Why we use only 4 to 20ma other than 0 to 16 ma?

suppose we use 0 to 16mA whether it is process value zero or power supply failer that is why we are using zero is
4mA maximum value 20mA.why standardized 4 to 20mA is 0%of process value is 4 mA,25% is 8mA,50% is
12mA,75% is 16mA,100% is 20mA.

we use 250 ohm resistenc for workshop calibrated tx by hart communicator??

Load resistance
the 250 ohm resistor converts the 4-20 mA analog signal from the HART transmitter to a 1-5 volt drop to allow the
Analog Input card of the DCS or PLC to read the analog signal. The HART digital FSK (Frequency Shift Keying)
signal is also present on this line and supplies the HART digital data to the HART modem chip usually present on the
same Analog Input card for all new DCSs and PLCs. The Bell 202 protocol used for this FSK
digital circuit needs no terminating or load resistor. The 250 ohm resistor is only for the analog circuit.

What is deference between Accuracy & Precision?

Accuracy means some devision but presion means standard devision
If we have true value is 55 n our system generates 54.9,54.3,54.7 then it's called more accurate but less precise n if
it shows 53.6,53.5,53.7 then it's more precise but less accurate..
Accuracy is how accurate the reading is. The percentage difference between actual and reading value. Precision is
the repetitiveness of the same value. Instrument is said to be precise, if it gives the same value for the same input
repetitively. You can see the graphic representation in google to get clear insights
Accuracy is about value to nearer to true value but pricision gives a repeated value whethre is it true or not.
Manipulated variable and controlled variable ? plz define
manipulated variable means the input of control valve to process and controlled variable is the output of the process
Controlled variable is known as process variable... so in simple words we can say that the manipluted variable is using to control nd adjust the
process variable.. example .. water is the manipluted variable to control the steam temp in a steam process line there's the steam temp is
process variable....

HART communicator ? plz explain

This HART Communicator is a portable, intrinsically safe handheld communicator that may be used to configure and test any HART device
High way addrasable range transducer . its an electronic device that intract with industrial instruments to show their status like,
pressure,level,temp and flow. Hart 475 also intract with field bus devices. satus means its current level of an level transmitter that is attached with
an vessel.. And status is in mA uses for field bus and hart devices.and only use on compatible devices .. hart is used to change pressure transmittor to
flow type or level type wisewise. ...also it can changed signal range,
field bus is an industrial computer network PROTOCOL as like ethernet
HART-highway addressable remote tansducer Model-no;275,375&475 . It is used to program & calibration of instruments.
Hart communicator is a simple communicator to smart transmitters and we are normally used but smart communicator is the advance version of the
hart, in smart display screen in big, easy to use , easy configuration and large data save, and easy to communicate with PC , change ur
configuration in PDF .

Communicator
provides a smart interface with HART electronic transmitters : it is designed to enable the plant engineer to configure, calibrate and
troubleshoot the transmitters either before or after field installation.

The Hand Held Communicator can store in its non-volatile memory up to 32 transmitter configurations. It can also be used as a Modem
between the Personal Computer and the transmitter.
The Communicator employs a four line by twenty dot- matrix characters LCD and a 25 key tactile feedback keyboard : the use of the keyboard is based either on
dedicated keys or software defined keys.
The communication between the Communicator and the transmitter is based on standard Bell 202 FSK ( Frequen-cy Shift Keying) current
modulation superimposed on the 4 to 20 mA analog signal: since the energy balance added to the current loop is virtually equal to zero no disturbance or
interference occurs on the analog process signal.
This version of the Communicator is powered by internal rechargeable batteries and is certified intrinsi- cally safe for use in hazardous locations.

comparison between analog & digital instruments. ?

analog with respect to continous with time. but digital form on pulses 0 or 1

1.What is the difference between digital and analogue?

