Using Commas, Semicolons, and Colons within Sentences

Punctuation within sentences can be tricky; however, if you know just a few of the
following rules, you will be well on your way to becoming a polished writer and
proofreader.
Rule: Use a comma between two long independent clauses when conjunctions such
as and, or, but, for, nor connect them.
Example: I have painted the entire house, but she is still working on sanding the
floors.
Rule: If the clauses are both short, you may omit the comma.
Example: I painted and he sanded.
Rule: If you have only one clause (one subject and verb pair), you wont usually
need a comma in front of the conjunction.
Example: I have painted the house but still need to sand the floors.
This sentence has two verbs but only one subject, so it has only one clause.
Rule: Use the semicolon if you have two independent clauses connected without a
conjunction.
Example: I have painted the house; I still need to sand the floors.
Rule: Also use the semicolon when you already have commas within a sentence for
smaller separations, and you need the semicolon to show bigger separations.
Example: We had a reunion with family from Salt Lake City, Utah; Los Angeles,
California; and Albany, New York.
Rule: A colon is used to introduce a second sentence that clarifies the first sentence.
Example: We have set this restriction: do your homework before watching
television.
Notice that the first word of the second sentence is not capitalized. If, however, you
have additional sentences following the sentence with the colon and they explain
the sentence prior to the colon, capitalize the first word of all the sentences
following the colon.
Rule: Use a colon to introduce a list when no introductory words like namely, for
instance, i.e., e.g. precede the list.
Example: I need four paint colors: blue, gray, green, and red.

Commas
Commas and periods are the most frequently used punctuation marks. Commas
customarily indicate a brief pause; they're not as final as periods.

Rule 1. Use commas to separate words and word groups in a simple series of three
or more items.

Example: My estate goes to my husband, son, daughter-in-law, and nephew.

Note: When the last comma in a series comes before and or or (after daughter-inlaw in the above example), it is known as the Oxford comma. Most newspapers and
magazines drop the Oxford comma in a simple series, apparently feeling it's
unnecessary. However, omission of the Oxford comma can sometimes lead to
misunderstandings.
Example: We had coffee, cheese and crackers and grapes.
Adding a comma after crackers makes it clear that cheese and crackers represents
one dish. In cases like this, clarity demands the Oxford comma.
We had coffee, cheese and crackers, and grapes.
Fiction and nonfiction books generally prefer the Oxford comma. Writers must
decide Oxford or no Oxford and not switch back and forth, except when omitting the
Oxford comma could cause confusion as in the cheese and crackers example.
Rule 2. Use a comma to separate two adjectives when the adjectives are
interchangeable.
Example: He is a strong, healthy man.
We could also say healthy, strong man.
Example: We stayed at an expensive summer resort.
We would not say summer expensive resort, so no comma.
Rule 3a. Many inexperienced writers run two independent clauses together by using
a comma instead of a period. This results in the dreaded run-on sentence or, more
technically, a comma splice.
Incorrect: He walked all the way home, he shut the door.

There are several simple remedies:

Correct: He walked all the way home. He shut the door.
Correct: After he walked all the way home, he shut the door.
Correct: He walked all the way home, and he shut the door.

Rule 3b. In sentences where two independent clauses are joined by connectors such
as and, or, but, etc., put a comma at the end of the first clause.
Incorrect: He walked all the way home and he shut the door.
Correct: He walked all the way home, and he shut the door.
Some writers omit the comma if the clauses are both quite short:
Example: I paint and he writes.
Rule 3c. If the subject does not appear in front of the second verb, a comma is
generally unnecessary.
Example: He thought quickly but still did not answer correctly.
Rule 4a. Use a comma after certain words that introduce a sentence, such as well,
yes, why, hello, hey, etc.
Examples:
Why, I can't believe this!
No, you can't have a dollar.
Rule 4b. Use commas to set off expressions that interrupt the sentence flow
(nevertheless, after all, by the way, on the other hand, however, etc.).
Example: I am, by the way, very nervous about this.
Rule 5. Use commas to set off the name, nickname, term of endearment, or title of a
person directly addressed.
Examples:
Will you, Aisha, do that assignment for me?
Yes, old friend, I will.
Good day, Captain.

Rule 6. Use a comma to separate the day of the month from the year, andwhat
most people forget!always put one after the year, also.
Example: It was in the Sun's June 5, 2003, edition.
No comma is necessary for just the month and year.
Example: It was in a June 2003 article.
Rule 7. Use a comma to separate a city from its state, and remember to put one
after the state, also.
Example: I'm from the Akron, Ohio, area.
Rule 8. Traditionally, if a person's name is followed by Sr. or Jr., a comma follows the
last name: Martin Luther King, Jr. This comma is no longer considered mandatory.
However, if a comma does precede Sr. or Jr., another comma must follow the entire
name when it appears midsentence.
Correct: Al Mooney Sr. is here.
Correct: Al Mooney, Sr., is here.
Incorrect: Al Mooney, Sr. is here.
Rule 9. Similarly, use commas to enclose degrees or titles used with names.
Example: Al Mooney, M.D., is here.
Rule 10. When starting a sentence with a dependent clause, use a comma after it.
Example: If you are not sure about this, let me know now.
But often a comma is unnecessary when the sentence starts with an independent
clause followed by a dependent clause.
Example: Let me know now if you are not sure about this.
Rule 11. Use commas to set off nonessential words, clauses, and phrases (see the
"Who, That, Which" section in Chapter One, Rule 2b).
Incorrect: Jill who is my sister shut the door.
Correct: Jill, who is my sister, shut the door.
Incorrect: The man knowing it was late hurried home.
Correct: The man, knowing it was late, hurried home.

In the preceding examples, note the comma after sister and late. Nonessential
words, clauses, and phrases that occur midsentence must be enclosed by commas.
The closing comma is called an appositive comma. Many writers forget to add this
important comma. Following are two instances of the need for an appositive comma
with one or more nouns.
Incorrect: My best friend, Joe arrived.

Correct: My best friend, Joe, arrived.

Incorrect: The three items, a book, a pen, and paper were on the table.
Correct: The three items, a book, a pen, and paper, were on the table.
Rule 12. If something or someone is sufficiently identified, the description that
follows is considered nonessential and should be surrounded by commas.
Examples:
Freddy, who has a limp, was in an auto accident.
If we already know which Freddy is meant, the description is not essential.
The boy who has a limp was in an auto accident.
We do not know which boy is meant without further description; therefore, no
commas are used.
This leads to a persistent problem. Look at the following sentence:
Example: My brother Bill is here.
Now, see how adding two commas changes that sentence's meaning:
Example: My brother, Bill, is here.
Careful writers and readers understand that the first sentence means I have more
than one brother. The commas in the second sentence mean that Bill is my only
brother.
Why? In the first sentence, Bill is essential information: it identifies which of my two
(or more) brothers I'm speaking of. This is why no commas enclose Bill.
In the second sentence, Bill is nonessential informationwhom else but Bill could I
mean?hence the commas.
Comma misuse is nothing to take lightly. It can lead to a train wreck like this:

Example: Mark Twain's book, Tom Sawyer, is a delight.

Because of the commas, that sentence states that Twain wrote only one book. In
fact, he wrote more than two dozen of them.
Rule 13a. Use commas to introduce or interrupt direct quotations.
Examples:
He said, "I don't care."
"Why," I asked, "don't you care?"
This rule is optional with one-word quotations.
Example: He said "Stop."
Rule 13b. If the quotation comes before he said, she wrote, they reported, Dana
insisted, or a similar attribution, end the quoted material with a comma, even if it is
only one word.
Examples:
"I don't care," he said.
"Stop," he said.
Rule 14. Use a comma to separate a statement from a question.
Example: I can go, can't I?
Rule 15. Use a comma to separate contrasting parts of a sentence.
Example: That is my money, not yours.
Rule 16a. Use a comma before and after certain introductory words or terms, such
as namely, that is, i.e., e.g., and for instance, when they are followed by a series of
items.
Example: You may be required to bring many items, e.g., sleeping bags, pans, and
warm clothing.
Rule 16a. Commas should precede the term etc. and enclose it if it is placed
midsentence.
Example: Sleeping bags, pans, warm clothing, etc., are in the tent.
NOTE
The abbreviation i.e. means "that is"; e.g. means "for example."

