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Abstract
Background: The relationship between DSM-IV-TR borderline personality disorder (BPD) and bipolar disorders, especially bipolar II disorder
(BP-II), is still unclear. Many recent reviews on this topic have come to opposite or different conclusions.
Study aim: The aim was to test the association between hypomania symptoms and BPD traits, as hypomania is the defining feature of BP-II in
DSM-IV-TR.
Methods: During follow-up visits in a private practice, consecutive 138 remitted BP-II outpatients were re-diagnosed by a mood disorder specialist
psychiatrist, using the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV (as modified by Benazzi and Akiskal for better probing hypomania). Soon after,
patients self-assessed (blind to interviewer) the SCID-II Personality Questionnaire for BPD.
Associations and confounding were tested by logistic regression, between each criteria symptom of hypomania (apart from racing thoughts
and distractibility, not assessed as probing focused mainly on behavioral, observable signs), and the entire set of BPD traits. Multivariate
regression was also used to jointly regress the entire set of hypomanic symptoms on the entire set of BPD traits.
Results: Mean (SD) age was 39.0 (9.8) years, females were 76.3%. Frequency of BPD traits ranged between 17% and 66% (e.g. impulsivity trait
41%, affective instability trait 63%), mean (SD) number of traits was 4.2 (2.3). The most common episodic hypomanic symptoms were elevated
mood (91%) and overactivity (93%); frequency of excessive risky, impulsive activities (impulsivity) was 62%. By logistic regression the only
significant association was between the episodic impulsivity of hypomania and the trait impulsivity of BPD. Multivariate regression of the entire
set of hypomanic symptoms jointly regressed on the entire set of BPD traits was not statistically significant.
Discussion: The core feature of BP-II, i.e. hypomania, does not seem to have a close relationship with BDP traits in the study setting, partly
running against a strong association between BPD and BP-II and a bipolar spectrum nature of BPD.
2008 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Bipolar II disorder; Borderline personality disorder; Hypomania; Relationship; Traits
Abbreviations: BPD, borderline personality disorder; borderline personality disorder traits: BPD1, frantic efforts to avoid abandonment; BPD2, unstable
interpersonal relationships; BPD3, unstable self-image; BPD4, impulsivity; BPD5, suicidality; BPD6, affective instability; BPD7, chronic emptiness; BPD8, anger;
BPD9, paranoid ideation; BP-II, bipolar II disorder; DSM-IV-TR, diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, forth edition, text revision; GAF, global
assessment of functioning scale; hypomania symptoms: H1, elevated mood; H2, irritable mood; H3, inflated self-esteem; H4, decreased need for sleep; H5, more
talkative; H6, racing thoughts; H7, distractibility; H8, increase in goal-directed activity; H9, excessive risky, impulsive activities; MDD, major depressive disorder;
MDE, major depressive episode; NA, not available; N, number; NC, not calculable; OR, odds ratio; 95% CI, 95% confidence intervals; SCID-II, Structured Clinical
Interview for DSM-IV Axis II personality disorders; SCID-CV, Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis I Disorders-Clinician Version; SD, standard deviation;
95% CI, 95% confidence intervals; t, t-test statistics; p, p value.
Via Pozzetto 17, 48015 Castiglione di Cervia RA, Italy. Tel.: +39 335 6191 852; fax: +39 054 330 069.
E-mail address: FrancoBenazzi@FBenazzi.it.
0278-5846/$ - see front matter 2008 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2008.01.015
1. Introduction
The relationship between DSM-IV-TR (American Psychiatric Association, 2000) borderline personality disorder (BPD)
and bipolar disorders (the bipolar spectrum), especially bipolar
II disorder (BP-II), is still unclear. According to DSM-IV-TR,
the features of a personality disorder should be enduring,
stable and of long duration (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). Compared to other personality disorders, BPD is
described as less stable in DSM-IV-TR. Many recent reports and
reviews on this topic have come to opposite or different conclusions about the BPD and BP-II relationship, i.e. that BPD is
part of the bipolar spectrum (e.g. Magill, 2004; Akiskal, 2004;
Smith et al., 2004; Mackinnon and Pies, 2006; Joyce et al.,
2007), or that there is no (or only a modest) relationship
between these disorders (e.g. Koenigsberg et al., 2002; George
et al., 2003; Gunderson et al., 2006; Paris, 2007; Paris et al.,
2007; Gunderson, 2007; Wilson et al., 2007). From the bipolar
spectrum ventage, there is an overlap of symptoms (mainly
cross-sectional) between BP-II and BPD, related to several BPD
affective traits. This overlap is more evident (or confounded?)