Digital differs from analogue by the amount of information that can be held in a single communication line (wire). Digital means the wire will
be either high or low (0v or 5v) and nothing inbetween. Analogue means that the value can be anything between high and low
inclusively (between and including 0v to 5v).
What is the need for used 4-20m signal and why is 0-10V signal not used?
1)4-20 ma is a standard signal which can easily be converted into 1-5 v by using 250 ohm resistance
2)voltage drop & long distance can be used without external noise
if some instrument fails,it shows 0,and also no flows through the device it wil show 0.so we start with 4 ma current
first of all current signal can be transmitted very easily than voltage signal. and if the instrumnt shows 0 value then we cant understand
whethr the instrmnt is working or the measerd value is 0.

Why 4- 20 ma is used in ai/ ao signal instead of 0-16

We use 4-20mA current because:
1. Immune to noise inherently
2. No drop in current
3. Can be connected in series
4. Can powered to other devices
5. 4-20 can be converted to 1-5v by adding 250ohm resistance
6. Good transmittace in this range
7. Low power consumption
8. Upto 20mA current is intrinsically safe
9. Live n dead zero confusion gets avoided
Why do we use 4-20 mA instead of 0-20 or etc
if the procrss is very low ie zero means the istrmt show 0 value meanwhile if is ther any line breakage to insmt then also it shows zero so
inorder to make clarify tht we are using std 4-20ma
Live zero & dead zero concept:
When ever we got "4 mA" while measuring the feed back signal its called "live zero"& it shows that there is no breakage in power supply line(24vdc).

What is LVDT?And how does it work?

Linear variable displacement tranducer...used measure displaccement. It has 2 coils..primary and secondary....and the actual stem whose displacement is to
measured acts as the core. The output is mV which changes as the core's position changes
Linear Variable Differential Transformer..a type of displacement transducer..AC supply is being feed to primary winding and the output is instantaneous voltage
difference of coil 1 and coil 2 in secondary winding as the position of the movable core...core is attached to the moving shaft so that the displacement of the shaft
is the same as the displacement of the core...

what is d difference between HART, fieldbus & modbus????

HART is an analogue protocol and other two are digital protocol also HART and field bus are used in field instrumentation .modbus is used in PLC to DCS
communication.

where are used dry leg and wet leg system in level measurement?
wet leg used for tank which pressurized with steam or gas...in steam drum level, LP side of DPT should b filled with condensate to ensure steam will not
reach to DP cell and ensure constant hydrostatic press at reference leg.. f it is dry, erroneous reading would b due to some steam will trap at the leg and
eventually would condense...during field calibration, hydrostatic of wet leg has been zeroed...my understanding is the point of wet leg is to have constant
hydrostatic press in reference leg...
dry leg also for close tank which contained gas that is not corossive and condensation is less or even not possible at ambient temp condition...just to make sure
that there is no condensation happen in the reference leg...not necessary for open tank.

what is the diff b/w wet leg and dry leg?

Both process are relates to level measurement.
1). Wet-leg calibration:- LP side will be connect to condensing pot
2).dry-leg calibration:- LP side open in atmosphere

What is thermowell, where is it used ????

Thermowell is a protactive device.... Its use for thermocoupl n rtd....
Thermowells are tubular fittings used to protect temperature sensors installed in industrial processes. A thermo well consists of a tube closed
at one end and mounted in the process stream. A temperature sensor such as a thermometer, thermocouple or resistance temperature
detector is inserted in the open end of the tube, which is usually in the open air outside the process piping or vessel and any thermal
insulation.

What is the relation between flow and pressure?

when flow inbrease pr is dec and velocity is incrs

What is the differace between Volumatric flow meter and Mass flow meter
Mass flow meter is using only gas. Measuring mass of gases . volumetric flow meter is measuring flow of the liquid

What is different between proximity switch & limit switch ?

Proximity sensor is able to detect the signal which is near by with out physical interaction but limit switch changes it's contact by some physical force
Proximity sensor=non contact .limit switch=have contact.

what is the different b etween compensation cable and extension cable ?

There is no difference between them both are used for long run
In case of thermocouple if we use extension cable we want to use the same conductive material otherwise emf is is generated but is costly if we used the
compensate cable it is effective for some distance but cheaper

What is interlock and how its perform.??