Colons
A colon means "that is to say" or "here's what I mean." Colons and semicolons
should never be used interchangeably.
Rule 1. Use a colon to introduce a series of items. Do not capitalize the first item
after the colon (unless it's a proper noun).
Examples:
You may be required to bring many things: sleeping bags, pans, utensils, and warm
clothing.
I want the following items: butter, sugar, and flour.
I need an assistant who can do the following: input data, write reports, and
complete tax forms.
Rule 2. Avoid using a colon before a list when it directly follows a verb or
preposition.
Incorrect: I want: butter, sugar, and flour.
Correct:
I want the following: butter, sugar, and flour.
OR
I want butter, sugar, and flour.
Incorrect: I've seen the greats, including: Barrymore, Guinness, and Streep.
Correct: I've seen the greats, including Barrymore, Guinness, and Streep.
Rule 3. When listing items one by one, one per line, following a colon, capitalization
and ending punctuation are optional when using single words or phrases preceded
by letters, numbers, or bullet points. If each point is a complete sentence, capitalize
the first word and end the sentence with appropriate ending punctuation.
Otherwise, there are no hard and fast rules, except be consistent.
Examples:
I want an assistant who can do the following:
input data
write reports
complete tax forms

The following are requested:

Wool sweaters for possible cold weather.
Wet suits for snorkeling.
Introductions to the local dignitaries.
These are the pool rules:
Do not run.
If you see unsafe behavior, report it to the lifeguard.
Did you remember your towel?
Have fun!
Rule 4. A colon instead of a semicolon may be used between independent clauses
when the second sentence explains, illustrates, paraphrases, or expands on the first
sentence.
Example: He got what he worked for: he really earned that promotion.
If a complete sentence follows a colon, as in the previous example, it is up to the
writer to decide whether to capitalize the first word. Capitalizing a sentence after a
colon is generally a judgment call; if what follows a colon is closely related to what
precedes it, there is no need for a capital.
Note: A capital letter generally does not introduce a simple phrase following a colon.
Example: He got what he worked for: a promotion.
Rule 5. A colon may be used to introduce a long quotation. Some style manuals say
to indent one-half inch on both the left and right margins; others say to indent only
on the left margin. Quotation marks are not used.
Example: The author of Touched, Jane Straus, wrote in the first chapter:
Georgia went back to her bed and stared at the intricate patterns of burned moth
wings in the translucent glass of the overhead light. Her father was in "hyper mode"
again where nothing could calm him down.
Rule 6. Use a colon rather than a comma to follow the salutation in a business
letter, even when addressing someone by his or her first name. (Never use a
semicolon after a salutation.) A comma is used after the salutation in more informal
correspondence.
Formal: Dear Ms. Rodriguez:

Informal: Dear Dave,

Exclamation Points
Rule 1. Use an exclamation point to show emotion, emphasis, or surprise.
Examples:
I'm truly shocked by your behavior!
Yay! We won!
Rule 2. An exclamation point replaces a period at the end of a sentence.
Incorrect: I'm truly shocked by your behavior!.
Rule 3. Do not use an exclamation point in formal business writing.

Rule 4. Overuse of exclamation points is a sign of undisciplined writing. Do not use

even one of these marks unless you're convinced it is justified.
Apostrophes
Rule 1a. Use the apostrophe to show possession. To show possession with a singular
noun, add an apostrophe plus the letter s.
Examples:
a woman's hat
the boss's wife
Mrs. Chang's house
Rule 1b. Many common nouns end in the letter s (lens, cactus, bus, etc.). So do a lot
of proper nouns (Mr. Jones, Texas, Christmas). There are conflicting policies and
theories about how to show possession when writing such nouns. There is no right
answer; the best advice is to choose a formula and stay consistent.
Rule 1c. Some writers and editors add only an apostrophe to all nouns ending in s.
And some add an apostrophe + s to every proper noun, be it Hastings's or Jones's.
One method, common in newspapers and magazines, is to add an apostrophe + s
('s) to common nouns ending in s, but only a stand-alone apostrophe to proper
nouns ending in s.
Examples:

the class's hours

Mr. Jones' golf clubs
the canvas's size
Texas' weather
Care must be taken to place the apostrophe outside the word in question. For
instance, if talking about a pen belonging to Mr. Hastings, many people would
wrongly write Mr. Hasting's pen (his name is not Mr. Hasting).
Correct: Mr. Hastings' pen
Another widely used technique is to write the word as we would speak it. For
example, since most people saying, "Mr. Hastings' pen" would not pronounce an
added s, we would write Mr. Hastings' pen with no added s. But most people would
pronounce an added s in "Jones's," so we'd write it as we say it: Mr. Jones's golf
clubs. This method explains the punctuation of for goodness' sake.

Rule 2a. Regular nouns are nouns that form their plurals by adding either the letter
s or -es (guy, guys; letter, letters; actress, actresses; etc.). To show plural
possession, simply put an apostrophe after the s.
Correct: guys' night out (guy + s + apostrophe)
Incorrect: guy's night out (implies only one guy)
Correct: two actresses' roles (actress + es + apostrophe)
Incorrect: two actress's roles
Rule 2b. Do not use an apostrophe + s to make a regular noun plural.
Incorrect: Apostrophe's are confusing.
Correct: Apostrophes are confusing.
Incorrect: We've had many happy Christmas's.
Correct: We've had many happy Christmases.
In special cases, such as when forming a plural of a word that is not normally a
noun, some writers add an apostrophe for clarity.
Example: Here are some do's and don'ts.

In that sentence, the verb do is used as a plural noun, and the apostrophe was
added because the writer felt that dos was confusing. Not all writers agree; some
see no problem with dos and don'ts.
Rule 2c. English also has many irregular nouns (child, nucleus, tooth, etc.). These
nouns become plural by changing their spelling, sometimes becoming quite
different words. You may find it helpful to write out the entire irregular plural noun
before adding an apostrophe or an apostrophe + s.
Incorrect: two childrens' hats
The plural is children, not childrens.
Correct: two children's hats (children + apostrophe + s)
Incorrect: the teeths' roots
Correct: the teeth's roots
Rule 2d. Things can get really confusing with the possessive plurals of proper names
ending in s, such as Hastings and Jones.
If you're the guest of the Ford familythe Fordsyou're the Fords' guest (Ford + s +
apostrophe). But what if it's the Hastings family?
Most would call them the "Hastings." But that would refer to a family named
"Hasting." If someone's name ends in s, we must add -es for the plural. The plural of
Hastings is Hastingses. The members of the Jones family are the Joneses.
To show possession, add an apostrophe.
Incorrect: the Hastings' dog
Correct: the Hastingses' dog (Hastings + es + apostrophe)
Incorrect: the Jones' car
Correct: the Joneses' car
In serious writing, this rule must be followed no matter how strange or awkward the
results.
Rule 2e. Never use an apostrophe to make a name plural.
Incorrect: The Wilson's are here.
Correct: The Wilsons are here.
Incorrect: We visited the Sanchez's.

Correct: We visited the Sanchezes.

Rule 3. With a singular compound noun (for example, mother-in-law), show
possession with an apostrophe + s at the end of the word.
Example: my mother-in-law's hat
If the compound noun (e.g., brother-in-law) is to be made plural, form the plural first
(brothers-in-law), and then use the apostrophe + s.
Example: my two brothers-in-law's hats
Rule 4. If two people possess the same item, put the apostrophe + s after the
second name only.
Example: Cesar and Maribel's home is constructed of redwood.
However, if one of the joint owners is written as a pronoun, use the possessive form
for both.
Incorrect: Maribel and my home
Correct: Maribel's and my home
Incorrect: he and Maribel's home
Incorrect: him and Maribel's home
Correct: his and Maribel's home
In cases of separate rather than joint possession, use the possessive form for both.
Examples:
Cesar's and Maribel's homes are both lovely.
They don't own the homes jointly.
Cesar and Maribel's homes are both lovely.
The homes belong to both of them.
Rule 5. Use an apostrophe with contractions. The apostrophe is placed where a
letter or letters have been removed.
Examples: doesn't, wouldn't, it's, can't, you've, etc.
Incorrect: does'nt
Rule 6. There are various approaches to plurals for initials, capital letters, and
numbers used as nouns.

Examples:
She consulted with three M.D.s.
She consulted with three M.D.'s.
Some write M.D.'s to give the s separation from the second period.
Many writers and editors prefer an apostrophe after single capital letters only:
Examples:
I made straight A's.
He learned his ABCs.
There are different schools of thought about years and decades. The following
examples are all in widespread use:
Examples:
the 1990s
the 1990's
the '90s
the 90's
Awkward: the '90's
Rule 7. Amounts of time or money are sometimes used as possessive adjectives
that require apostrophes.
Incorrect: three days leave
Correct: three days' leave
Incorrect: my two cents worth
Correct: my two cents' worth
Rule 8. The personal pronouns hers, ours, yours, theirs, its, whose, and oneself
never take an apostrophe.
Example: Feed a horse grain. It's better for its health.
Rule 9. When an apostrophe comes before a word or number, take care that it's
truly an apostrophe () rather than a single quotation mark ().
Incorrect: Twas the night before Christmas.

Correct: Twas the night before Christmas.

Incorrect: I voted in 08.
Correct: I voted in 08.
NOTE
Serious writers avoid the word 'til as an alternative to until. The correct word is till,
which is many centuries older than until.
Rule 10. Beware of false possessives, which often occur with nouns ending in s.
Don't add apostrophes to noun-derived adjectives ending in s. Close analysis is the
best guide.
Incorrect: We enjoyed the New Orleans' cuisine.
In the preceding sentence, the word the makes no sense unless New Orleans is
being used as an adjective to describe cuisine. In English, nouns frequently become
adjectives. Adjectives rarely if ever take apostrophes.
Incorrect: I like that Beatles' song.
Correct: I like that Beatles song.
Again, Beatles is an adjective, modifying song.
Incorrect: He's a United States' citizen.
Correct: He's a United States citizen.
Rule 11. Beware of nouns ending in y; do not show possession by changing the y to
-ies.
Correct: the company's policy
Incorrect: the companies policy
Correct: three companies' policies
Capitalization Rules
Capitalization is the writing of a word with its first letter in uppercase and the
remaining letters in lowercase. Experienced writers are stingy with capitals. It is
best not to use them if there is any doubt.
Rule 1. Capitalize the first word of a document and the first word after a period.
Rule 2. Capitalize proper nounsand adjectives derived from proper nouns.

