingly hypothetical) state of nature would look like. Thomas Hobbes, in his
book Leviathan, argues that without a governing hand, the lives of humans are nasty,
brutish, and short. Locke however argues that humans are indeed capable of morality,
and argues that the state of nature would be civilized, projecting that government would
act as a fair enforcement of, rather than a catalyst for a civil society.
The nature of the contract
To get from the state of nature to civil society in consideration, where the governing is
handing over something to us, and us to it.
Ex. people giving over rights they had in the state of nature, and in turn receive
peace, liberty, and security (Hobbes uses fear here, the Leviathan)
How power is preserved and protected
A mutual exchange of rights. In Hobbes view, this can only be accomplished if the people
fear their authority, keeping them in check.
What that power protects us from
The brutalities of the state of nature, for example the seizure of property by a more
powerful person.
Natural rights, natural laws
right of nature is the liberty each of us has to use power for preservation of our own nature
Hobbes

Locke

The stronger will kill the weaker, so an absolute monarchy is needed

Inspired by fear: life is nasty, brutish, and short
In consideration of consent, the A over us to control us
o keeps everyone in awe for control
o no right to overthrow or rebellion still better than state of nature

Property is already there in the state of nature and it is fundamental!!!

problem
o natural rights:
private property
freedom/liberty
life
o basic equality
o natural law: Reason
o enforcement of natural law
enforcement bias
we tend to be biased towards ourselves and thus enforce the
natural law unfairly on others

o
o
o
o
o

solution
rebellion justified
government exists to protect the natural rights
create central authority that has legal power of impartial enforcement
impartial adjudication authority
limited authority

Rousseau

General Will: people give the votes so the ruler rules in terms of their general will.
problem
o no private property
o Natural freedom (insecure in that anything, good OR bad, can happen)
one can enslave another
Solution
o civil/political freedom (secure)
o trade natural freedom with civil freedom
o symmetrical

Adam Smith and modern economics

Theory of History based on four natural stages of development, each based on a
mode of subsistence: Hunting, Pasturage, Farming, and Commerce

free market, against mercantilism, excessive involvement with the market,

commerce, trade. The hands of the monarch affects how trade goes.
Adam Smith found mercantilism morally evil and inefficient.

Natural laws that man follows

The doctrine held that the world of economics functions under "natural laws" (laws
discovered in nature) which operate exclusive of politics. Government intervention in the
economic order of things will upset these "natural laws" and thereby disrupt a nation's
economy. However, by maintaining a "hands-off" policy and allowing private citizens
complete economic freedom, governments can ensure the growth of a nation's wealth.
Basic Principles underlying his economics: Man is self-regarding, Man has natural
propensity to engage with others on basis of self-love, Economic forces follow natural
laws, Economic development (on the basis of these laws) is prior to social change,
and Economic development should be characterized by freedom from interference
from government and monopolists. There needs to be peace, easy taxation, and
tolerable administration of justice. Dont exclude the government, just keep the minimal
support.
Natural laws that economic development follows
Law No. 1. "The productivity of the economic instruments, natural resources and human
energy is increased by inventions and discoveries."

Law No. 2. Division of Labour: "The cleaving of trades and the dissection of activities
raises the productivity of labour".
Law No. 3. "Distance and transport are the chief causes which hinder or facilitate the
co-operation of the productive forces"
2. THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION
Its causes and origins:
Some events leading up the American Revolution: Sugar act (1764), stamp
act (1765), Townshend acts (1767), Boston massacre (1770), Boston tea
party (1773), intolerable acts (1774)
The model of the English Bill of Rights (1689): Ends the reign of James II by
referring to him as the late King James the Second, lists 13 grievances, 13
rights and liberties, declaration that William and Mary are the new king and
queen
Thomas Paines Common Sense and the role it played in the Revolution
Not the best written form of literature.
Sole Purpose: get people motivated to go fight
Talks about how government is a necessary evil
Man gives up some of his property for protection
Dont want monarchies because kings ruin equality
God, in Ancient Israel, said monarchies were evil - bad things happened to Jews
I offer nothing more than simple facts, plain arguments, and common
sense meaning not based on metaphysical truths but empirical observation

There is contradiction because Gods words are metaphysical truths but Thomas Paine
claims hes not basing his work off of metaphysical truths
Hes throwing out whatever to appeal to as many people as possible to join the war

Jefferson and the Declaration of Independence and its origins

all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain
unalienable rights, at among those are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness.
inspired by enlightenment political thought & John Lockes contractual theory of
government
government gets power from the consent of those governed
people have the right to abolish/alter the government and to institute a new government
o Great Britain is an example

3. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

Its causes and origins:
France always supported anything that might undermine Britains power like the
American Revolution (1776) and its people eventually drew inspiration from the
American Revolution. But by fighting the Seven Years War and simultaneously
supporting the American Revolution monetarily, it drained its financial resources.
And the crown tried to levy extra taxes which created disaffection.
Plus the famine in 1788 aroused enough hostility to lead to violence; there was
unrest among the peasantry.