Interlocks are used for the safety of the equipment just like if we take a pump the interlocks are cooling must me normal and lube oil must be
normal these are the some
safety..only 1 device operate at the 1 time..if pump A on pump b of and viceversa

To connect two intstrument for safety

Hookup Diagram
Installation of diagram (how to install the Instrument)

Junction Box
To interconnect to (cable safety)

what is dead band ?

minimum change in input to get minimum measurable output..exprsd in %
it is a process vry abl rang which do not change in the out of instrument
difference between set and reset is called dead band
valve between set point nd reset point is called deadband

What is zero elevation and zero suppression in an hydrostatic pressure type of level sensor??
Its depends upon datum lavel if water level will be above the datum 4mA (+) its elevation
If water level below the datum 4mA(-) its a suppression
Simple way
+4mA-elevation
-4mA-supression.
Zero elevator mean above the 0, zero suppression mean below the 0.
Zero suppression means above the zero and zero elevation means below the zero ex for suppression:20 to 100 % and elevation means -20 to 100
Terms for suppresion and elevation r used for level measurement using dp cell. if the installation done in such a way whre negative side install at top taping point
and filled up with liguid ( also called "wet leg" ) then u will find the dp value will be negative at zero % level and will increase toward positive as the level increase.
this installation called zero supression.. say the other way round i f the installation is reverse.... I make the corection for my statement above , actually negative
side is conected to top taping point instead of positive side...sorry for the mistake...
Zero suppression: whn the pressure instrument mounted bellow pressure line, the error caused to the instrument reading is posittive error, that means the
instruments read the total pressure of the line pressure + the pressure excerted by the liquid column from the process line to the pressure instrument.
Zero elevation : when pressure instrument mounted above the pressure line , the error caused by the instrument is negative.... ..... ...

how to use a DPT for level measurement?

HP side connected to the min level of tank, LP side connected to the max level of tank this method use for closed tank with dry leg.

with out positinor control valve operation can posible?

positioner used as only controlling the range ex...25, 50,75,100 range...without positioner valve used only on - off purpose thats al...
yes ofcourse but without positioner its not a control valve...its ordinary valve ..switch ,on off valve,,we control the range thats y we cal control valve bro..
Yes, operation is possible but accuracy is not possible at a required position.
We can only use to ON&OFF through that valve but we can't get the desired output becouse of absence of Positioner.
Positioner consist of air supply port , signal input port,
out put port.When positioner get in put signal ,it compare
with stem position and output is generated and signal
boosted sufficiently to operate the valve . It uses force
balance system

90% people don't know about Second question in Instrumentation Field. 1. Difference Between MOV and ESDV, 2.
Example.one process pipeline (liquid- crude oil-20") - Already one MOV in that line but Client want to fix one ESDV Valve in
that 20" line- . so which valve will come upstream side?.
Normal practice ESD valve will be placed in Upstream of Control valves... In this case u pls clarify the usage of MOV.. MOv action s ON/OFF or throttling type?if it s
a throttling type u should place ESD valve in Upstream of MOV. If it s a ON/OFF type, there s no meaning to have MOV with ESD valve.u can replace MOV with
ESD valve. In Emergency Agr MOV ki Power Supply kam karna chorh de to MOV will not operate so systm will destroy so b/c of this we sue EDSV on Upstream
b/c its always alive

Offset , Reset, Derivative ? explain

offset is a small deviation of controlled variable from set point.. reset is the integral term which reacts with respect to d number of errors occured in given
time period (integral time) and has the capability to eliminaye the error.. derivative reacts with respect to rate of change of the error in given time period
(derivatime time) which tend to stabilize the controlled variable

Why this field instruments in field going to junction box and going to marshalling cabinet is powered by current?
Incase we con't use J.B & connection are like field instruments to marshalling cabinet. If any problem came we con't find the problem easily. That why, we use JB.
Field instruments are connected to panel through near to the JB. If voltage is used, magnetic flux will create , because of many voltage lines are in near. so it
disturb the value. so use CURRENT
In long distance voltage drop possible but current never drop

what is vena contracta

It is a point in orifice downstream where pressure is less and velocity is max. After this vena contracta, pressure rises
its a point in the lp side where pressure is minimum and flow is maximum
Vena contracta is point where Pressure is Minimum after restricting by a flow element......like orifice plate\

What you know about PID?