Examples:
the Golden Gate Bridge
the Grand Canyon
a Russian song
a Shakespearean sonnet
a Freudian slip
With the passage of time, some words originally derived from proper nouns have
taken on a life, and authority, of their own and no longer require capitalization.
Examples:
herculean (from the ancient-Greek hero Hercules)
quixotic (from the hero of the classic novel Don Quixote)
draconian (from ancient-Athenian lawgiver Draco)

The main function of capitals is to focus attention on particular elements within any
group of people, places, or things. We can speak of a lake in the middle of the
country, or we can be more specific and say Lake Michigan, which distinguishes it
from every other lake on earth.
Capitalization Reference List
Brand names
Companies
Days of the week and months of the year
Governmental matters
Congress (but congressional), the U.S. Constitution (but constitutional), the Electoral
College, Department of Agriculture. Note: Many authorities do not capitalize federal
or state unless it is part of the official title: State Water Resources Control Board, but
state water board; Federal Communications Commission, but federal regulations.
Historical episodes and eras
the Inquisition, the American Revolutionary War, the Great Depression
Holidays

Institutions
Oxford College, the Juilliard School of Music
Manmade structures
the Empire State Building, the Eiffel Tower, the Titanic
Manmade territories
Berlin, Montana, Cook County
Natural and manmade landmarks
Mount Everest, the Hoover Dam
Nicknames and epithets
Andrew "Old Hickory" Jackson; Babe Ruth, the Sultan of Swat
Organizations
American Center for Law and Justice, Norwegian Ministry of the Environment
Planets
Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, but policies vary on
capitalizing earth, and it is usually not capitalized unless it is being discussed
specifically as a planet: We learned that Earth travels through space at 66,700 miles
per hour.

Races, nationalities, and tribes

Eskimo, Navajo, East Indian, Caucasian, African American (Note: white and black in
reference to race are lowercase)
Religions and names of deities
Note: Capitalize the Bible (but biblical). Do not capitalize heaven, hell, the devil,
satanic.
Special occasions
the Olympic Games, the Cannes Film Festival
Streets and roads

Lowercase Reference List

Here is a list of categories not capitalized unless an item contains a proper noun or
proper adjective (or, sometimes, a trademark). In such cases, only the proper noun
or adjective is capitalized.

Animals
antelope, black bear, Bengal tiger, yellow-bellied sapsucker, German shepherd
Elements
Always lowercase, even when the name is derived from a proper noun: einsteinium,
nobelium, californium
Foods
Lowercase except for brand names, proper nouns and adjectives, or custom-named
recipes: Tabasco sauce, Russian dressing, pepper crusted bluefin tuna, Mandy's
Bluefin Surprise
Heavenly bodies besides planets
Never capitalize the moon or the sun.
Medical conditions
Epstein-Barr syndrome, tuberculosis, Parkinson's disease
Minerals
Plants, vegetables, and fruits
poinsettia, Douglas fir, Jerusalem artichoke, organic celery, Golden Delicious apples
Seasons and seasonal data
spring, summertime, the winter solstice, the autumnal equinox, daylight saving time
Rule 3. A thorny aspect of capitalization: where does it stop? When does the Iraq
war become the Iraq War? Why is the legendary Hope Diamond not the Hope
diamond? Everyone writes New York City, so why does the Associated Press
Stylebook recommend New York state? There aren't always easy formulas or logical
explanations. Research with reference books and search engines is the best
strategy.

In the case of brand names, companies are of little help, because they capitalize
any word that applies to their merchandise. Domino's Pizza or Domino's pizza? Is it
Ivory Soap or Ivory soap, a Hilton Hotel or a Hilton hotel? Most writers don't
capitalize common nouns that simply describe the products (pizza, soap, hotel), but
it's not always easy to determine where a brand name ends. There is Time
magazine but also the New York Times Magazine. No one would argue with CocaCola or Pepsi Cola, but a case could be made for Royal Crown cola.

If a trademark starts with a lowercase word or letter (e.g., eBay, iPhone), many
authorities advise capitalizing it to begin a sentence.

Example: EBay opened strong in trading today.

Rule 4. Capitalize titles when they are used before names, unless the title is
followed by a comma. Do not capitalize the title if it is used after a name or instead
of a name.

Examples:
The president will address Congress.
Chairman of the Board William Bly will preside at the conference.
The chairman of the board, William Bly, will preside.
The senators from Iowa and Ohio are expected to attend.
Also expected to attend are Senators Buzz James and Eddie Twain.
The governors, lieutenant governors, and attorneys general called for a special task
force.
Governor Fortinbrass, Lieutenant Governor Poppins, and Attorney General Dalloway
will attend.

NOTE

Out of respect, some writers and publishers choose to capitalize the highest ranks in
government, royalty, religion, etc.

Examples:
The President arrived.
The Queen spoke.
The Pope decreed.

Many American writers believe this to be a wrongheaded policy in a country where,

theoretically, all humans are perceived as equal.

Rule 5. Titles are not the same as occupations. Do not capitalize occupations before
full names.

Examples:
director Steven Spielberg
owner Helen Smith
coach Biff Sykes

Sometimes the line between title and occupation gets blurred. One example is
general manager: is it a title or an occupation? Opinions differ. Same with professor:
the Associated Press Stylebook considers professor a job description rather than a
title, and recommends using lowercase even before the full name: professor Robert
Ames.

Rule 6a. Capitalize a formal title when it is used as a direct address.

Example: Will you take my temperature, Doctor?

Rule 6b. Capitalize relatives' family names (kinship names) when they immediately
precede a personal name, or when they are used alone in place of a personal name.

Examples:
I found out that Mom is here.
You look good, Grandpa.
Andy and Opie loved Aunt Bee's apple pies.

However, these monikers are not capitalized with possessive nouns or pronouns,
when they follow the personal name, or when they are not referencing a specific
person.

Examples:
My mom is here.
Joe's grandpa looks well.
The James brothers were notorious robbers.
There's not one mother I know who would allow that.

Rule 6c. Capitalize nicknames in all cases.

Examples:
Meet my brothers, Junior and Scooter.
I just met two guys named Junior and Scooter.

Rule 7. Capitalize specific geographical regions. Do not capitalize points of the

compass.

Examples:

We had three relatives visit from the West.

Go west three blocks and then turn left.
We left Florida and drove north.
We live in the Southeast.
We live in the southeast section of town.
Most of the West Coast is rainy this time of year. (referring to the United States)
The west coast of Scotland is rainy this time of year.

Some areas have come to be capitalized for their fame or notoriety:

Examples:
I'm from New York's Upper West Side.
I'm from the South Side of Chicago.
You live in Northern California; he lives in Southern California.

Rule 8. In general, do not capitalize the word the before proper nouns.

Examples:
I'm reading the London Times.
They're fans of the Grateful Dead.

In special cases, if the word the is an inseparable part of something's official title, it
may be capitalized.

Example: We visited The Hague.

Rule 9. Do not capitalize city, town, county, etc., if it comes before the proper name.

Examples:
the city of New York
New York City
the county of Marin
Marin County

Rule 10. Always capitalize the first word in a complete quotation, even midsentence.

Example: Bill said, "That job we started last April is done."

Rule 11. For emphasis, writers sometimes capitalize a midsentence independent

clause or question.

Examples:
One of her cardinal rules was, Never betray a friend.
It made me wonder, What is mankind's destiny?

Rule 12. Capitalize the names of specific course titles, but not general academic
subjects.

Examples:
I must take history and Algebra 101.
He has a double major in European economics and philosophy.

Rule 13. Capitalize art movements.

Example: I like Surrealism, but I never understood Abstract Expressionism.

Rule 14. Do not capitalize the first item in a list that follows a colon.

Example: Bring the following: paper, a pencil, and a snack.

For more on capitalization after a colon, go to "Colons," Rules 1, 3, and 4.

Rule 15. Do not capitalize "the national anthem."

Rule 16a. Composition titles: which words should be capitalized in titles of books,
plays, films, songs, poems, essays, chapters, etc.? This is a vexing matter, and
policies vary. The usual advice is to capitalize only the "important" words. But this
isn't really very helpful. Aren't all words in a title important?

The following rules for capitalizing composition titles are universal.

Capitalize the title's first and last word.

Capitalize verbs, including all forms of the verb to be (is, are, was, etc.).
Capitalize all pronouns, including it, he, who, that, etc.
Capitalize not.
Do not capitalize a, an, or the unless it is first or last in the title.
Do not capitalize the word and, or, or nor unless it is first or last in the title.
Do not capitalize the word to, with or without an infinitive, unless it is first or last in
the title.
Otherwise, styles, methods, and opinions vary. Small words such as or, as, if, and
but are capped by some, but lowercased by others.

The major bone of contention is prepositions. The Associated Press Stylebook

recommends capitalizing all prepositions of more than three letters (e.g., With,
About, Across). Others advise lowercase until a preposition reaches five or more
letters. Still others say not to capitalize any preposition, even big words like
regarding or underneath.

Hyphenated words in a title also present problems. There are no set rules. Some
writers, editors, and publishers choose not to capitalize words following hyphens
unless they are proper nouns or proper adjectives (Ex-Marine but Ex-husband).
Others capitalize any word that would otherwise be capped in titles (Prize-Winning,
Up-to-Date).

