AIRCRAFT WEIGHT AND BALANCE

WEIGHT
Standard empty weight consists of the airframe, engines, and all items of operating
equipment that have fixed locations and are permanently installed in the airplane;
including fixed ballast, hydraulic fluid, unusable fuel, and full engine oil.
Basic empty weight includes the standard empty weight plus optional and special
equipment that has been installed.
Licensed empty weight similar to basic empty weight except that it does not include full
engine oil
Unusable fuel / Residual fuel - small amount of fuel in the tanks that cannot be safely used in
flight or drained on the ground
Usable fuel fuel available during flight
Useful load (general aviation aircraft) is the weight of the pilot, copilot, passengers,
baggage, usable fuel, and drainable oil. It is the basic empty weight subtracted from the
maximum allowable gross weight. This term applies to general aviation aircraft only.
Operating Weight (transport aircraft) - weight of the crew and their baggage ready for flight
Payload is the weight of occupants, cargo, and baggage.
Maximum ramp weight is the total weight of a loaded aircraft, and includes all fuel. It is
greater than the takeoff weight due to the fuel that will be burned during the taxi and run
up operations. Ramp weight may also be referred to as taxi weight.
Maximum takeoff weight is the maximum allowable weight for takeoff.
Maximum landing weight is the greatest weight that an airplane normally is allowed to
have at landing.
Maximum weight is the maximum authorized weight of the aircraft and all of its equipment
as specified in the Type Certificate Data Sheets (TCDS) for the aircraft.
Maximum zero fuel weight is the maximum weight, exclusive of usable fuel.

 Standard weights have been established for numerous items involved in weight and
balance computations. These weights should not be used if actual weights are available.
Some of the standard weights are:
Gasoline (Av-Gas) ------------- 6 lb/US gal
Jet A-1 --------------------------- 6.7 lb/US gal
Oil --------------------------------- 7.5 lb/US gal
Water ----------------------------- 8.35 lb/US gal
Male (pilot/pax) ----------------- 170 lb
Female (cabin attendant) ---- 130 lb
Female (pax) -------------------- 170 lb
Child ------------------------------- 55 lb
Infant ------------------------------ 22 lb
Tare refers to the weight of chocks, blocks, stands, etc. which is used in weighing the
aircraft which is included in the scale reading. However, this must be subtracted from the
weight obtained when performing computations.

Transport Aircraft
+
=
+
=
+
=
=
=

Empty weight
Operating Weight
Basic operating weight
Payload
Zero Fuel Weight
Fuel Load
Ramp / Taxi Weight
Fuel burned during taxi
Takeoff weight
Fuel burned enroute
Landing weight

General Aviation Aircraft

Empty weight
+ Useful Load
= Takeoff weight
- Fuel burned enroute
= Landing weight

EFFECTS OF WEIGHT
Excessive weight reduces the flight performance of an airplane in almost every respect. The most
important performance deficiencies of the overloaded airplane are:

Higher takeoff speed.

Longer takeoff run.

Reduced rate and angle of climb.

Lower maximum altitude.

Shorter range.

Reduced cruising speed.

Reduced maneuverability.

Higher stalling speed.

Higher approach and landing speed.

Longer landing roll.
Excessive weight on the nosewheel or tailwheel.

REGULATIONS
A.O. 91 - Administrative Order No. 91 series of 2002
GENERAL FLIGHT AND OPERATING RULES
A.O. 135 - Administrative Order No. 135 series of 2001
CERTIFICATION AND OPERATION OF AIR TAXI AND AERIAL WOK
COMMERCIAL OPERATOR
A.O.121 - Administrative Order No. 121 Series of 2002
CERTIFICATION AND OPERATION OF SCHEDULED AND NON-SCHEDULED
INTERNATIONAL AND DOMESTIC AIR CARRIER
A.O. 4-A - Administrative Order No. 4-A series of 1970
MAINTENANCE, REPAIR, ALTERATION OF AIRFRAMES, POWERPLANTS,
PROPELLERS AND APPLIANCES
A.O. 135.185 Empty weight and center of gravity: Currency requirement
No person may operate a multi-engine aircraft unless the current empty weight and center
of gravity are calculated from values established by actual weighing of the preceding 36
calendar months.
A.O. 121.153 (b) Currency requirement of Empty Weight and Center of Gravity:
No certificate holder may operate a multi-engine aircraft unless the current empty weight
and center of gravity are calculated from values established by actual weighing of the
preceding 36 calendar months.
ATO SAFETY CIRCULAR NO. 01-04 Currency requirement of Aircraft Empty
Weight and Center of Gravity:
All A.O. 91 operators, including flying schools and others engaged in special operations
should reweigh their aircraft that has been use for at least five (5) years at their next
annual Inspection and every three (3) years thereafter or after undergoing major
alteration/modification or repair.