in tertiary-care settings (Hantouche et al., 1998; Perugi et al.,
2003; Akiskal et al., 2003; Mckinnon and Pies, 2006) than in
non-tertiary care (e.g. Benazzi, 2000). This BPDBP-II overlap
is also related, among other things, to more or less strict criteria
for diagnosing BP-II, to the methods used for probing hypomania (Dunner and Tay, 1993; Angst et al., 2003, 2005;
Benazzi, 2007a; Bader and Dunner, 2007), and to the interviewers' qualifications and training (leaving aside possible biases). An overlap of symptoms between BPD and BP-II is
especially likely in the depressive and hypomanic mixed states
(defined by opposite polarity symptoms concurrently present in
the same episode), which are a common feature of BP-II (reviewed by Goodwin and Jamison (2007) and by Benazzi
(2007a,b,c, 2008)). The Collaborative Longitudinal Personality
Disorders Study (CLPS) has shown that meaningful improvements are not uncommon in personality disorders (Skodol et al.,
2005a). Dimensional personality traits appear to be the foundation of behaviors described by many personality disorders
criteria (Skodol et al., 2005a). On the basis of the CLPS findings, personality disorders have been reconceptualized (differently from DSM-IV-TR) as hybrids of stable personality traits
and intermittently expressed symptomatic behaviors (Skodol
et al., 2005a). About BPD, its course has been found to be
remitting or a partly remitting (Zanarini et al., 2004, 2007;
Tragesser et al., 2007). According to Akiskal (2004), a remitting
course in BPD could shift it into the bipolar spectrum (because
it has several affective symptoms/traits), as the core feature of
bipolar disorders is thought to be a highly recurrent course
(Kraepelin, 1921; Goodwin and Jamison, 2007). Probably, a
core feature of bipolar disorders could also be a young age at
onset (Benazzi and Akiskal, 2007), which is also a core feature
of personality disorders (American Psychiatric Association,
2000). Furthermore, the high frequency of inter-episode residual symptoms in bipolar disorders (Judd et al., 2003; Paykel
et al., 2006) increases the similarities between BPD and bipolar
disorders (especially BP-II), on the basis of an unstable (re-
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1024
Table 1
Sample features
Variables: mean (SD), %
n = 138
Age, years
Females
Episodic hypomanic symptoms
H1 Elevated mood
H2 Irritable mood
H3 Inflated self-esteem
H4 Decreased need for sleep
H5 More talkative
H6 Racing thoughts
H7 Distractibility
H8 Increase in goal-directed activity
H9 Excessive impulsive activities
BPD traits
BPD1 Frantic efforts to avoid abandonment
BPD2 Unstable interpersonal relationships
BPD3 Unstable self-image
BPD4 Impulsivity
BPD5 Suicidality
BPD6 Affective instability
BPD7 Chronic emptiness
BPD8 Anger
BPD9 Paranoid ideation
N traits
39.0 (9.8)
67.3
90.5
67.6
77.2
49.6
67.1
NA
NA
93.4
62.0
65.9
47.4
44.4
41.1
16.7
62.7
59.8
39.4
49.6
4.2 (2.3)
1025
Table 2
Multivariable logistic regression of each hypomanic symptom (dependent variable) versus all set of borderline personality disorder traits (independent variables)
BPD1
BPD2
BPD3
BPD4
BPD5
BPD6
BPD7
BPD8
BPD9
H1
H2
H3
1.0 (0.24.3)
0.8 (0.13.9)
7.8 (0.877.5)
0.5 (0.12.7)
1.1 (0.013.5)
1.3 (0.28.2)
2.7 (0.417.2)
0.5 (0.12.4)
0.8 (0.13.9)
2.1 (0.94.9)
0.9 (0.32.2)
0.7 (0.21.9)
1.9 (0.84.9)
0.6 (0.12.1)
2.3 (0.86.9)
0.5 (0.21.6)
2.2 (0.95.6)
1.5 (0.63.9)
1.1
1.8
1.7
0.8
0.4
0.3
1.7
1.4
0.8
(0.42.9)
(0.74.6)
(0.64.7)
(0.32.0)
(0.11.7)
(0.11.1)
(0.55.3)
(0.53.8)
(0.32.0)
H4
H5
H6
H7
H8
H9
0.4 (0.21.0)
0.8 (0.31.7)
1.8 (0.74.4)
1.2 (0.52.7)
0.8 (0.22.4)
0.8 (0.32.1)
0.5 (0.21.3)
1.8 (0.84.0)
0.8 (0.41.9)
0.8 (0.32.0)
2.2 (0.95.4)
3.1 (1.28.2)
2.1 (0.85.2)
1.3 (0.34.6)
0.3 (0.11.0)
1.3 (0.43.9)
0.7 (0.31.8)
0.6 (0.21.5)
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
2.8 (0.612.5)
1.2 (0.26.8)
1.5 (0.211.3)
0.3 (0.01.8)
NC
1.1 (0.17.1)
1.2 (0.27.0)
4.7 (0.543.9)
1.9 (0.311.2)
0.9 (0.42.1)
1.2 (0.52.9)
0.9 (0.32.2)
2.8 (1.26.5)
1.2 (0.43.9)
0.4 (0.11.3)
1.5 (0.54.2)
1.3 (0.53.0)
0.7 (0.31.7)