Rule 16b. Many books have subtitles. When including these, put a colon after the
work's title and follow the same rules of composition capitalization for the subtitle.

Example: The King's English: A Guide to Modern Usage

Note that A is capitalized because it is the first word of the subtitle.

Suppose you are reviewing a book whose title on the cover is in capital letters: THE
STUFF OF THOUGHT. Beneath, in smaller capital letters, is the subtitle, LANGUAGE
AS A WINDOW INTO HUMAN NATURE. All sides would agree that the main title
should be written, The Stuff of Thought. But depending on which capitalization
policy you choose, the subtitle might be any of the following:

Language As a Window Into Human Nature

Language as a Window Into Human Nature
Language As a Window into Human Nature
Language as a Window into Human Nature

Capitalizing composition titles is fraught with gray areas. Pick a policy and be
consistent.

Writing Numbers
Except for a few basic rules, spelling out numbers vs. using figures (also called
numerals) is largely a matter of writers' preference. Again, consistency is the key.

Policies and philosophies vary from medium to medium. The two most influential
guidebooks for publishers, editors, and writers, the Associated Press Stylebook and
the Chicago Manual of Style, have different approaches. The first recommends
spelling out the numbers one through nine and using figures thereafter; Chicago
recommends spelling out the numbers one through ninety-nine and using figures
thereafter.

This is a complex topic, with many exceptions, and there is no consistency we can
rely on among blogs, books, newspapers, and magazines. This chapter will confine
itself to rules that all media seem to agree on.

Rule 1. Spell out all numbers beginning a sentence.

Examples:
Twenty-three hundred sixty-one victims were hospitalized.
Nineteen fifty-six was quite a year.

Note: The Associated Press Stylebook makes an exception for years.

Example: 1956 was quite a year.

Rule 2a. Hyphenate all compound numbers from twenty-one through ninety-nine.

Examples:
Forty-three people were injured in the train wreck.

Twenty-seven of them were hospitalized.

Rule 2b. Hyphenate all written-out fractions.

Examples:
We recovered about two-thirds of the stolen cash.
One-half is slightly less than five-eighths.

Rule 3a. With figures of four or more digits, use commas. Count three spaces to the
left to place the first comma. Continue placing commas after every three digits.
Important: do not include decimal points when doing the counting.

Examples:
1,054 people
$2,417,592.21

Rule 3b. It is not necessary to use a decimal point or a dollar sign when writing out
sums of less than a dollar.

Not Advised: He had only $0.60.

Better:
He had only sixty cents.
OR
He had only 60 cents.

Rule 4a. For clarity, use noon and midnight rather than 12:00 PM and 12:00 AM.

NOTE

AM and PM are also written A.M. and P.M., a.m. and p.m., and am and pm. Some put
a space between the time and AM or PM.

Examples:
8 AM
3:09 P.M.
11:20 p.m.

Others write times using no space before AM or PM.

Example:
8AM
3:09P.M.
11:20p.m.

For the top of the hour, some write 9:00 PM, whereas others drop the :00 and write
9 PM (or 9 p.m., 9pm, etc.).

Rule 4b. Using numerals for the time of day has become widely accepted.

Examples:
The flight leaves at 6:22 a.m.
Please arrive by 12:30 sharp.

However, some writers prefer to spell out the time, particularly when using o'clock.

Examples:
She takes the four thirty-five train.
The baby wakes up at five o'clock in the morning.

Rule 5. Mixed fractions are often expressed in figures unless they begin a sentence.

Examples:
We expect a 5 1/2 percent wage increase.
Five and one-half percent was the expected wage increase.

Rule 6. The simplest way to express large numbers is usually best.

Example: twenty-three hundred (simpler than two thousand three hundred)

Large round numbers are often spelled out, but be consistent within a sentence.

Consistent: You can earn from one million to five million dollars.

Inconsistent: You can earn from one million dollars to 5 million dollars.

Inconsistent: You can earn from $1 million to five million dollars.

Rule 7. Write decimals using figures. As a courtesy to readers, many writers put a
zero in front of the decimal point.

Examples:
The plant grew 0.79 inches last year.
The plant grew only 0.07 inches this year.

Rule 8. When writing out a number of three or more digits, the word and is not
necessary. However, use the word and to express any decimal points that may
accompany these numbers.

Examples:
one thousand one hundred fifty-four dollars
one thousand one hundred fifty-four dollars and sixty-one cents

Simpler: eleven hundred fifty-four dollars and sixty-one cents

Rule 9. The following examples are typical when using figures to express dates.

Examples:
the 30th of June, 1934
June 30, 1934 (no -th necessary)

Rule 10. When spelling out decades, do not capitalize them.

Example: During the eighties and nineties, the U.S. economy grew.

Rule 11. When expressing decades using figures, it is simpler to put an apostrophe
before the incomplete numeral and no apostrophe between the number and the s.

Example: During the '80s and '90s, the U.S. economy grew.

Some writers place an apostrophe after the number:

Example: During the 80's and 90's, the U.S. economy grew.

Awkward: During the '80's and '90's, the U.S. economy grew.

Rule 12. You may also express decades in complete numerals. Again, it is cleaner to
avoid an apostrophe between the year and the s.

Example: During the 1980s and 1990s, the U.S. economy grew.
Many words in English sound or look alike, causing confusion and not a few
headaches. This section lists some of these words, and other troublemakers.

A, AN

ABBREVIATION, ACRONYM
ACCEPT, EXCEPT
ACRONYM
AD, ADD
ADAPT, ADOPT
ADVERSE, AVERSE
ADVICE, ADVISE
AFFECT, EFFECT
AGGRAVATE
AHOLD

AID, AIDE
AIL, ALE
AISLE, ISLE
ALL READY, ALREADY
ALL RIGHT
ALL-TIME RECORD
ALL TOGETHER, ALTOGETHER
ALLUDE, ELUDE, REFER
ALLUSION, ILLUSION
ALLOWED, ALOUD
ALTAR, ALTER
AMBIGUOUS, AMBIVALENT
AMIABLE, AMICABLE
AMID, AMIDST
AMOUNT, NUMBER

a.m., p.m.
AN
AND/OR
ANECDOTE, ANTIDOTE
AN HISTORIC
ANXIOUS, EAGER
ANY MORE, ANYMORE
ANY TIME, ANYTIME
APPRAISE, APPRISE
ASCENT, ASSENT

AS REGARDS
ASSUME, PRESUME
ASSURE, ENSURE, INSURE
AURAL, ORAL
AVERSE
A WHILE, AWHILE
BACKWARD, BACKWARDS
BACTERIA
BAIL, BALE
BAITED BREATH, BATED BREATH
BALL, BAWL
BARE, BEAR
BASICALLY
BEACH, BEECH
BEAT, BEET
BECAUSE, SINCE
BELL, BELLE
BENIGHTED
BERTH, BIRTH
BESIDE, BESIDES
BETTER, BETTOR
BIANNUAL, BIENNIAL, SEMIANNUAL
BITE, BYTE
BLOC, BLOCK
BOAR, BOOR, BORE
BOARD, BORED

BOLDER, BOULDER
BORN, BORNE
BOY, BUOY
BRAKE, BREAK
BRIDAL, BRIDLE
BRING, TAKE
BROACH, BROOCH
BUOY
BYTE
CACHE, CASH
CAN, MAY
CANNON, CANON
CANNOT
CANVAS, CANVASS
CAPITAL, CAPITOL
CARAT, CARET, KARAT
CAREEN, CAREER
CAST, CASTE
CEMENT, CONCRETE
CENSOR, CENSURE
CENTER AROUND
CEREAL, SERIAL
CHAISE LOUNGE
CHILDISH, CHILDLIKE
CHILE, CHILI
CHOMPING AT THE BIT

CHORAL, CORAL
CHORALE, CORRAL
CHORD, CORD
CITE, SIGHT, SITE
CLASSIC, CLASSICAL
CLICH
CLICK, CLIQUE
CLIMACTIC, CLIMATIC
CLOSE PROXIMITY
COARSE, COURSE
COHORT
COIN A PHRASE
COINCIDENCE
COLLECTABLE, COLLECTIBLE
COLLIDE, CRASH
COMPLEMENT, COMPLIMENT
COMPLETE, COMPLETELY
COMPRISE
CONCERTED
CONCRETE
CONFIDANT, CONFIDENT
CONNIVE, CONSPIRE
CONNOTE, DENOTE
CONTINUAL, CONTINUOUS
CONVINCE, PERSUADE
CORAL

CORD
CORRAL
COUNCIL, COUNSEL
COUPLE (OF)
COURSE
CRASH
CRAVEN
CRITERIA
CURRENTLY
DAILY BASIS
DATA
DEFINITE, DEFINITIVE
DENOTE
DESERT, DESSERT
DESPISE
DEVICE, DEVISE
DIFFERENT FROM, DIFFERENT THAN
DILEMMA
DISBURSE, DISPERSE
DISCOMFIT, DISCOMFORT
DISCREET, DISCRETE
DISINTERESTED, UNINTERESTED
DOCK
DRUG (DRAGGED)
DUAL, DUEL
EAGER

