Spinal Cord

Major communication
link between the brain
and the PNS (spinal
nerves)
Participates in the
integration of incoming
information and
produces responses
through reflex
mechanisms

Spinal Cord

Gives rise to 31 pairs of

spinal nerves

Cervical and lumbosacral

enlargements give rise to
the spinal nerves of the
limbs
Nerves from the end of the
spinal cord form the cauda
equina

Shorter than the vertebral

column

Meninges of the Spinal Cord

Three meningeal layers surround the spinal

cord. From superficial to deep they are

Dura mater
Arachnoid mater
Pia mater

The epidural space is between the

periosteum of the vertebral canal and the
dura mater
The subarachnoid space is between the
arachnoid mater and the pia mater

Fig. 11.2

Spinal Cord Cross Section

The spinal cord consists of peripheral white

matter and central gray matter
White matter is organized into columns (funiculi),
which are subdivided into tracts (fasciculi or
pathways), which consist of ascending and
descending axons
Gray matter is divided into horns

The dorsal horns contain sensory axons that synapse with

interneurons
The ventral horns contain the neuron cell bodies of somatic
motor neurons
The lateral horns contain the neuron cell bodies of autonomic
motor neurons
The gray and white commissures connect each half of the
spinal cord

Spinal Cord Cross Section

Spinal nerves arise from the spinal
cord in numerous rootlets
The rootlets combine to form a ventral
root and a dorsal root

Fig. 11.3

Spinal Cord Cross Section

The dorsal root contains sensory axons
The ventral root has motor axons
Spinal nerves have sensory and motor axons

Fig. 11.4

Reflexes
Stereotypic, unconscious, involuntary responses
to stimuli
Maintain homeostasis
Two general types:
Somatic reflexes
Mediated through the somatic motor nervous system and
includes responses that
Remove the body from painful stimuli
Keep the body from suddenly falling
Cause movement because of external forces

Autonomic reflexes
Mediated through the ANS and are responsible for
maintaining variables within their normal ranges
Blood pressure
Blood carbon dioxide levels
Water intake

Reflexes

A reflex arc is the functional unit of the nervous

system
1. Sensory receptors respond to stimuli and produce
action potentials in sensory neurons
2. Sensory neurons propagate action potentials to the
CNS
3. Interneurons in the CNS synapse with sensory
neurons and with motor neurons
4. Motor neurons carry action potentials from the CNS
to effector organs
5. Effector organs, such as muscles or glands,
respond to the action potential

Reflex Arc

Fig. 11.5

Spinal Reflex
Convergent and divergent pathways interact with
reflexes
Reflexes are integrated within the brain and spinal
cord
Higher brain
centers can
suppress or
exaggerate
reflexes

Fig. 11.6

Stretch Reflex
Muscle spindles detect the stretch of skeletal muscles and
cause the muscle to shorten reflexively

Fig. 11.7

Golgi Tendon Reflex

Golgi tendon organs respond to increased tension within
tendons and cause skeletal muscles to relax

Fig. 11.8

Withdrawal Reflex
Activation of pain receptors causes contraction of muscles
and the removal of some part of the body from a painful
stimulus

Fig. 11.9

Structure of Nerves
Individual axons are
surrounded by the
endoneurium
Groups of axons
(fascicles) are bound
together by the
perineurium
Fascicles form the
nerve and are held
together by the
epineurium
Fig. 11.10

Spinal Nerves
There are 31 pairs of
spinal nerves

Eight cervical
Twelve thoracic
Five lumbar
Five sacral
One coccygeal

Spinal nerves have

specific cutaneous
distributions called
dermatomes
Fig. 11.11

Fig.
11.12

Spinal Nerves and Plexuses

Spinal nerves branch to form rami
The dorsal rami supply the muscles and skin
near the middle of the back
The ventral rami in the thoracic region form
intercostal nerves, which supply the thorax
and upper abdomen
Cervical, lumbar, sacral and coccygeal ventral
rami join to form plexuses
Communicating rami supply sympathetic
nerves

Fig.
11.13

Major Spinal Nerve Plexuses

The five major plexuses are
Cervical (C1-C4)
Phrenic nerve

Brachial (C5-T1)
Axillary, radial, musculocutaneous, ulnar, and median nerves

Lumbar (L1-L4)
Sacral (L4-S4)
Coccygeal (S5-coccygeal)