 A.O. 4-A Chapter II Section I, 2.II (b) Major Alterations or Modifications

Changes in the equipment where the cumulative weight of all such alterations since the
aircraft was reweighed or the weight and balance data recomputed exceed two percent of
the certificated empty weight of aircraft under 12,500 pounds gross weight or of one
percent of the certificated maximum landing weight on aircraft over 12,500 pounds gross
weight and/or the empty weight center of the gravity location exceeds of 1% of
M.A.C.

THE WEIGHING EQUIPMENT

1. Electronic digital weighing
50 K load cell
2. Three (3) hydraulic jack
3. For leveling the aircraft
Inclinometer / spirit level
Plumb bob
4. Arm measurement
tape rule
marker / chalk
WEIGHING PROCEDURES
1. The aircraft should be placed in a closed hangar to avoid vibrations or lift forces which
would otherwise be caused by air flowing over the lifting surfaces.
2. The aircraft should be dry and cleaned inside and out.
3. The aircraft equipment should be checked against the equipment list section of the weight
and balance record.
4. Fuel tanks should be drained in accordance with the manufacturers instructions.
5. Unless otherwise noted in the aircraft specification, the oil system should be completely
drained through the normal drain ports.
6. Reservoirs or tanks containing hydraulic fluid, anti-icing fluid and other liquids which are
considered part of the empty weight should be filled to capacity.
7. Weigh the aircraft in a level position.

Excerpts from a Type Certificate Data Sheet

BALANCE, STABILITY, AND CENTER OF GRAVITY

Balance refers to the location of the center of gravity
(c.g.) of an airplane, and is important to airplane stability
and safety in flight.
The prime concern of airplane balancing is the fore and
aft location of the c.g. along the longitudinal axis. The
center of gravity is not necessarily a fixed point; its
location depends on the distribution of weight in the
airplane. As variable load items are shifted or expended,
there is a resultant shift in c.g. location. The pilot should
realize that if the c.g. of an airplane is displaced too far
forward on the longitudinal axis, a nose-heavy condition
will result. Conversely, if the c.g. is displaced too far aft
on the longitudinal axis, a tail-heavy condition will result.
It is possible that an unfavorable location of the c.g.
could produce such an unstable condition that the pilot
could not control the airplane.
Lateral or longitudinal unbalance.

EFFECTS OF ADVERSE BALANCE

An airplane is designed to have stability that allows it to be trimmed so it will maintain straight
and level flight with hands off of the controls. Longitudinal stability is maintained by ensuring
the c.g. is slightly ahead of the center of lift. This produces a fixed nose-down force independent
of the airspeed. This is balanced by a variable nose-up force, which is produced by a downward
aerodynamic force on the horizontal tail surfaces that varies directly with airspeed.

If a rising air current should cause the nose to pitch up, the airplane will slow down and the
downward force on the tail will decrease. The weight concentrated at the c.g. will pull the nose
back down. If the nose should drop in flight, the airspeed will increase and the increased
downward tail load will bring the nose back up to level flight.
As long as the c.g. is maintained within the allowable limits for its weight, the airplane will have
adequate longitudinal stability and control.

If the c.g. is too far aft, it will be too near the center of lift and the airplane will be unstable, and
difficult to recover from a stall. If the unstable airplane should ever enter a spin, the spin could
become flat and recovery would be difficult or impossible.