EFFECT
e.g., i.e.
EKE OUT
ELUDE
EMIGRATE, IMMIGRATE
EMINENT, IMMINENT
EMPATHY, SYMPATHY
EMULATE, IMITATE
ENORMITY
ENSURE
ENTHUSE
EPITAPH, EPITHET
EPITOME
ERSTWHILE
etc., et al.
EVERY DAY, EVERYDAY
EXACERBATE, EXAGGERATE
EXCEPT
FACTIOUS, FRACTIOUS
FAINT, FEINT
FAIR, FARE
FARTHER, FURTHER
FAZE, PHASE
FEAT, FEET
FEWER, LESS
FIR, FUR

FIRSTLY
FLAIR, FLARE
FLAMMABLE, INFLAMMABLE
FLAUNT, FLOUT
FLEA, FLEE
FLOUNDER, FOUNDER
FLOUR, FLOWER
FOREGO, FORGO
FOREWORD, FORWARD
FORMER
FORTH, FOURTH
FORTUITOUS, FORTUNATE
FOUL, FOWL
FRACTIOUS
FREE GIFT
FULSOME
FUN
FUR
FURTHER
GAIT, GATE
GAMUT
GANTLET, GAUNTLET
GEL, JELL
GILT, GUILT
GLIB
GRADUATE

GRAFFITI
GRILL, GRILLE
GRISLY, GRISTLY, GRIZZLY
GUERRILLA
HAIR, HARE
HALL, HAUL
HALVE, HAVE
HANGAR, HANGER
HANGED, HUNG
HEAL, HEEL
HEALTHFUL, HEALTHY
HEAR, HERE
HEROIN, HEROINE
HISTORIC
HOARD, HORDE
HOARSE, HORSE
HOLE, WHOLE
HOLY, WHOLLY
HOMAGE
HONE IN
HOT WATER HEATER
HUNG
IDLE, IDOL, IDYLL
ILLUSION
IMITATE
IMMIGRATE

IMMINENT
IMPACT
IMPLY, INFER
INCITE, INSIGHT
INCLUDE
INCREDIBLE, INCREDULOUS
INFER
INFLAMMABLE
INGENIOUS, INGENUOUS
IN ORDER TO
IN REGARD(S) TO, WITH REGARD(S) TO
INSURE
IRONY
IRREGARDLESS
ISLE
IT'S, ITS
JELL
JIBE, JIVE
JUST
JUST DESERTS
KARAT
KINDERGARTNER
KNEW, NEW
KUDOS
LASTLY
LATTER

LAXADAISICAL
LAY, LIE
LEAD, LED
LEAK, LEEK
LESS
LESSEN, LESSON
LET HE WHO IS WITHOUT SIN
LIABLE, LIBEL, LIKELY
LIE
LIGHTENING, LIGHTNING
LIKE
LITERALLY
LOAN, LONE
LOATH, LOATHE
MAIL, MALE
MAIZE, MAZE
MANNER, MANOR
MARQUEE, MARQUIS
MARRY, MERRY
MARSHAL, MARTIAL
MASTERFUL, MASTERLY
MATERIAL, MATERIEL
MAY
MEDAL, MEDDLE, METAL, METTLE
MEDIA
MERETRICIOUS

METAL, METTLE
MIC
MINER, MINOR
MINUSCULE
MISNOMER
MORAL, MORALE
MORE IMPORTANTLY, MOST IMPORTANTLY
MORNING, MOURNING
MUSCLE, MUSSEL
NAVAL, NAVEL
NEITHER OR
NEW
NEW RECORD
NONPLUSSED
NOR
NOT JUST
NOTORIETY
NUMBER
OFF OF
ORAL
ORDINANCE, ORDNANCE
OVERDO, OVERDUE
OVERLY
PAIL, PALE
PAIN, PANE
PALATE, PALETTE, PALLET

PARISH, PERISH
PARODY, SATIRE
PASSED, PAST
PAST HISTORY
PASTIME, PAST TIME
PEACE, PIECE
PEAK, PEEK, PIQUE
PEAL, PEEL
PEDAL, PEDDLE
PEER, PIER
PENULTIMATE
PERCENT
PERPETRATE, PERPETUATE
PERSECUTE, PROSECUTE
PERSUADE
PHASE
PHENOMENON
PIECE
PIQUE
PISTIL, PISTOL
PLAIN, PLANE
PLUM, PLUMB
p.m.
POINT IN TIME
POLE, POLL
POOR, PORE, POUR

PRAY, PREY
PRECIPITATE, PRECIPITOUS
PREDOMINATELY
PREMIER, PREMIERE
PRESENTLY
PRESUME
PRINCIPAL, PRINCIPLE
PROFIT, PROPHET
PRONE, SUPINE
PROPHECY, PROPHESIZE, PROPHESY
PROSECUTE
PURPOSELY, PURPOSEFULLY
QUOTATION, QUOTE
RACK, WRACK
RAISE, RAZE
RAP, WRAP
REAL, REEL
REASON BEING IS
REASON IS BECAUSE
REEK, WREAK
REFER
REGARDLESS
REIGN, REIN
RELISH IN
RENOWN
REST, WREST

REST, AS THEY SAY, IS HISTORY

RESTAURATEUR
RETCH, WRETCH
RETICENT
REVEREND
REVIEW, REVUE
RIFF, RIFT
RIGHT, RITE, WRITE
RING, WRING
ROAD, RODE, ROWED
ROLE, ROLL
RYE, WRY
SATIRE
SAVER, SAVOR
SCENT, SENT
SECONDLY, THIRDLY, FOURTHLY
SEMIANNUAL
SENSUAL, SENSUOUS
SERF, SURF
SERIAL
SET, SIT
SEW, SO, SOW
SHEAR, SHEER
[sic]
SIGHT
SIMPLISTIC

SINCE
SITE
SLASH
SLEIGHT, SLIGHT
SNUCK
SO
SOAR, SORE
SOLE, SOUL
SOME, SUM
SON, SUN
SOW
STAID, STAYED
STAIR, STARE
STAKE, STEAK
STATIONARY, STATIONERY
STEAL, STEEL
STEP, STEPPE
STOMPING GROUNDS
STRAIGHT, STRAIT
STRATEGY, STRATAGEM
SUM
SUN
SUNDAE, SUNDAY
SUPINE
SUPPOSE TO
SURF

SYMPATHY
TACK, TACT
TAIL, TALE
TAKE
TAUGHT, TAUT
TEAM, TEEM
TEMBLOR
TENANT, TENET
THAN, THEN
THAT
THEIR, THERE, THEY'RE
THOSE KIND OF
TILL, 'TIL
TO, TOO, TWO
TORT, TORTE
TORTUOUS, TORTUROUS
TOTALLY
TOWARD, TOWARDS
TRANSPIRE
TREMBLOR
TROOP, TROUPE
TRULY
TURBID, TURGID
UNINTERESTED
UNIQUE

UTILIZE
VAIN, VANE, VEIN
VENAL, VENIAL
VERSES, VERSUS
VERY
VIABLE
VIAL, VILE
VICE, VISE
VIRTUALLY
WAIST, WASTE
WAIT, WEIGHT
WAIVER, WAVER
WARN, WORN
WARRANTEE, WARRANTY
WARY, WEARY
WAY, WEIGH
WAYS TO GO
WEAK, WEEK
WEATHER, WHETHER
WHETHER OR NOT
WHICH
WHILE, WILE
WHO, WHICH, THAT
WHOLE
WHOLLY
WHO'S, WHOSE

WITH REGARD(S) TO
WON'T, WONT
WORN
WRACK
WRAP
WREAK
WREAK (WRECK) HAVOC
WREST
WRETCH
WRING
WRITE
YOKE, YOLK
YOU'RE, YOUR

English for all competition

December 24, 2013
100 rules of grammar
Spotting error is a common test and forms a part of almost all t he important
examinations that have objective English test on their syllabi, it requires an
awareness of the basis rules of grammar parts of speech, noun, pronoun,
adjective, adverb, preposition, conjunction, genders, infinitives, participles, subject
verb accord, form of tense, use of articles and certain except ional usages.
Hence, it is necessary that all candidates taking up these examinations brush up
their essentials of grammar with the help of the grammar books that they have read
at their intermediate level. After this initial exercise they should learn or revise the
following rules that are given below in the form of practical tips with illustrative
examples. The practice test must be done carefully and repeatedly to ensure full
competence confidence.
RULES AND EXAMPLES
1. Some nouns always take a singular verb.