And what is definition of PID?
Derivative Double Timer . Integral Single timer
It calculate the error. Proportional integral derivative Accumulate, integrate derive the error
pid control it is used to eliminate the offset error and steady state error . and also the control action done fast
Propertional Integral Derivative controller.
In proportional controller offset error will be came so to reduce this error we go to integral controller.
Integral controller reduces the offset error but they can't estimate the feature errors so we can go to derivative controller.
In derivative controller we can estimate feature errors and we reduce that errors also.
We can use in combination of both PI and PD controllers.
As compared to PI and PD most commonly used Controller is PID controller.
PID controller is a combination of propertional integral derivative controller.
So in this controller,propertional controller produces offset error this error is reduced by integral controller and feature errors are estimated by derivative
controller.
PID controller is most commonly used controller in industrial applications.

What is loop check

1. To make sure correct loop from field to the dcs graphic.
2. To confirm the I/O point working and function
3. To confirm the interlocking is correct.
4. To confirm safety process point is well function.
5. To check functionalities of logic.
6. To confirm the field I/O is in service conditions.
If all the condition of I/O and systems is in design and working so they will go for commissioning the system by 1st use N2 and water.

There are both cold & hot loop checks.....cold means mere continuity checking of cable wire
termination bw field to ccr!!!hot means analog or digital signal check of instrument.
Cold loop testing means testing of process loop offiline, i.e testing of loops before actual starting of project.
And hot loop testing means testing of process loop online i.e testing of loops in running condition.

Cold Loop checking: Checking of wirescontinuity ofrespective field instrument-Junction box-

DCS/PLCmarshalling panel terminal.Hot loop checking: Once you powerup yourfield instrumentthrough
DCS/PLC system, by stimulatingprocess input fromrespective field instrument and cross check
itsresponce atDCS/PLC sytsem
What is loop checking? And how loop checking?
loop checking is the trace of the wires in different joint or different connection from sensing element to find control element through checking of the juction boxes
terminal block channel block relay pannels and fbm cards terminals i am wright

Calibration
Calibration means compare the response of an instrument with standard instrument
calibration is a process of compairing std instrument with that of a reference instrument.
It is a procedure to testing cheking making and adjustment as per requirement that is called calibration
Calibration is a Process in which a Test Instrument is compair with Standard Instrument..

PLC/DCS I/O Module: Digital Input

I/O modules are building blocks of industrial control systems used in end equipment such as PLC (Programmable Logic Controllers), PAC
(Programmable Automation Controller) and DCS (Distributed Control Systems). Digital input modules capture and measure digital input
signals from a wide variety of sensors like proximity switches, limit switches and push button switches. Inputs typically are 0-24V with
tolerances up to 30V.
Signal Chain
The signals from DC sensors used in PLC digital input (DI) modules are typically of a higher voltage and are usually isolated through optocouplers before going into a shift register to be serialized. Instead, digital input serializers can be used to serialize a large number of digital
inputs allowing higher channel densities in PLC I/O modules. The isolation is then limited to the SPI interface as a number of serializers can
be daisy chained. They also provide the benefit of sensing higher voltages, adjustable current limits and programmable de-bounce times.
Other functions that are integrated into these products are temperature sensing and voltage regulation.
Processor
Development platforms and software tools in addition to support which quickens time to market are highly desired. Connectivity options
ranging from Ethernet ports to UARTs to simple SPI ports are desired. Ethernet enables integration of field devices to the corporate
enterprise network. Most industrial control applications need simple low cost PLC's with lots of digital I/O and integrated functions. These
include fault diagnostics, watchdog timers, low power, multiple SPI ports, UART's, integrated analog peripherals like ADCs and PWM outputs
which perform similar functions to DACs. MCU's (Micro Controller Units) are a good choice for these applications. For applications which push
capabilities and need higher loop rates along with advanced control algorithms to handle multiple functional domains like logic, PID control
and motion, higher performance MPU's (Micro processing Units) are needed.
Industrial applications need to support a multitude of communication options. Many of TI's processors include a Real time Processing Unit
(PRU) to support a truly programmable approach for these communication standards. In addition, the ARM architecture offers the
performance and low power needed for mission critical functions.
Interface
There are a number of field bus options - both serial (RS-485, DeviceNet, Profibus, CAN etc.) and Ethernet based. Extended cable reach and
diagnostics to debug wire breaks provides system designers significant value. Integrated digital isolation on the interface transceivers is
highly desirable to reduce board space. In addition the interface between the inputs or input serializer and the controller can be digitally
isolated either by using opto-couplers or TI isolators built with capacitive technology.