Louis XVI also convenes the Estates General which is made of 3 estates: the
Clergy (1st estate), the Nobility (2nd estate), and the Commoners/everyone else
(3rd estate). And it was unfair since the decisions were voted on by estates, not
by head/capita. So usually all the decisions were in favor of the elite. So proposal
was proposed that estates general start voting per capita.
Storming of the Bastille (7/14/1789)
o Mostly for show, to express that they were upset and uprising
o symbolic move - gesture against monarchy

The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen 1789 and its origins
Title has the word citizen, which was significant because under a monarchy, the
people referred to themselves as subjects, even if they were born there. So in a
sense, when they used the word citizen, they were rejecting the position as
subject and were talking about a political organization different from a
monarchy.
The declaration also implied a priori principles such as:
o liberty
o property
o security
o resistance to oppression
And when it uses the word nation, it not only referred to the land and its borders
but also to the people who were born and residing there, which was a new idea.
4. THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
Basic features of capitalism
private ownership of means of production
market-driven income
system creates its own demand
reinvestment of surplus
How these features are connected with industrial manufacturing
Private Ownership: You own the factory.
Producing and collecting cotton was cheap slave labour
The invention of the steam powered engines only worked for rougher materials.
Cotton is pretty rough so cotton was the main product used for the machines.
Creating its own demand: new COTTON undies
Profit from new invention and take advantage of wealth to generate surplus
invest surplus into your business
Why England led the ways
Cotton was grown in N. American colonies, produced with cheap slave labor;
England generated a fortune trading cotton with the rest of the world, thus
accumulating considerable wealth.
England had a centralized but limited monarchy (with the English Bill of Rights),
with separation between economic and political power.

A culture of honoring promises and contracts among English people as well as

culture of investment and saving for their revenue.
How working life changed
Inventions such as horseshoe and plough saved people enough time from
harvesting, letting them spend more time in doing other things.
These new inventions, such as the loom, allowed other groups of people to join
in the workforce, such as women and children.
Although women and children worked, they were not paid a lot. They also lived in
poor housing environments that were owned by factory owners. Living conditions
were down the drain. Life was not good.
How social life changed
One aspect that changed was social class. There was a wealth gap that was
increasing between the wealthy and the poor.
o The factory owners reap in all the riches while the workers are paid next to
nothing.
Another aspect: family life I think? Since women and children dont get paid as
much, it would make sense as a factory owner to hire them over men, who were
paid their unfair share. So you have this weird overturn of patriarchal structure
where the man of the house is not doing any work while his wife and kids are out
working but not bringing in much income.
Ures defense of the manufacturing system
Everything is fine and dandy
o Machines are so advanced that kids are not at danger when using them.
o Kids enjoy doing their work; its fun for them!
o Great conditions
The factory system helps the market
o It gives jobs and wages to people.
o With the new machine inventions, there will be a need to hire people to
operate the machinery
It is essential in helping England move forward to a new civilization.
o The machinery will replace the skills done usually by people.
o There is less stress for both factory owners and workers alike.
Owners do not need to worry about sick workers not being able to
do their daily work quota since machines can handle that.
Invention of machinery means that work does not rely on physical
labor. There is less of a strain on that and more emphasis on
operating the machines.
Engelss attack on the manufacturing system
argues that worker/laborers life is more miserable due to industrial revolution
o industrial cities has more disease mortality rate than the countryside (four
times larger)
o less wage than the pre-industrial revolution
bourgeois (modern capitalists) had the means of social productions
but proletariats did have them so they had to sell cheap labor to the

bourgeois although Ure says children are having fun but children
death rate (dying before 5) increased after the introduction of mills
o unhealthy & unpleasant environment for the proletariats
5. NATIONALISM
Gellners definition of nationalism, what its various keywords and phrases mean