Scenery, advice, information, machinery, stationery, furniture, abuse, fuel, rice,

gram, issue, bedding, repair, news, mischief, poetry, business, economics, physics,
mathematics, classic, ethics, athletics, innings, gallows.
(A) The scenery of Kashmir
are enchanting. (Incorrect)
(B) The scenery of Kashmir is enchanting. (Correct)
(A) He has given advices. (Incorrect)
(B) He has given advice. (Correct)
(A) The Indian team defeated the English by innings. (Incorrect)
(B) The Indian team defeated the English by an innings. (Correct)
(A) Mathematics are a difficult subject. (Incorrect)
(B) Mathematics is a good / difficult subject. (Correct)
Note if you have to indicate that the number of news, advice, information or
furniture is more than one, the examples listed below can be followed:
(A) I have a lot of news to tell you. (Incorrect)
(B) He has sold many pieces of his furniture. (Correct)
2. Some nouns are singular in form, but they are used as plural nouns and always
take a plural verb.
Cattle, gentry, vermin, peasantry, artillery, people, clergy, company, police.
(A) The cattle is grazing in the ground. (Incorrect)
(B) The cattle are grazing in the ground. (Correct)
(A) The clergy is in the church. (Incorrect)
(B) The clergy are in the church. (Correct)
3. Some nouns are always used in a plural form and always take a plural verb.
Trousers, scissors, spectacles, stockings, shorts, measles, goods, alms, premises,
thanks, tidings, annals, chattels, etc.
(A) Where is my trousers? Incorrect
(B) Where are my trousers? Correct

(A) Spectacles is now a costly item. Incorrect

(B) Spectacles are now a costly item. Correct
4. There are some nouns that indicate length, measure, money, weight or number.
When they are preceded by a numeral, they remain unchanged in form.
Foot, meter, pair, score, dozen, head, year, hundred, thousand, million.
(A) It is a three years degree course. Incorrect
(B) It is a three year degree course. Correct
(A) I have ten dozens of shoes. Incorrect
(B) I have ten dozen of shoes. Correct
5. Collective nouns such a jury, public, team, committee, government, audience,
orchestra, company, etc. are used both as singular; otherwise the verb will be plural
(A) The jury was divided in this case. Incorrect
(B) The jury were divided in this case. Correct
(A) The team have not come as yet. Incorrect
(B) The team has not come as yet. Correct
6. Some nouns have one meaning in the singular and another in the plural:
Advice = counsel advices = information
Air = atmosphere airs = proud
Authority = command, authorities = persons in power
Good = wise goods = property
Iron = metal irons = fetters, chains
Force = strength forces = army
Content = satisfaction, contents = things contained
Physic = medicine physics = physical sciences,
Respect = regards respects = compliments
Work = job works = compositions, factories,.
Earning = income earnings = sowings

Quarter = one fourth quarters = houses

Examples
(A) Air is necessary for human life.
(B) It is bad to put on airs.
(A) I have eaten one quarter of the cake.
(B) I live in the government quarters.
7. People are often confused or they commit mistake in the use of certain nouns.
(A) Lecturership is wrong: lectureship is correct.
(a) There are twenty candidates for lecturership. Incorrect
(b) There are twenty candidates for lectureship. Correct
(B) Freeship is wrong; free studentship is correct.
(a) Ramesh has applied for freeship. Incorrect
(b) Ramesh has applied for free studentship. Correct
(C) Boarding is wrong; boarding house is correct.
(a) Mohan lives in a boarding. Incorrect
(b) Mohan lives in a boarding house. Correct
(D) Family members is wrong; members of the family is correct.
(a) Vivek and Ramesh are my family members. Incorrect
(b) Vivek and Ramesh are the members of my family. Correct
(E) English teacher is wrong; the teacher of English is correct.
(a) Dr. Raina is our English teacher. Incorrect
(b) Dr. Raina is our teacher of English. Correct
(F) Cousin brother or sister is wrong; only cousin is correct.
(a) Geeta is my cousin sister. Incorrect
(b) Geeta is my cousin. Correct
(G) Room in a compartment or a bench means unoccupied set.

(a) There is no room on this bench. Correct

(H) Our, yours, hers, theirs are correct.
(a) This house is ours. Incorrect
(b) This house is ours. Correct
Note: The same principle applies to yours , hers and theirs.
(I) Wages means punishments when used in singular.
(a) The wages of sin is death.
(J) It also means charges for the labour when used in plural sense.
(b) The wages of daily workers have been raised.
8. Also remember the subtle difference in the usage of these pairs of nouns
(A) The noun habit applies only to an individual whereas custom applies to a
society or country.
(a) Poor children often become a victim of bad habits.
(b) Tribal in India have many interesting customs.
(B) Cause product a result, while reason explains or justifies a cause.
(a) Scientists try to find out the cause of a phenomenon.
(b) You have a good reason to be pleased with your students.
(C) Man is used in ordinary sense while gentleman is a man of character.
(a) Man is mortal.
(b) He is a gentleman at large.
(D) Men - plural of man: people is used for persons.
(a) There are five men in the room.
(b) The people of Bihar are simple.
(E) Shade a place sheltered from the sun; shadow the shade of a distinct form
or object.
(a) The villagers sat under the shade of trees.
(b) He is even afraid of his own shadow.

(F) Cost amount paid by the shopkeeper; price amount paid by the customer.
(a) The cost of production of automobile items has gone up.
(b) Sometimes the buyers have to pay higher price for necessary items.
(G) House a building to live in: Home ones native place.
(a) Quarters area houses allotted to us for a definite period.
(b) My home town is Muzaffapur.
(H) House a building to live in; Home - ones native place.
(a) The shopkeepers welcome customer with smiles.
(b) The lawyer discusses the cases of his clients.
9. A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in person, number and gender.
For example:
Every man must bring his luggage.
All students must do their home work.
Each of the girls must carry her own bag.
Each students must bring their books.
Each student must bring his books.
10. White using everybody everyone, anybody, and each the pronoun of the
masculine or the feminine gender is used according to the content.
I shall be happy to help each of the boys in this practice.
But when the sex is not mentioned, we use the pronoun of the masculine gender.
Anyone can do this job if he tries.
Each of the six boys in the class has finished their tasks.
Incorrect
Each of the six boys in the class has finished his task.
Correct
11. The pronoun one must be followed by ones.
One must finish his task in time. Incorrect

One must finish ones task in time. Correct

12. Enjoy, apply, resign, acquit, drive, exert, avail, pride, absent, etc., when used as
transitive verbs, always take a reflexive pronoun after them. When self is added to
my, your, him, her, and it, and selves to our and them they are known as
reflexive pronouns.
He absented from the class.
He absented himself form the class.
13. Who denotes the subject and whom is used for the object?
Whom do you think won the award? Incorrect
Who do you think won the award? Correct
Who area you talking to? Incorrect
Whom are your talking to? Correct
14. When two or more singular nouns are joined together by either or; neither
nor, ; and or, the pronoun is singular.
Either Ram or Shyam will give their book. Incorrect
Either Ram or shyam will give his book. Correct
15. When a singular and a plural noun are joined by or, nor, the pronoun must be
plural.
Either the engineer or his mechanics failed in his duty. Incorrect
Either the engineer or his mechanics failed in their duty. Correct
16. Whose is used for living persons and which for lifeless objects.
Which book did you select? Incorrect
Whose photograph is lying there? Correct
What book do you read? Incorrect
Which book do you read? Correct
17. Each other is used when there are two subjects or objects and one another
when there are more than two.
Rameo and Juliet loved each other
Those five friends, who are sitting there, love one another.

All the students of the class are friendly; they love each other. Incorrect
All the students of the class are friendly. Correct
18. When a pronoun stands for a collective noun, it must be in the singular number
and in the neuter gender if the collective noun is viewed as a whole.
The jury gave its verdict.
Here the jury gives the idea of one whole.
If the collective noun conveys the idea of separate individuals comprising the whole,
the pronoun standing for it must be plural.
The jury were divided in their opinions.
Here, the jury gives the idea of several individuals.
The team are divided in this opinion about playing on Sunday. Incorrect
The team are divided in their opinion about playing on Sunday. Correct
19. If pronouns of different persons are to be used together in a sentence, the serial
order of persons should be as follows; second person + third + first person in a
good normal sentences. But in fault is to be confessed, the order will be; first person
+ second person + third person.
You, he and I have finished the work. Normal sentences
I, you and he are to blame. Confession
Ram, I and you have finished our studies. Incorrect
You, Ram and I have finished our studies. Correct
20. Some is used in affirmative sentences to express quantity or degree. Any is
uses in negative or interrogative sentences.
I shall buy some apples.
I shall not buy any apples.
Have you bought any apples?
But some may be correctly used in interrogative sentences which are, in fact,
requests.
Will you please give me some milk?
I shall read any book. Incorrect

I shall read some book. Correct

Have you bought some apples? Incorrect
Have you bought any apples? Correct
21. The use of few, a few and the few should be used with care. They denote
number.
Few means not many. It is the opposite of many. A few is positive and means
some at least. It is the opposite of none. The few means whatever there is.
A few men are free from fault. Incorrect
Few men are free from fault. Correct
Here the sense is negative and thus a few is wrong.
Few boys will pass in the examination. Incorrect
A few boys will pass in the examination. Correct
Here the sense is positive and thus few is incorrect.
I have already read a few books that are on the bookshelf. Incorrect
I have already read t he few books that are on the bookshelf. Correct
Here the sense is whatever there is.
22. Use of less and fewer
Less denote quantity and fewer denote number.
No less than fifty persons were killed. Incorrect
No fewer than fifty persons were killed. Correct
There are no fewer than five litres of water in the jug. Incorrect
There are no less than five litres of water in the jug. Correct
23. Use of little, a little, the little.
Little means hardly any
There is a little hope of his recovery. Incorrect
There is a little hope of his recovery correct
A little means some, though not much.