Microcontroller
The Hercules Safety MCUs offer an ARM Cortex-R4F based solution and are certified suitable for use in systems that need to achieve
IEC61508 SIL-3 safety levels. These MCUs also offer integrated floating point, 12 bit ADCs, motor-control-specific PWMs and encoder inputs
via its flexible HET Timer co-processor. Hercules Safety MCUs can also be used to implement scalar and vector-control techniques and
support a range of performance requirements.
Power
To protect against transients and ground loops, the field side which interfaces to sensors is electrically isolated from the control side. The
design can be customized for performance and cost by using a DC-DC converter and discrete components or pre-built isolated DC-DC
converter modules can be used. Other considerations include high efficiency and integration along with smaller packages. Picking a DC-DC
converter with a large input range will protect again supply transients.

PLC/DCS I/O Module: Analog Output

I/O modules are building blocks of industrial control systems used in end equipment such as PLC (Programmable Logic Controllers), PAC
(Programmable Automation Controller) and DCS (Distributed Control Systems). Analog output modules are used to drive and control
actuators and other machines and form part of an overall control system. Current-loop outputs typically range from 4-20mA while voltage
outputs range from 0-5V, 0-10V, +/-5V and +/-10V.
Signal Chain
The linearity, settling time, response and accuracy is determined by the DAC used. Resistor string based DAC's are small, inexpensive and
inherently monotonic. For higher resolution and for applications requiring higher linearity like open loop valve control, R-2R DAC's are a good
choice. Finally for achieving the fastest settling times and speeds, R-2R multiplying DAC's should be used. Selecting the right reference and
pairing it with the right buffer can impact system performance. Considerations for references include initial accuracy, temperature drift and
source/sink current capability.
The output amplifier must be picked based on speed, output voltage level and power. TI's XTR family of industrial drivers is a good choice to
implement 4-20 mA current loops. Some products allow the designer to make the output programmable to be either a voltage or current.
Newer products integrated the DAC and XTR together to minimize board space and optimize power.
Processor
Development platforms and software tools in addition to support which quickens time to market are highly desired. Connectivity options
ranging from Ethernet ports to UARTs to simple SPI ports are desired. Ethernet enables integration of field devices to the corporate
enterprise network. Most industrial control applications need simple low cost PLC's with lots of digital I/O and integrated functions. These
include fault diagnostics, watchdog timers, low power, multiple SPI ports, UART's, integrated analog peripherals like ADCs and PWM outputs
which perform similar functions to DACs. MCU's (Micro Controller Units) are a good choice for these applications. For applications which push
capabilities and need higher loop rates along with advanced control algorithms to handle multiple functional domains like logic, PID control
and motion, higher performance MPU's (Micro processing Units) are needed.
Industrial applications need to support a multitude of communication options. Many of TI's processors include a Real time Processing Unit
(PRU) to support a truly programmable approach for these communication standards. In addition, the ARM architecture offers the
performance and low power needed for mission critical functions.
Interface
There are a number of field bus options - both serial (RS-485, DeviceNet, Profibus, CAN etc.) and Ethernet based. Extended cable reach and
diagnostics to debug wire breaks provides system designers significant value. Integrated digital isolation on the interface transceivers is
highly desirable to reduce board space. In addition the interface between the DAC and the controller can be digitally isolated either by using
opto-couplers or TI isolators built with capacitive technology.
Microcontroller
The Hercules Safety MCUs offer an ARM Cortex-R4F based solution and are certified suitable for use in systems that need to achieve
IEC61508 SIL-3 safety levels. These MCUs also offer integrated floating point, 12 bit ADCs, motor-control-specific PWMs and encoder inputs
via its flexible HET Timer co-processor. Hercules Safety MCUs can also be used to implement scalar and vector-control techniques and
support a range of performance requirements.