If the c.g. is too far aft, at the low stall airspeed there might not be enough elevator nose-down
force to get the nose down for recovery.
If the c.g. is too far forward, the downward tail load will have to be increased to maintain level
flight. This increased tail load has the same effect as carrying additional weight the aircraft
will have to fly at a higher angle of attack, and drag will increase.
A more serious problem caused by the c.g. being too far forward is the lack of sufficient elevator
authority. At slow takeoff speeds, the elevator might not produce enough nose-up force to rotate
and on landing there may not be enough elevator force to flare the airplane. Both takeoff and
landing runs will be lengthened if the c.g. is too far forward.

If the c.g. is too far forward, there will not be enough elevator nose-up force to flare the airplane
for landing.

BALANCE
Center of gravity (c.g.) is the point about which an airplane would balance if it were
possible to suspend it at that point. It is the mass center of the airplane, or the theoretical
point at which the entire weight of the airplane is assumed to be concentrated. It may be
expressed in inches from the reference datum, or in percent of mean aerodynamic chord
(MAC).
Center of gravity limits are the specified forward and aft points within which the c.g. must
be located during flight. These limits are indicated on pertinent airplane specifications.

 Center of gravity range is the distance between the forward and aft c.g. limits indicated on
pertinent airplane specifications.
Datum (reference datum) is an imaginary vertical plane or line from which all
measurements of arm are taken. The datum is established by the manufacturer. Once the
datum has been selected, all moment arms and the location of c.g. range are measured
from this point.
Arm (moment arm) is the horizontal distance in inches from the reference datum line to the
center of gravity of an item. The algebraic sign is plus (+) if measured aft of the datum,
and minus () if measured forward of the datum.
Station is a location in the airplane that is identified by a number designating its distance in
inches from the datum. The datum is, therefore, identified as station zero. An item
located at station +50 would have an arm of 50 inches.
Moment is the product of the weight of an item multiplied by its arm. Moments are
expressed in pound-inches (lb-in). Total moment is the weight of the airplane multiplied
by the distance between the datum and the c.g.
Moment index (or index) is a moment divided by a constant such as 100, 1,000, or 10,000.
The purpose of using a moment index is to simplify weight and balance computations of
airplanes where heavy items and long arms result in large, unmanageable numbers.
Reduction factor is a constant which when divided into a moment results in an index.
Reduction factors of 100, 1,000 or 10,000 are used to simplify weight and balance
calculation process.
Mean aerodynamic chord is the average distance from the leading edge to the trailing edge
of the wing.
LEMAC is the leading edge of the main aerodynamic chord.
TEMAC is the trailing edge of the main aerodynamic chord.

DETERMINING LOADED WEIGHT AND CENTER OF GRAVITY

THREE METHODS TO DETERMINE LOADED WEIGHT AND CENTER OF GRAVITY
COMPUTATIONAL METHOD
GRAPH METHOD
TABLE METHOD
I. COMPUTATIONAL METHOD
The computational method involves the application of basic math functions. The following is an
example of the computational method.
Given:
Maximum Gross Weight ----------------- 3400 lb
Center-of-Gravity Range ---------------- 78-86 in
Front Seat Occupants ------------------- 340 lb
Rear Seat Occupants -------------------- 350 lb
Fuel ------------------------------------------- 75 gal
Baggage Area 1 --------------------------- 80 lb
To determine the loaded weight and CG, follow these steps.
Step 1 List the weight of the airplane, occupants, fuel, and baggage.
that fuel weighs 6 pounds per gallon.

Remember

Step 2 Enter the moment for each item listed. Remember weight x arm =
moment.
Step 3 Total the weight and moments.
Step 4 To determine the CG, divide the total moment by the total weight.
NOTE: The weight and balance records for a particular airplane will provide the empty weight
and moment as well as the information on the arm distance.