Little knowledge is a dangerous thing. Incorrect

A little knowledge is a dangerous thing. Correct
The little means not much but all there is.
The little milk that is in the pot may be used for the patient. Incorrect
The little milk that is in the pot may be used for the patient. Correct
24. Use of elder, older.
Older refers to persons as well as things and is followed by than.
Ram is elder than all other boys of this area. Incorrect
Ram is older than all other boys of this area. Correct
Elder is used for members of the family.
Suresh is my older brother. Incorrect
Suresh is my elder brother. Correct
25. normally than is used in the comparative degree, but with words like superior,
inferior, senior, junior, prior, anterior, posterior and prefer to is used.
Shelley is junior than Wordsworth. Incorrect
Shelley is junior to Wordsworth. Correct
I prefer reading than sleeping. Incorrect
I prefer reading to sleeping. Correct
26. when a comparison is made by using a comparative followed by than, the word
other must be exclude the thing compared form the class of things with which it is
compared.
He is stronger than any man. Incorrect
He is stronger than any other man. Correct
Any man includes the man himself and thus the sentences will be absurd.
27. In some cases, the comparison is subtle and must be given proper attention.
The climate of Ranchi is better then Gaya. Incorrect
Here the comparison should be between the climate of Ranchi and the climate of
Gaya.

The climate of Ranchi is better than the climate of Gaya. Correct

Or
The climate of Ranchi is better than that of Gaya. Correct
That of means the climate of
If the traits are in plural, it will be those of.
The clothes of DCM are better than those of Mafatalal.
The scenery of Kashmir is better than Shimla. Incorrect
The scenery of Kashmir is better than that of shimla. Correct
28. many a is always followed by the singular verb.
Many a man were followed by the singular verb. Incorrect
Many a man was drowned in the area. Correct
29. If the subject is the number of the singular verb is used.
The number of students are very small. Incorrect
The number of students is very small. Correct
30. When as well as, along with, together with, no less than, in addition to and
not and with join two subjects, the verb will be according to the first subject.
Ram, as well as his ten friends, are going. Incorrect
Ram, as well as his ten friends, is going. Correct
The teacher, along with the students, were going. Incorrect
The teacher, along with the students, was going. Correct
31. A great many is always followed by a plural noun and a plural verb.
A great many student has been declared successful. Incorrect
A great many students have been declared successful. Correct
32. If two subjects are joined by either or, neither nor, the verb agrees with the
subject that is near.
Either Ramesh or I are to do this work. Incorrect
Either Ramesh or I am to do this work. Correct

Neither he nor his friends is reading. Incorrect

Neither he nor his friends are reading correct
33. When two singular nouns joined by and point out the same thing or person, the
verb will be singular.
Bread and butter make a good breakfast. Incorrect
Bread and butter makes a good breakfast. Correct
The collector and the District Magistrate are on leave. Incorrect
The collector and District Magistrate is on leave. Correct
34. One of always takes a plural noun after it.
It is one of the important day in my life. Incorrect
It is one of the important days in my life. Correct
35. Use of not only and but also; examine the sentences given below:
He not only comes for swimming but also for coaching the
learners. Incorrect
He comes not only for swimming but also for coaching the
learners. Correct
36. Scarcely and hardly are followed by when and not by than.
I had scarcely entered the room than the phone rang. Incorrect
I had scarcely entered the room when the phone rang. Correct
37. Though is followed by yet and not by but.
Though he is poor but he is honest. Incorrect
Thought he is poor, yet he is honest. Correct
38. No sooner is followed by than.
No sooner had I entered the class when the student stood up. Incorrect
No sooner had I entered the class than the students stood up. Correct
39. Lest must be followed by should.
Read regularly lest you will fail.

Read regularly least you should fail.

40. such is followed by as.
He is such a writer that everybody should read his books. Incorrect
He is such a wrier as everybody should read his books. Correct
41. So is followed by that.
Sarita was popular with her classmate that she always had incorrect
Some people coming to her for advice.
Sarita was so popular with her classmate that she always had correct
Some people coming to her for advice.
42. Unless express a condition. It is always used in the negative sense. Thus not
is never used with unless.
Unless you do not labour hard, you will not pass. Incorrect
Unless you labour hard, you will not pass. Correct
43. until expresses time. It has a negative sense and thus not should never be
used with it.
Wait here until I do not return. Incorrect
Wait here until I return. Correct
44. Since indicates a point of time and for stands for the length of time.
He has been reading the book since two hours. Incorrect
He has been reading the book for two hours. Correct
Two hours is a length of time and thus for is correct.
It has been raining for Monday last. Incorrect
It has been raining since Monday last. Correct
45. as if used to convey the sense of pretension. When as if is used in this sense,
were is used in all cases, even with third person singular.
He behaves as if he was a king. Incorrect
He behaves as if he were a king. Correct

The sense of time and tense is also very important. Certain important rules are
listed below.
46. A past tense in the principal clause is followed by a past tense in the
subordinate clause.
He saw that the clock has stopped. Incorrect
He saw that the clock had stopped. Correct
There are, however, two exceptions to this rule:
(1) A past tense in the principal clause may be followed by a present tense in the
subordinate clause, when it expresses a universal truth.
The teacher observed that the Earth moved round the sun. Incorrect
The teacher observed that the Earth moves round the sun. Correct
(2) When the subordinate clause is introduced by than, even if there is past tense
in the principal clause, it may be followed by any tense required by the sense in the
subordinate clause.
He helped him more than he helped his own children. Incorrect
He helped him more than he helps his own children. Correct
47. if two actions in a sentence are showing happing in the past, one after the
other; the tense of the action happening first should be past perfect and that of the
second should be past indefinite.
The patient died before the doctor arrived. Incorrect
The patient had died before the doctor arrived. Correct
48. Two actions in the past, one depending on the other, should have the sequence
as follows:
Past perfect + future perfect
Had + past participle + would + have + past participle
If you had worked hard, you would have succeeded in the examination.
Or
Had you worked hard, you would have succeeded in the examination.
If you would had practiced regularly, you would won the match. Incorrect

If you had practiced regularly, you would have won the match. Correct
49. If, in a sentence, two actions are indicated and both are to take place in future,
the sequence of tense will be as follows:
The principal clause in present indefinite; and the subordinate clause in future
indefinite.
If I go the Delhi, I shall attend the seminar.
If I go to Delhi is the principal clause and I shall attend the seminar is the
subordinate clause.
If it will rain, I shall not attend the meeting. Incorrect
If it rains, I shall not attend the meeting. Correct
50. When an action has taken place in two clauses of a sentence, it is used in both
the clauses according to the requirement.
My brother has and is still doing excellent work for his
organisation. Incorrect
M y brother has done and is still doing excellent work for his
Organisation. Correct
51. When there is a sense of continuity, that is, when a thing has taken place in the
past and still continue in the present, the prefect continues tense form of t he verb
should be used.
Indian is independent for the last forty six years. Incorrect
Indian has been independent for the last forty six years. Correct
The use of article is also an important matter and one must be careful about it.
52. before a consonant a is used.
A boy, a horse, a woman.
But a is also used before words like university, useful, unicorn, union, European,
and one, etc., because these words began with a consonant sound.
Here is an university. Incorrect
Here is a university. Correct
An European lives in my area. Incorrect

A European lives in my area. Correct

It is a one - rupees note. Incorrect
It is a one rupee note. Correct
52. Similarly, words like hour, honest, heir, etc, take an before them as they
begin with a vowel sound.
I have been waiting for him for a hour. Incorrect
I have been waiting for him for an hour. Correct
53. Some important points to remember regarding the omission of a/an/the:
1. Before a common noun used in its widest sense, e.g.
Man us mortal.
2. before names of materials.
Bronze is a useful metal.
3. Usually before proper names.
Patina is the capital of Bihar.
4. Before abstract nouns used in general sense.
Beauty fascinates people.
5. before language.
English is a very popular language in the Delhi University.
6. Before school college, church, bed, table, hospital, market, and prison,
when these place are visited or used for their common purpose.
My Christian friends go to church every Sunday.
But the is used with these words when we refer to them as a definite place,
building or object rather than to the normal activity that goes on there.
I met my friend at the church.
7. before names of relations, like father, mother, aunt, uncle, cook and
nurse.
Father is very happy today.

8. before predicative nouns denoting a unique position that is normally held at one
time by one person only.
He was elected chairman of the Board.
54. Uses of the
1. W hen the object is unique.
The earth, the sky, the equator.
2. before superlatives
The best, the finest, the most
3. with proper nouns like seas, rivers, group of island, chains of mountains,
deserts, newspaper, buildings, religious books, gulfs,.
The Arabian sea, The Ganges, The Taj Mahal,
4. before a proper noun, when it is qualified by an adjective.
The immortal Kalidas.
5. before an adjective, when the noun is hidden.
The rich should be kind and helping.
6. before musical instruments.
I know how to play the harmonium.
7. with a class of things.
The crow is a clever bird.
8. The should be used before both comparative degrees when they are used in a
sentence for proportion.
Higher we go, cooler we feel. Incorrect
The higher we go, the cooler we feel. Correct
55. What to speak of is incorrect; the correct expression is not to speak of.
What to speak of running, he cannot even walk. Incorrect
Not to speak of running, he cannot even walk. Correct

56. When there is the sense of dislike, hesitation, risk, etc., in a sentence, we should
use a gerund instead of a verb. A gerund is that form of the verb which ends in ing
and can be used in the place of a noun.
I dislike to see a film late in the night.
I dislike to seeing a film late in the night.
Young girls hesitate to talk to strangers.
Young girls hesitate talking to strangers.
`57. Cent per cent and word by word are wrong. Hundred per cent and word for
word are correct expressions.
You are never cent per cent sure of your success in a incorrect
competitive examinations.
You are never hundred per cent sure of your success in correct
A competitive examination.
I can reproduce this lesson word by word. Incorrect
I can reproduce this lesson word for word. Correct
58. Since, because, as, for, - all means because, but there is a different in
their degree. Since and because are used for stronger cases and as and for for
weak cases.
I respect him as he is my teacher. Incorrect
I respect him because he is my teacher. Correct
59. Use of when and while: Proper attention must be paid to these words. when
indicates a general sense and while implies a time during the process of doing a
work.
When learning to swim, one of the most important things is to incorrect
relax.
While learning to swim, one of the most important things is to correct
relax.
60. Sometimes the error lies in the use of words. Proper attention must therefore, be
given to appropriateness of words.