Power
To protect against transients and ground loops, the field side which interfaces to sensors is electrically isolated from the control side. This is
done on a per channel basis or by isolating groups of channels from each other and from the control side. The design can be customized for
performance and cost by using a DC-DC converter and discrete components or pre-built isolated DC-DC converter modules can be used.
Other considerations include high efficiency and integration along with smaller packages. Picking a DC-DC converter with a large input range
will protect again supply transients. Finally, using LDO's with good PSRR (Power Supply rejection Ratio) to supply the precision analog
circuitry will reduce the power supply ripple and preserve system accuracy and resolution.

What is the difference between

HMI, SCADA and MMI ,not abbreviation?
Answer
HMI & MMI both are same.
HMI is a hardware device by which we can control the process by changing status such as ON/OFF, set
point etc,
SCADA is a graphical representation of a system which monitor, control & display data in a process,
For large scale application we use SCADA & for small scale application we use HMI.
HMI does not require any communication software while SCADA requires it.

Comparison of the terms SCADA,

DCS, PLC and smart instrument

A. SCADA System
A SCADA (or supervisory control and data acquisition) system means a system consisting of a number of
remote terminal units (or RTUs) collecting field data connected back to a master station via a
communications system. The master station displays the acquired data and also allows the operator to
perform remote control tasks.
The accurate and timely data (normally real-time) allows for optimization of the operation of the plant
and process. A further benefit is more efficient, reliable and most importantly, safer operations. This all
results in a lower cost of operation compared to earlier non-automated systems.
There is a fair degree of confusion between the definition of SCADA systems and process control system.
SCADA has the connotation of remote or distant operation. The inevitable question is how far remote
is typically this means over a distance such that the distance between the controlling location and the
controlled location is such that direct-wire control is impractical (i.e. a communication link is a critical
component of the system). A successful SCADA installation depends on utilizing proven and reliable
technology, with adequate and comprehensive training of all personnel in the operation of the system.
There is a history of unsuccessful SCADA systems contributing factors to these systems includes
inadequate integration of the various components of the system, unnecessary complexity in the system,
unreliable hardware and unproven software. Today hardware reliability is less of a problem, but the
increasing software complexity is producing new challenges. It should be noted in passing that many
operators judge a SCADA system not only by the smooth performance of the RTUs, communication links

and the master station (all falling under the umbrella of SCADA system) but also the field devices (both
transducers and control devices). The field devices however fall outside the scope of SCADA in this
manual and will not be discussed further. A diagram of a typical SCADA system is given opposite.
On a more complex SCADA system there are essentially five levels or hierarchies:
Field level instrumentation and control devices
Marshalling terminals and RTUs
Communications system
The master station(s)
The commercial data processing department
computer system
The RTU provides an interface to the field analog and digital signals situated at each remote site.
The communications system provides the pathway for communications between the master station and
the remote sites. This communication system can be radio, telephone line, microwave and possibly even
satellite.
Specific protocols and error detection
philosophies are used for efficient and optimum
transfer of data. The master station (and
submasters) gather data from the various RTUs
and generally provide an operator interface for
display of information and control of the remote
sites. In large telemetry systems, submaster
sites gather information from remote sites and
act as a relay back to the control master station.
SCADA technology has existed since the early
sixties and there are now two other competing
approaches possible distributed control
system (DCS) and programmable logic controller
(PLC). In addition there has been a growing
trend to use smart instruments as a key
component in all these systems. Of course, in
the real world, the designer will mix and match
the four approaches to produce an effective
system matching his/her application.

B. Distributed control system (DCS)

In a DCS, the data acquisition and control functions are performed by a number of distributed
microprocessor-based units situated near to the devices being controlled or the instrument from which
data is being gathered.
DCS systems have evolved into systems providing very sophisticated analog (e.g. loop) control capability.
A closely integrated set of operator interfaces (or man machine interfaces) is provided to allow for easy
system configurations and operator control. The data highway is normally capable of fairly high

speeds (typically 1 Mbps up to 10 Mbps).