The lumbar and sacral plexuses are often

considered together as the lumbosacral plexus
Obturator, femoral, tibial, and common fibular nerves

Major Spinal Nerve Plexuses

Axons from different
levels of the spinal cord
intermingle within
plexuses and give rise
to nerves that have
axons form more than
one level of the spinal
cord
Brachial Plexus is
demonstrated in Fig.
11.14

Fig.
11.14

Major Spinal Nerve Plexuses

Nerves arising from
plexuses are
distributed to
skeletal muscles
throughout the body
Table 11.1

Fig.
11.15

Major Spinal Nerve Plexuses

Nerves
arising from
plexuses
also supply
the skin
Table 11.1

Fig.
11.16

Tab. 11.1

Brain
Contained in the cranial cavity
Is the control center for many of the bodys
functions
Consists of the
Brainstem
Cerebellum
Diencephalon
Cerebrum

Fig.
11.17

Brainstem
Consist of the
Medulla oblongata
Pons
Midbrain

Connects the spinal cord and cerebellum to the

remainder of the brain
Ten of the 12 pairs of cranial nerves arise from it
Damage to small areas of the brainstem can
cause death, whereas damage to relatively large
areas of the cerebrum or cerebellum do not

Fig.
11.18

Brainstem
Medulla Oblongata
Continuous with the spinal cord and contains
ascending and descending tracts
Medullary nuclei regulate the heart, blood
vessels, breathing, swallowing, vomiting,
coughing, sneezing, hiccupping, balance and
coordination
The pyramids are tracts controlling voluntary
muscle movement

Brainstem
Pons
Superior to the medulla
Ascending and Descending tracts pass
through the pons
Connects the cerebrum and the cerebellum
Pontine nuclei regulate breathing, swallowing,
balance, chewing, and salivation

Brainstem
Midbrain
Superior to the pons
Corpora quadrigemina consist of four colliculi
Two inferior colliculi are involved in hearing
Two superior colliculi in visual reflexes

Substantia nigra and the red nucleus help

regulate body movements
Cerebral peduncles are the major descending
motor pathway

Brainstem
Reticular Formation
Consists of nuclei scattered throughout the
brainstem
Regulates cyclic motor functions, such as
breathing, walking, and chewing
Reticular activating system, which is part of
the reticular formation, maintains
consciousness and regulates the sleep-wake
cycle

Cerebellum
Gray matter forms the cortex and nuclei of the
cerebellum
White matter
Arbor vitae
Connects the cerebellum to the rest of the CNS
Connects the cerebellar cortex and cerebellar nuclei

The cerebellum has three parts:

Flocculonodular lobe controls balance and eye
movements
Vermis and medial part of the lateral hemispheres
control posture, locomotion, and fine motor coordination
The lateral hemispheres are involved with the planning,
practice, and learning of complex movements

Fig.
11.19

Diencephalon
Located between the brainstem and the cerebrum
Consists of the

Thalamus
Subthalamus
Epithalamus
Hypothalamus

Fig.
11.20

Diencephalon
Thalamus
Consists of two lobes connected by the interthalamic
adhesion
Functions as an integration center
All sensory input that reaches the cerebrum, except
for the sense of smell, synapses in the thalamus
Interacts with other parts of
the brain to control motor
activity
Involved in emotions and pain
perception
Fig.
11.20

Diencephalon
Subthalamus
Inferior to the thalamus
Involved in motor function

Epithalamus
Superior and posterior to the thalamus
Consists of the
Habenular nuclei, which influence emotions
through the sense of smell
Pineal body, which may play a role in the onset of
puberty and the sleep-wake cycle

Diencephalon
Hypothalamus: Main visceral control center of
the body and is vitally important to overall body
homeostasis.

Autonomic control center (heart rate, blood pressure, etc.)