TOTAL MOMENTS
c.g. =
TOTAL WEIGHT

The total loaded weight of 3,320 pounds does not exceed the maximum gross weight of 3,400
pounds and the CG of 84.8 is within the 78-86 inch range; therefore, the airplane is loaded within
limits.
II. GRAPH METHOD
Another method for determining the loaded weight and CG is the use of graphs provided by the
manufacturers. To simplify calculations, the moment may sometimes be divided by 100, 1,000,
or 10,000. The following is an example of the graph method.
Given:
Front Seat Occupants ---------- 340 lb
Rear Seat Occupants ----------- 300 lb
Fuel --------------------------------- 40 gal
Baggage Area 1 ----------------- 20 lb
The same steps should be followed as in the computational method except the graphs provided
will calculate the moments and allow the pilot to determine if the airplane is loaded within limits.
To determine the moment using the loading graph, find the weight and draw a line straight across
until it intercepts the item for which the moment is to be calculated. Then draw a line straight
down to determine the moment. (The red line on the loading graph represents the moment for the
pilot and front passenger. All other moments were determined in the same way.) Once this has
been done for each item, total the weight and moments and draw a line for both weight and
moment on the center-of-gravity envelope graph. If the lines intersect within the envelope, the
airplane is loaded within limits. In this sample loading problem, the airplane is loaded within
limits.

III. TABLE METHOD

The table method applies the same principles as the computational and graph methods. The
information and limitations are contained in tables provided by the manufacturer. On the left is
an example of a table and a weight and balance calculation based on that table. In this problem,
the total weight of 2,799 pounds and moment of 2,278 / 100 are within the limits of the table.

COMPUTATIONS WITH A NEGATIVE ARM

A sample of weight and balance computation using an airplane with a negative arm. It is
important to remember that a positive times a negative equals a negative, and a negative would
be subtracted from the total moments.

SHIFTING, ADDING AND REMOVING WEIGHT

A pilot must be able to accurately and rapidly solve any problems that involve the shift, addition,
or removal of weight. For example, the pilot may load the aircraft within the allowable takeoff
weight limit, then find a CG limit has been exceeded. The most satisfactory solution to this
problem is to shift baggage, passengers, or both. The pilot should be able to determine the
minimum load shift needed to make the aircraft safe for flight. Pilots should be able to determine
if shifting a load to a new location will correct an out-of-limit condition. There are some
standardized calculations that can help make these determinations.
WEIGHT SHIFTING
When weight is shifted from one location to another, the total weight of the aircraft is
unchanged. The total moments, however, do change in relation and proportion to the direction
and distance the weight is moved. When weight is moved forward, the total moments decrease;
when weight is moved aft, total moments increase. The moment change is proportional to the
amount of weight moved. Since many aircraft have forward and aft baggage compartments,
weight may be shifted from one to the other to change the CG.
Example 1. You have calculated the total weight to be 4,000 pounds with the C.G. located at
100 inches aft of datum. What is the new C.G. position if you shift 50 pounds of
baggage from the rear baggage area at station 200 to the forward baggage at station
50?

WEIGHT Arm Moment

(lb)
(in) (lb-in)
4,000
100 400,000

Original Totals
Rear Baggage
-50
Out
Forward Baggage
+50
in
New Totals

200

-10,000

50

+2,500

4,000

392,500

C.G. = Total Moments / Total Weight

= 392,500 lb-in / 4,000 lb
C.G. = 98.13 inches aft
Example 2. You have calculated the total weight to be 4,000 pounds with the C.G. located at
100 inches aft of datum. You wish to move C.G. to 98 inches aft of datum, by
shifting some baggage from the rear baggage area at station 200 to the forward
baggage area at station 50. How much should you shift (to the nearest pound)?
WEIGHT
(lb)
Original Totals
4,000
Rear Baggage Out -w
Forward Baggage
+w
in
New Totals

Arm
(in)
100
200
50

4,000

Moment (lb-in)
400,000
-200 w
+50 w
400,000 150 w

C.G. = Total Moment / Total Weight

400,000 lb-in 150in w
New c.g. 98 in =
4,000 lb
(4,000 lb) (98 in) = 400,000 lb-in - 150in w
150 in w = 400,000 lb-in (4,000) (98 in)
400,000 lb-in 392,000 lb-in
w