4. Discussion
4.1. An association between BPD and BP-II?
BPD traits (both clinical and subclinical) were common in
the present study BP-II sample. The impulsivity trait was
present in 41%, the affective instability trait in 63%, and the
mean (SD) number of BPD traits was 4.2 (2.3) (DSM-IV-TR
BPD criteria require at least 5 traits impairing functioning). Four
or more BPD traits were present in 63.5% of BP-II, and 5 or
more were present in 45.9% of BP-II. Such a high co-occurrence could suggest a link between these disorders. However,
when the core feature of BP-II, i.e. hypomania (Bader and
Dunner, 2007), was tested (each symptom/sign independently)
versus the entire set of BPD traits (by multivariable logistic
regression), it resulted that only two hypomanic signs were
significantly associated with only two BPD traits. Of these two
hypomanic signs, only one, i.e. excessive risky, impulsive
activities (e.g. buying sprees, sexual indiscretions, reckless
driving, foolish business investments, substance abuse, according to DSM-IV-TR), had a meaningful association, as it was
associated with the BPD impulsivity trait (OR = 2.8). Using a
different statistics, i.e. multivariate regression, by which the
entire set of hypomanic symptoms was jointly regressed on
the entire set of BPD traits, no joint significance was found (i.e.
no significant relationship between the two sets of symptoms
and traits was found). This second analysis is more conservative. By looking at its individual regressions of each hypomanic
symptom/sign on the set of BPD traits (overcome by the joint
regression, however, and which has a similarity to multivariable
logistic regression in regressing one dependent variable on a set
of variables), none resulted statistically significant, apart from
the association between BPD impulsivity trait and the excessive risky, impulsive activities of hypomania. The results of
this second type of analysis suggest no link between hypomania
and BPD, and only a possible link between the impulsivity of
BPD and BP-II (replicating the first analysis, which found a
significant association between the impulsivity of hypomania
and that of BPD).
1026
A relationship was found between the hypomanic/hyperthymic personality and traits of BPD (Kwapil et al., 2000). The
present study tested instead the relationship between symptoms
of hypomanic episodes and BPD traits. The hypomanic/hyperthymic personality (which may look like a low-grade, persistent
hypomania) is clinically different from BP-II, which is defined
by recurrent episodes of hypomania and depression (American
Psychiatric Association, 2000). Only a minority of BP-II (15
20%) have a concurrent hyperthymic personality (Hantouche
et al., 1998; Akiskal et al., 2006a,b). Frequency of BPD in BP-II
was found to be high in tertiary-care settings (Perugi et al.,
2003; Akiskal et al., 2006a; Joyce et al., 2007), but associations
among symptoms of hypomania and BPD traits were not tested,
as in the present study. Childhood and adolescent hypomania
alone (not BP-II) was found to be a risk factor for adult BPD
(Joyce et al., 2003), but its frequency in BPD was low (Levitt
et al., 1990).
4.2. Impulsivity in BPD and BP-II
BPD impulsivity trait and affective instability trait are
among the most common and persistent features of BPD (more
often so for affective instability) (Links et al., 1999;
McGlashan et al., 2005; Zanarini et al., 2007; Tragesser et al.,
2007; Grilo et al., 2007). Thus, BPD impulsivity may represent one of its most important domains. The impulsivity of
hypomanic episodes has been shown to lie along a continuum
with inter-episode trait impulsivity, a trait found to be common
in BP-II (Fergus et al., 2003; Swann et al., 2007; Benazzi,
2007e; Peluso et al., 2007). Therefore, the present study association found between the impulsivity trait of BPD and the
impulsivity sign of hypomania may simply result from a trait
impulsivity common to both disorders. Furthermore, by studying impulsivity in more details, it has been shown that the
impulsivity profile of BPD may have distinct features compared
to the impulsivity profile of BP-II (i.e. more severity, less
attentional impulsiveness, more non-planning and motor impulsiveness, more cognitive and anxiety symptoms) (Wilson
et al., 2007). Also the affective instability of BPD and BP-II
seem to have distinguishing features when assessed by detailed
scales (Henry et al., 2001).