Center for emotional response/behavior
Body temperature regulation
Regulation of food intake
Regulation of water balance
Control of endocrine system
functioning
Mammillary bodies are reflex
centers for olfaction
Fig. 11.20

Fig.
11.20

Cerebrum
Cortex of the cerebrum is folded into ridges
called gyri and grooves called sulci or fissures
The longitudinal fissure divides the cerebrum
into left and right hemispheres
Each hemisphere has five lobes

Frontal lobes
Parietal lobes
Occipital lobes
Temporal lobes
Insula

Fig.
11.21

Cerebrum
Frontal lobes are involved in voluntary motor
function, motivation, aggression, the sense of
smell, and mood
Parietal lobes contain the major sensory areas
receiving sensory input, such as touch, pain,
temperature, balance, and taste
Occipital lobes contain the visual centers
Temporal lobes evaluate smell and hearing input
and are involved in memory, abstract thought,
and judgment
Insula is located deep within the lateral fissure

Cerebrum
Gray matter forms the cortex and nuclei of
the cerebrum
White matter forms the cerebral medulla,
which consists of three types of tracts
Association fibers connect areas of the cortex
within the same hemisphere
Commissural fibers connect the cerebral
hemispheres
Projection fibers connect the cerebrum to
other parts of the brain and the spinal cord

Fig.
11.22

Cerebrum
Basal Nuclei
Include the corpus striatum (caudate and
lentiform nuclei), subthalamic nuclei, and
substantia nigra
Important in controlling motor functions

Fig.
11.23

Cerebrum
Limbic System
Includes parts of the cerebral cortex, basal nuclei, the
thalamus, the hypothalamus, and the olfactory cortex
Involved in memory, reproduction, and nutrition
Involved in the emotional interpretation of sensory
input and emotions in general

Fig.
11.24

Meninges
The brain and spinal cord are covered by
the dura, arachnoid and pia mater
The dura mater attaches to the skull and
has two layers that can separate to form
dural folds and dural venous sinuses
Beneath the arachnoid mater the
subarachnoid space contains CSF that
helps cushion the brain
The pia mater attaches directly to the brain

Fig.
11.25

Ventricles
The lateral ventricles in the cerebrum are
connected to the third ventricle in the
diencephalon by the interventricular foramina
The third ventricle is connected to the fourth
ventricle in the pons by the cerebral aqueduct
The central canal of the spinal cord is connected
to the fourth ventricle
The fourth ventricle is connected to the
subarachnoid space by median and lateral
apertures

Fig.
11.26

Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)

Produced from the blood in the choroid plexus of
each ventricle by ependymal cells
Moves from the lateral to the third and then to
the fourth ventricle
From the fourth ventricle, CSF enters the
subarachnoid space through three apertures
Leaves the subarachnoid space through
arachnoid granulations and returns to the blood
in the dural venous sinuses

Blood Supply to the Brain

The brain requires tremendous amounts of
blood to function normally
High metabolic rate and brain cells cannot
store high-energy molecules
Only about 2% of body weight, but receives
~15%-20% of the blood pumped by the heart

The blood-brain barrier is formed by the

endothelial cells of the capillaries in the
brain.
Limits what substances enter brain tissue

Cranial Nerves
The 12 pairs of cranial nerves are designated by
Roman numerals (I - XII) or specific names
In numeric order, can be identified with this
mnemonic
On Occasion Our Trusty Truck Acts Funny; Very Good
Vehicle Any How

On: Olfactory (I)

Occasion: Optic (II)
Our: Oculomotor (III)
TrustyL Trochlear (IV)
Truck: Trigeminal (V)
Acts: Abducent (VI)

Funny: Facial (VII)

Very: Vestibulocochlear (VIII)
Good: Glossopharyngeal (IX)
Vehicle: Vagus (X)
Any: Accessory (XI)
How: Hypoglossal (XII)

Cranial Nerves
The two types of general functions are
sensory and motor
Sensory includes special senses and general
senses
Motor includes somatic motor and
parasympathetic

Cranial nerves and their functions are

summarized in Table 11.2

Tab. 11.2

Tab.
11.2(Con
td.)

Tab.
11.2(Con
td.)

Tab.
11.2(Con
td.)

Tab.
11.2(Con
td.)

Tab.
11.2(Con
td.)

Brainstem Reflexes
Many reflexes are mediated through the
brainstem
The brainstem is considered nonfunctional
when
Reflexes at all levels of the brainstem are
nonfunctional
There is no spontaneous breathing (mediated
through the medulla oblongata)