=
150 in

= 53.50 lb

WEIGHT-CHANGE CALCULATIONS

8,000 lb-in
=
150 in

In many instances, the weight and balance of the aircraft will be changed by the addition or
removal of weight. When this happens, a new CG must be calculated and checked against the
limitations to see if the location is acceptable. This type of weight and balance problem is
commonly encountered when the aircraft burns fuel in flight, thereby reducing the weight located
at the fuel tanks. Most small aircraft are designed with the fuel tanks positioned close to the CG;
therefore, the consumption of fuel does not affect the CG to any great extent.
The addition or removal of cargo presents a CG change problem that must be calculated before
flight. The problem may always be solved by calculations involving total moments. A typical
problem may involve the calculation of a new CG for an aircraft which, when loaded and ready
for flight, receives some additional cargo or passengers just before departure time.
Example 1. Your airplane total weight is 4,100 lb with the cg located at 100 inches aft of datum.
Maximum permissible weight is 4,000 lb, so you decide to remove 100 lb of
baggage from the baggage compartment at station 200. What is the new cg
position?
WEIGHT
(lb)
Original Totals 4,100
Baggage Change -100
New Totals

Arm
(in)
100
200

4,000

Moment
(lb-in)
410,000
-20,000
390,000

C.G. = Total Moments / Total Weight

= 390,000 lb-in / 4,000 lb
C.G. = 97.50 inches aft
Example 2. You have calculated the total weight to be 2,400 pounds with the C.G. located at
73.5 inches which is 1.5 inches outside the aft limit of 72 inches. Maximum
permissible weight is 2,400 lb and the airplane is fully loaded, with no possibility of
shifting the load. What is the minimum baggage (to the next pound) you must
remove from station 150 to bring the CG within limits for takeoff?

Original Totals
Baggage Change

WEIGHT
(lb)
2,400
-w

New Totals

2,400 w

Arm
(in)
73.5
150

Moment (lb-in)
176,400
-150 w
176,400 150 w

New C.G. position = Total Moment / Total Weight

176,400 lb-in 150in w

72 in =

2,400 lb w
(2,400 lb- w) (72 in) = 176,400 lb-in - 150in w
172,800lb - 72in w = 176,400 lb-in - 150in w
150in w 72in w = 176,400 lb-in 172,800 lb-in
78 in w = 3,600 lb-in
3,600 lb-in
w

=
78 in

= 46.20 lb

PERCENT OF MEAN AERODYNAMIC CHORD

Expression of the C.G. relative to the MAC is a common practice. The c.g. position is expressed
as a % MAC (percent of the mean aerodynamic chord) and the c.g. limits are expressed in the
same manner.
Example 1
Given :MAC Sta. 100 (LEMAC) to Sta. 250
c.g. Sta. 130
Reqd: c.g. in % MAC
Solution:
distance of c.g. from LEMAC
% MAC =
MAC
distance of c.g. from LEMAC = c.g. - LEMAC
= 130 100
= 30 in
MAC = TEMAC - LEMAC
= 250 100
= 150 in
30 in
% MAC =

x 100
150 in

Example 2

= 20 % MAC

x 100

Given :MAC 180 in

c.g. Sta. 410.2
LEMAC = Sta. 390
Reqd: c.g. in % MAC
Solution:
distance of c.g. from LEMAC
% MAC =
MAC

x 100

distance of c.g. from LEMAC = c.g. - LEMAC

= 410.2 - 390
= 20.20 in
20.20 in
% MAC =

x 100

= 11.20 % MAC

180 in

Example 3
Given :MAC 170 in
c.g. 27.5 % MAC
LEMAC = Sta. 500
Reqd: c.g. in inches from datum
Solution:
c.g. (in inches) = LEMAC + distance of c.g. from LEMAC
distance of c.g. from LEMAC
% MAC =

x 100
MAC

% MAC

distance of c.g. from LEMAC

=

100

MAC
% MAC

distance of c.g. from LEMAC =

x
100

27.5 %
=

MAC

MAC

100
=

46.75 in

c.g. (in inches) = 500 in + 46.75 in

c.g. (in inches) = 546.75 in aft of datum