In brief, nationalism is a theory of political legitimacy, which requires that ethnic

boundaries should not cut across political ones, and in particular, that ethnic
boundaries within a given state--a contingency already formally excluded by the principle
in its general formulation--should not separate the power-holders from the rest.
o What is a theory of political legitimacy?
Political legitimacy = right of the state in this time and place to wield
authority over its members (subjects, citizens)
o What is ethnic?
According to Max Weber (Economy and Society, 1922): ethnic groups are
those human groups that entertain a subjective belief in their common
descent -- because of similarities of physical type or of customs or both,
or because of memories of colonization and migration -- in such a way
that this belief is important for the continuation of non-kinship communal
relationships
Subjective belief: means it is not objectively and factually
established
Common descent: from the same place or origin
Similarities of physical type: race; ethnic groups are not the same
as races
Customs: can be anything, including how we speak
Memories of colonization and migration: because it is a subjective
belief, these memories may be true or false
Non-kinship communal relationships: relationships that establish a
community but that are not based on blood relations (or perceived
blood relations)
o Ethnic boundaries should not cut across political ones
in other words, a state should ideally contain all and only members of a
single ethnic group

How it plays out in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries

someone please do this

Fichtes Addresses to the German Nation and how they lead to the new concept of the
nation-state
o

Johann Gottlieb Fichte (1752-1814): philosopher, writer

The Germans stayed in their original dwelling places
This is opposite of the truth. The Germans migrated and
conquered the original place. It is only to get people
emotionally fired up.
Reader pg 126: distinguished pure German from other
people
Language forms men, not vice versa

People would think that the German language is what

built them.
Another way to make people become patriots.
When they mingled with others, they remained victors.

How the nation-state differs from the civil society of the social contract theorists

someone please do this

6. THE WOMENS MOVEMENT
Connection with the anti-slavery movement
Anti-slavery and womens rights were largely connected because of the sense
that women were being enslaved by their husbands and slavery emphasizes the
lack of rights
Contributions of Olympe de Gouges, Elizabeth Cady Stanton
Olympe de Gouges:
o Wrote the Declaration of the Rights of Woman (reader p. 139)
o modeled after the document Declaration of the Rights of Man to show that
women were equal to men in society; therefore, they should have the
same rights
o Woman is born free and lives equal to man in her rights. Social
distinctions can be based only on the common utility
o includes preamble + 17 articles outlining the basic rights of women
Elizabeth Cady Stanton:
o At the time, women did not really have a forum to discuss issues
o Helped fight for womens voting rights
o Was early promoter of anti-slavery
o However, was not allowed entry at the World Anti-Slavery Convention
(1840) because she was a woman
o This led her to have the Seneca Falls Convention (1848)
The Seneca Falls Declaration (Declaration of Sentiments 1848)
Seneca Falls Convention was organized by Stanton along with Lucretia Mott
after essentially having been turned away at the World Anti-Slavery Convention
for being women
Echoed the Declaration of Independence
States that all men and women are created equal
Lists ways men have asserted their dominance over women
o Women were given no right to vote, which left them no representation in
legislative bodies
o Women lack the basic rights of a citizen

o Wives were expected to be obedient to their husbands (masters) in

marriage, which suggested tones of slavery
o Women had no easy access to education
Free Soilers who advocated for the elimination of slavery in western territories
also supported womens rights
Connection with the American abolition and civil rights movement
Anti-Slavery Movement was going on strong between US and UK
A time of civil rights that did not revolve specifically around just men
Women actually got to be involved in the movement
A time where women were not at home all the time, but out and about fighting for
minorities rights
There was some outrage when African American men were allowed to vote
before white women could though.
The Civil War Amendments
13th (ratified 1865): outlawed slavery
14th (1868): due process and equal protection as citizens
15th (1870): right to vote regardless of race, color, previous condition of servitude
(does not talk about allowing women to vote)
The suffrage movement
The womens rights movement split into 2 over the 15th amendment
National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA) opposed the amendment
unless it included womens right to vote
American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA) consisted of abolitionists who
wanted suffrage for men of color and believed in organizing in the state/local
level to gain suffrage for women
19th amendment (1920) finally granted women the right to vote
7. SOCIALISM AND MARXISM
Marx and Engelss dialectical theory of history, its origin in Hegel, its difference from
Hegels theory
Hegel 1770-1831
history is a manifestation of the development of mind/spirit
Philosophy of History
hugely influential upon university educated men in Germany
the laws of progress of history once explained makes complete sense (rational
and objective)
each stage of history is dialectical (movement of opposites, like a dialogue) and
the content of these stages are spiritual
1. Stage 1: Thesis the intrinsic law one generational period leads to
2. Stage 2: Antithesis the opposite of thesis.
3. Stage 3: Synthesis the combination of the two previous stages at their
highest elements. The synthesis, after the combination of both thesis and
antithesis, forms and begins as its own thesis. Then another antithesis will
form and the cycle continues