In our previous factor analysis study of the same sample
(Benazzi, 2006a) BPD traits showed two factors: one including
affective instability, unstable interpersonal relationships,
unstable self-image, chronic emptiness, and anger; and
one including impulsivity, suicidal behavior, avoidance of
abandonment, and paranoid ideation. The second factor including the impulsivity trait was not associated with a diagnosis of BP-II (which was instead the case for the affective
instability trait), but both factors had the same weak OR versus
BP-II (i.e. OR = 1.2), with minor differences in the 95% confidence intervals. Compared to this study, the present study has
several important differences: symptoms of hypomania and not
the diagnosis of BP-II were tested; more advanced statistical
methods were used, taking into account confounding among the
sets of symptoms of hypomania and of BPD traits; the impulsivity trait was tested (and not a factor including several
other traits apart from impulsivity); the entire sets of symptoms (the symptoms of hypomania, the traits of BPD) were
tested by multivariate analyses. The present study methods
tested the relationship between BPD and BP-II more in-depth,
and its results should have more validity compared to the former
study.
4.3. The definition of BPD
Much of the current unclear status of BPD (a personality
disorder or a bipolar spectrum disorder?) results also from the
DSM-IV-TR set of BPD traits, which include many traits more or
less related to mood instability and to bipolar disorders (i.e.
affective instability, unstable interpersonal relationships,
unstable self-image, impulsivity, suicidality, chronic emptiness, and anger) (Akiskal, 2004). Which domain(s) best
defines BPD is another current hot topic (affective instability?,
impulsivity?, disturbed relationships? or cognitive defects?) (Links et al., 1999; McGlashan et al., 2005; Paris,
2007; Paris et al., 2007; Tragesser et al., 2007; Zanarini et al.,
2007; Grilo et al., 2007; Gunderson, 2007).
Course may be the best validator to study BPD (Zanarini
et al., 2004; Skodol et al., 2005a; Gunderson et al., 2006;
Tragesser et al., 2007). However, it has been shown that BPD
traits have different degrees of long-term stability, varying according to the studies (Links et al., 1999; McGlashan et al.,
2005; Zanarini et al., 2004, 2007; Gunderson et al., 2006;
Tragesser et al., 2007; Grilo et al., 2007).
4.4. Some features of BP-II blurring the boundaries with BPD
On the other side, BP-II has been shown to be not only a
highly recurrent disorder (i.e. a very unstable one), but also to
have frequently mixed features, residual symptoms, trait impulsivity, and trait mood instability (Judd et al., 2003; Paykel
et al., 2006; Akiskal et al., 1995, 2003; Angst et al., 2003;
Perugi et al., 2003; Suppes et al., 2005; Benazzi, 2007b,e;
Swann et al., 2007; Peluso et al., 2007; Rihmer et al., 2007). All
these features lead to a stable instability in BP-II overlapping
with BPD traits, making it difficult to set a boundary between
(i.e. to disentangle) these disorders.
The present study, by focusing only on the hypomanic episodes, the defining feature of BP-II, may have partly overcome
some of these problems. It has been suggested that the affective
instability trait included in DSM-IV-TR BPD definition can be
the main cause of its misdiagnosis as a bipolar spectrum disorder, and that the core feature of BPD could be its trait impulsivity (Gunderson et al., 1996). The results of the present
study seem to support this view, but study limitations have to be
taken into account.
4.5. Any treatment impact from the study findings?
Placing BPD among personality disorders instead of placing it
among bipolar disorders could have significant impacts on treatment, e.g. more psychological treatment than antibipolar (mood
stabilising agents) pharmacology. However, clear evidence of the
1027
the clinician version of the SCID-II is used and it is administered by an independent assessor.
The present study setting may be more clinically representative than tertiary care, but it might be biased towards some
disorders or complex patients because of the author's local
reputation (e.g. bipolar spectrum disorders, especially BP-II,
treatment-resistant depressions). However, the patients included
in the studies carried out in this setting must present off recent
psychopharmacotherapy (which is usually not the case in the
severe tertiary-care patients) and must not abuse substances;
complex patients (a minority in this setting) are not included.
Interviews were conducted by the same interviewer.
However, the interviewer had been studying BP-II for many
years, and his inter-rater reliability for BP-II diagnosis was
acceptable (Benazzi, 2003a). Key informants were often concurrently interviewed. Diagnosing BP-II followed current best
practice, based on semi-structured interviews by bipolar-trained
clinicians (Dunner and Tay, 1993; Simpson et al., 2002; Bader
and Dunner, 2007). The minimum duration of hypomania was
2 days instead of the 4 days required by DSM-IV-TR, but
this manual's cutoff was consensus-based, while the present
study cutoff is evidence-based (for more details: Judd et al.,
2003; Angst et al., 2003; Bader and Dunner, 2007; Benazzi,
2007b,c,d).
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