C. Programmable logic controller (PLC)

Since the late 1970s, PLCs have replaced
hardwired relays with a combination of ladder
logic software and solid state electronic input
and output modules. They are often used in the
implementation of a SCADA RTU as they offer a
standard hardware solution, which is very
economically priced.
Another device that should be mentioned for
completeness is the smart instrument which
both PLCs and DCS systems can interface to.

D. Smart instrument
Although this term is sometimes misused, it
typically means an intelligent (microprocessor
based) digital measuring sensor (such as a flow
meter) with digital data communications
provided to some diagnostic panel or computer
based system.
This tutorial will henceforth consider DCS, PLC
and smart instruments as variations

IMPORTANT INTERVIEW QUESTIONS FOR INSTRUMENTATION ENGINEERING(PART 1)


Hello Friends, here i am posting about important interview part 1 questions which are mostly asked by
the all core companies like HONEYWELL, SOLITONTECH , MAHINDRA SATYAM , L&T etc. So please make
use of it. All the best!!!
PART 1
QUESTIONS:

What are different types of orifice plates? State their uses.
How do you identify an orifice in the pipeline?
Why is the orifice tab provided?
Explain Bernoullis theorem. State its application.
How can a D.P. transmitter be calibrated?
How is flow measured in square root?
Name different parts of a pressure gauge. Explain the use of hair spring in the pressure gauge.


ANSWERS:
1. What are different types of orifice plates? State their uses.
Different orifice plates are:
1. Concentric
2. Segmental
3. Eccentric
Concentric: These plates are used for ideal liquid as well as gases and steam service. Concentric holes
are present in these plates, thats why it is known as concentric orifice.
Segmental: This plate has hole in the form of segment of the circle. This plate is used for colloidal and
sherry flow measurement.
Eccentric: This plate has the eccentric holes. This plate is used in viscous and sherry flow measurement.

2. How do you identify an orifice in the pipeline?
An orifice tab is welded on the orifice plate which extends out of the line giving an indication of the
orifice plate.

3.Why is the orifice tab provided?
Following reasons justify for providing orifice tab:
1. Indication of orifice plate in a line
2. The orifice diameter is marked on it.
3. The material of the orifice plate.
4. The tag number of the orifice plate.
5. To mark the inlet of an orifice.

4. Explain Bernoullis theorem. State its application?
Bernoullis theorem states that the total energy of a liquid flowing from one point to another remains
constant. It is applicable for non-compressible liquids. For different types of liquid flow Bernoullis
equation changes. There is direct proportion between speed of fluid and its dynamic pressure and its
kinetic energy. It can be used in various real life situations like measuring pressure on aircraft wing and
calibrating the airspeed indicator. It can also be used to low pressure in the venturi tubes present in
carburetor.

5. How can a D.P. transmitter be calibrated?
D.P. transmitter can be calibrated using following steps:
1. Adjust zero of Xmtrs.
2. Perform static pressure test: Give equal pressure on both sides of transmitter. Zero should not shift
either side. If the zero shifts then carry out static alignment.
3. Perform vacuum test: Apply equal vacuum to both the sides. Zero should not shift.
4. Calibration procedure: Give 20 psi air supply to the transmitter and vent L.P. side to atmosphere.
Connect output of the instrument to the standard test gauge. Adjust zero. Apply required pressure to
the high pressure side and adjust the span. Adjust zero gain if necessary.


6. How is flow measured in square root?
Flow varies directly as the square root of pressure. Thus, F=K of square root of applied pressure. Since
this flow varies as the square root of differential pressure. The pressure pen does not directly indicate
flow. Thus flow can be determined by taking the square root of the pen. Assume the pen reads 50% of
the chart. So, flow can be calculated using the pen measure in the chart.

7. Name different parts of a pressure gauge. Explain the use of hair spring in the pressure gauge.
Pressure gauge includes following components:
1. C type bourdon tube.
2. Connecting link3. Sector gear
4. Pinion Gear
5. Hair spring
6. Pointer
7. Dial
Use of hair spring: Hair spring is responsible for controlling torque. It is also used to eliminate any play
into linkages.

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