b. end goal was more of freedom/ absolute spirit

c. The mind/spirit (geist in german) follows a progressive stage wise development
d. Consciousness, self consciousness (separates us from animals), reason, spirit, religion,
absolute knowing
e. History and brain inseparable
f. Human mind can reach this higher state in which it can no longer reach a higher perfection
g. Believed that history tied up with human spirit
h. History follows laws that are:
1. rational (in the sense that reason can understand them)
2. objective (in the sense that they are plain to see)
3. The movement of these stages is dialectical and the content of each stage is spiritual
(mind/spirit)
b. A theory of the human mind and then organically attached a theory of how history moves
Marx and Engels
They take the same logic but have a different content for Hegels
They use the theory of dialectical materialism/historical materialism
o Marx used this to explain what they were thinking/doing
o Shows they werent interested in the spiritual aspects of humans. what defines
humans is what they have/are in the material world
o Economics, mean of production, property relations
Each stage is defined in terms of relations to product and property relations
a realistic outlook on history, moving inevitably towards a goal
They had seen what life was like in an industrialized city, sewage in the streets, unemployed
families, children without fingers
Example 1
o Feudal society thesis produces
o An imbalance antithesis in economic relations giving rise to the force that will
supplant it, namely
o The bourgeoisie synthesis (factory owning class that owns society)
Example 2
o Bourgeoisie society producers
o The proletariat antithesis and from the conflict merges
o Communist society synthesis
This would be the end of evolutionary cycle, communist is the pure perfection
Divine state where human spirit is the same thing as god
o There would always be a top point beyond which nothing can change
How the Communist Manifesto illustrates this theory
Bourgeoisie: People who are capitalists and own their means of production. They
would be the factory owners or the business owners
Proletariat: The ones who work, do the labor. Theyre poor and unhappy because
theyre not paid enough for their jobs.
Thesis: The bourgeoisie are rich and happy because theyre making good money
and live comfortably. The proletariat are poor and miserable because their lives
suck not getting paid enough to feed family, poor living conditions, dangerous

working conditions, etc. This has been going on for quite a while and considered
to be daily life and normal.
Antithesis: The proletariat are fed up with how theyre being treated and how
unfair life is. So they overthrow the bourgeoisie. This is the direct opposite of the
thesis because there is conflict and changing the status quo equilibrium aspect of
daily life.
Synthesis: So taking that inequality and pairing it up with its opposite: an attempt
to level the playing field, you get a blend of both worlds. Communism arises
where there is no class, and everybody is equal.
Marx and Engelss dialectical theory of history, its origin in Hegel, its difference from Hegels
theory

8. EUROPEAN IMPERIALISM, CONGO

The Berlin Conference
1884-1885: Essentially the meeting where European powers come and divide
Africa up to see who gets which piece of land
while dividing Africa, there was the idea that Africa did not belong to anyone;
therefore, it could be claimed; African states were not regarded as legitimate,
legal entities
Belgiums (King Leopold IIs) acquisition of Congo
Berlin Conference granted the Congo River basin to King Leopold II of Belgium;
became his private property
able to obtain region by convincing the Europeans and also the Americans that
he was involved in humanitarian work and wanted to Christianize the colony,
bring light and civilization; did so with seal of approval
Congo Free State was his property; he harvested as many of its natural
resources as he could
The international reaction to King Leopold IIs rule
The International human rights movement
o Edmund Morel
Congo Reform Association
o designed to bring down reign of terror by King Leopold and expose terrors
o Edmund Morel able to figure out truth of where profits came from
o Mark Twain wrote the satirical King Leopolds Soliloquy
Satire
Twain writes it from Leopolds point of view, and thus is outraged
at all the pictures and news that show off all of the human rights
violations that occurred under his rule
He also mocks all the countries that were stupid enough to fall for
Leopolds PR campaign
The pamphlet ends with a common theme of Twains: you may
have stopped Leopold from what he was doing, but there will be
someone to take his place (history always repeats itself)

o Leopold decides to do the right thing and sells the colony to his country
from stress of international outrage
9. RACIALISM, RACISM, ANTI-SEMITISM
Biology and racial theory
Immanuel Kant
o Decided there were 4 basic races of mankind differentiated by
environmental factors
o Interfertility
idea from Buffon who likened different breeds of dogs to different
kinds, races, of people
if one can mate with another person, they are the same species
Post-Darwinian Biology
o revealed process of offsprings receiving characteristics from their parents
o hinting at the notion that offsprings did not decide how they were going to
look like (like determinism because they have no control)
Racialism vs. racism

Racialism = social thinking that accepts race as an important category

o Simply acknowledging races
Racism = social thinking that accepts race as an important category and uses that category with hostile
intent against particular groups
o Judges people on the basis of their races

Modern anti-Semitism
Jews were widely considered as a race by detractors and admirers
Detractors used race to condemn Jews because they thought Jews would take
over the world
Acknowledged to have great intellectual prowess but stereotyped to use their
intellect for bad reasons
Reader pg. 181: The Victory of Judaism over Germandom
o Wilhelm Marr: focused on Jewish people from a non-religious point of view
o Talks about the Jewish peoples intellectual strength and intellectual
superiority over the Germans
o Mentions semite which is a more generic term that envelops a broader
group than just Jews. (like Arabs and other groups) This was to
emphasize tribalism. The more categorized they are as a group, the
easier it is to see them as a group
Behavior pattern is homogenous (everyone of them is evil)
10. ZIONISM
Proto-Zionism in Russia: Moshe Leib Lilienblum
The Jewish question and Palestine
Son of the tzar in weight with his fathers assassination. Described the position

of the Jews as zero sum game. Jews are taking away from me things like my food, air,
etc. Wanted a state comprised of only the Jews, proposes that they find themselves
somewhere to live and insists they do not settle in the original place.
Another precursor to Zionism: Leon Pinsker

Jews lack self-respect and thats why they cant come together as a nation
Jews deserve a fatherland because of their history, their unmixed society, their
indestructible vigor

The Zionist movement proper

Herzl: australian intellectual leader of the zionist movement. Said we need to
assimilate and become more European and the only realistic solution if we want peace
is to create a new homeland.
First zionist council (1879)
The balfour declaration
11. DARWINISM AND THE SCIENCE VS. RELIGION DEBATE
The new idea of geological time
Darwin's accumulating observations led him to support Lyell's theory that the
Earth's surface was shaped largely by the gradual changes that were observed
occurring at present, a principle that later became known as uniformitarianism. At
the time, this was in stark contrast to geological theory that called for sudden,
catastrophic events, unlike any ever witnessed, able to immediately flood oceans
or raise mountains.
Evolutionary theory as such, theory of common descent
Universal common descent through an evolutionary process was first proposed
by Darwin. Essentially, common descent describes how, in evolutionary
biology, a group of organisms share a most recent common ancestor.
Darwins contribution: natural selection
Voyage on the HMS Beagle, led to the discovery of Darwins finches on the Galapagos
islands. Teleology: belief that things have a goal/ purpose/ aim. Explains the
differences in the beak sizes.
Divergence of character= species who reside in the same area will develop different
structures and skills in order to survive. Thus the more rare species will go extinct
because the weak will only be beaten.
Got the idea of survival of the fittest from Herbert Spencer
Larger species have more variations= more diversity

12. HUMAN RIGHTS

Rights of the individual as member of the human family

Universal Declaration of Human Rights is separated from the concept of the state
It transcends the boundaries of nations - its human family as a whole
The role of international rights cases
Mendel Beilis, 1911-1913:
Happens in Russia; before the horrible rivalry with soviet union
Russian authorities brutally murdered someone; bunch of guys blamed it on Mendel
Beillis (unlikely where this man would kill them); betting that they could rely on oldage Semitism
Belief that during Passover, jews kill babies and drink their blood (all over new York
times)
He ends up being acquitted; everything was being thrown at him based on other
persons anti-semitic heartstrings
This was written about all over the world. Jews did not enjoy civil rights in Russia

Two transnational groups: Jews and black Africans/African Americans

13. RELIGION AND PROGRESSIVE POLITICS
The development of the secular approach to religion, comparative religious studies, the
historical Jesus: Schleiermacher, Strauss, Feuerbach, Renan
Strauss argued that the miracles in the New Testament were mythical-retellings
of normal events as supernatural happenings
Schleiermacher: believe that people are so educated that they lost their faith. Try
to defend religion.
The Social Gospel Movement: Sheldon and Rauschenbusch
14. THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION
Peter Lavrovs Historical Letters
Writes series of letters to address the idea that how it is coming to be that the wealth like me
have the option to write and study as the others not having such choices
Debt to the peasantry
Critically thinking individuals
A leader-centered movement
Lenins version of Marxism
Individual shapes history
Revolution for proletariat and peasantry
Against orthodox view of spontaneous uprising by proletariat
Party as vanguard of the proletariat
15. EXTRA CREDIT QUESTION ON MUSIC

Characteristics of ragtime: conventional European harmonies + syncopation

o Syncopation: accented off the beat
Characteristics of blues: blues scale (flat 3rd and 7th), improvisation, syncopation