Prakash was leading a happy and leisurely life after his retirement
form his service. Incorrect
Prakash was living a happy and leisurely life after his retirement
form his service. Correct
61. If in a sentence an apposition has been used, the verb will follow not the
apposition but the noun or pronoun preceding it.
You, my son, is a good boy. Incorrect
You, my son, are a good boy. Correct
62. Proper, abstract and material nouns have no plural except when they are used
as common nouns.
The house is built of bricks. Incorrect
The house is built of bricks.
Correct
63. Clauses in sentences beginning with a relative pronoun (who, which, that) take a
verb according to the noun or pronoun preceding the relative pronoun.
It is I who has done it. Incorrect
It is I who have done it. Correct
64. The relative pronoun should be near as possible to its antecedent so that no
ambiguity arises.
The boy is my cousin who stood first in the mile race.
The boy, who stood first in the mile race, is my cousin.
65. When two singular nouns joined by and are preceded by each or every the
pronoun used for them is singular.
Each man and each boy is responsible for their action. Incorrect
Each man and each boy is responsible for his action. Correct
66. Sometimes a pronoun is used w here it is not required at all.
He being an M.A., he is qualified for the post. Incorrect
He, being an M.A., is qualified for the post. Correct

67. If a pronoun comes after a preposition it should be used in the objective case.
Between you and I neither of us is correct. Incorrect
Between you and me neither of us is correct. Correct
68. When a pronoun come after like and unlike it takes objective case.
A man like I will not do it. Incorrect
A man like me will not do it. Correct
69. A pronoun takes an objective case after let.
Let I do it. Incorrect
Let me do it. Correct
70. Pronoun joined by and remain in the same case.
He had her brother and sister. Incorrect
He and she are brother and sister. Correct
He and me are friends. Incorrect
He and I are friends. Correct
71. When pronouns of second person and third person are used as subjects, the
pronoun following them will be according to the second person pronoun.
You and he must bring his books. Incorrect
You and he must bring your books. Correct
72. When pronouns of second person and first person are used as subjects, the
pronoun following them will be first person plural form.
You and I must finish your work in time. Incorrect
You and I must finish our work in time. Correct
73. But is also used as a relative pronoun. When a sentence has a negative noun
or pronoun, but can be used with it. In this case but means: who not; that not.
Here was none but laughed to see the joker.
Here the meaning of but laughed is who did not laugh.
There is no bird but flies.

But files means that does not fly.

74. The relative pronoun that is used in preference to who or which after
adjectives in the superlative degree.
The wisest man who ever lived made mistakes. Incorrect
The wisest man that ever lived made mistakes. Correct
This is the best which we can do. Incorrect
This is the best that we can do. Correct
75. The relative pronoun that is also used in preference to who and which after
the words all, same, none, nothing and (the) only.
He is the same man who he has seen. Incorrect
He is the same man that he has seen. Correct
Man is the only animal who can talk. Incorrect
Man is the only animal that can talk. Correct
76. The same rule applies after the interrogative pronoun who and what.
What is there which I do not know? Incorrect
What is there that I do not know? Correct
77. When there are two antecedents, a man and an animal or two things before the
r elative pronoun, we should use that.
The man and his dog which passed through this road were incorrect
killed.
The man and his dog passed through this road were killed. Correct
78. The case of the noun or pronoun preceding or succeeding the verb to be
should be the same.
It is him who came to see us. Incorrect
It is he who came to see us. Correct
It is me who caught the thief. Incorrect
It is I who caught the thief. Correct

79. when two qualities of a person or thing compared more or less is used before
the adjective and the adjective following them take positive degree.
Suman is better than brave. Incorrect
Suman is more good than brave. Correct
80. When two or more adjectives are used to show the qualities of the same man or
thing, al the adjectives must be in the same degree.
Sita is more intelligent and wise than Rita. Incorrect
Sita is more intelligent and wiser than Rita. Correct
81. Very is used with adjectives in the positive degree and with present participles.
He is much stronger man. Incorrect
He is a very strong man. Correct
It is a man interesting book. Incorrect
It is very interesting book. Correct
Much is used with adjectives in the comparative degree and with past participles.
He is very stronger than I am. Incorrect
He is much stronger than I am. Correct
I am very obliged to my friend. Incorrect
I am much obliged to my friend. Correct
82. To show equality as is used before and after the adjective.
I can run as fast, if not faster, than you. Incorrect
I can run as fast as, if not faster, than you. Correct
83. Certain adjectives do not admit of comparison and thus they always remain in
the positive degree.
Absolute, annual, chief, circular, complete, entire, extreme, excellent,
full, impossible perfect, right, round, unique, universal, whole, etc.
84. More than one indicates a plural sense, but it is treated as a sort of compound
of one. Thus it agrees with a singular noun and takes a singular verb.
More than one employees were killed in the accident. Incorrect

More than one employees was killed in the accident. Correct

85. A verb must agree with its subject and not with the complement.
Our only guide at night were the stars. Incorrect
Our only guide at night w as the s tars. Correct
86. If the plural subject denotes a definite amount or quantity taken as a whole, the
verb is singular.
Forty miles are a good distance. Incorrect
Forty miles is a good distance. Correct
Two thirds of the book were rubbish. Incorrect
Two third of the book was rubbish. Correct
87. The plural heaps and lots used colloquially for a great amount take a singular
verb unless a plural noun with of is added.
There are lots of book. Incorrect
There is lots of book. Correct
There is lots of books to read. Incorrect
There are lots of books to read. Correct
88. When qualified by each or every two singular subjects, if even connected by
and, take a singular, if even connected by and, take a singular verb.
Each boy and every girl were given rewards. Incorrect
Each boy and every girl was given rewards correct
89. The following Vern are always followed by an infinitive:
decide, plans, expect, fail, hope, intend, learn, promise, refuse, want,
agree, consent, try, love, etc.
I refuse meeting him. Incorrect
I refuse to meet him. Correct
90. the following verbs and phrases should be followed by gerund which is a verbal
noun: enjoy, admit, deny, appreciate, regret, avoid, consider, stop,
looking forward to, accustomed to, is used to, do not mind, object to, etc.
I am looking forward to receive your replay. Incorrect

I am looking forward to receiving your replay. Correct

He is used to work hard. Incorrect
He is used to working hard. Correct
91. The word to is frequently used with the infinitive, but is not an essential part of
it. For example, after certain verb (bid let, make, need, dare, see, hear,) we
use the infinitive without to.
Bid him to go there. Incorrect
Bid him go t here. Correct
Make him to stand. Incorrect
Make him stand. Correct
I saw him to cry. Incorrect
I saw him cry. Correct
92. The infinitive is used without to after had better, had rather, would rather,
sooner than, and rather than,
You had better to ask permission form him. Incorrect
You had better ask permission from him. Correct
93. Than should be used after no other.
I met on other man but Mr. Roy. Incorrect
I met no other than Mr., Roy. Correct
Ram has no other claim except his degrees. Incorrect
Ram has other claim than his degrees. Correct
94. After the word know, how or when should be used before using an infinitive.
I know to write French. Incorrect
I know to write French. Correct
95. A verb may take an infinitive or a gerund according to its implication. If the verb
indicates a purpose, an infinitive should be used and if the verb indicates a cause, a
gerund should be used.
He went to school for seeing the principal. Incorrect

He went to school for see the principal. Correct

He was turned out to copy answers. Incorrect
He was turned out for copying answers. Correct
96. adverb as is not used with verbs like appointed, elected, considered,
called, but it is used with regard,
He was elected as President of our society. Incorrect
He was elected President of our society. Correct
I regard Ramesh my friend. Incorrect
I regard Ramesh as my friend. Correct
97. After the verb doubt that should not be used. if or whether should be used
in its place.
I doubt that Ravi will come. Incorrect
I doubt if Ravi will come. Correct
98. Often a mistake is committed in the use of adjectives and adverbs. An adjective
is correctly used with the verb when some quality of the subject, rather than of the
action of the verb, is to be expressed.
The flowers smelt sweetly. Incorrect
The flowers smelt sweet. Correct
99. It is a common practice is conversation to make a statement and ask for
confirmation; as, Its very hot, isnt it? Two points are to be kept in mind. If the
statement positive, the pattern will be
Auxiliary + nt + subject.
Examples:
It is raining, is it? Incorrect
It is raining, isnt it? Correct
Your are not busy, arent you? Incorrect
You are not busy, are you? Correct
The point to note here is that the question tag will always have the same verb from
which we have in the main statement:

I have finished my work, didnt I? Incorrect

I have finished my work, have nt? Correct
100. There are certain common errors which should be avoided.
(a) The two first is a meaningless expression for it implies that two things may be
first. We should say the first two.
The two first chapters of the novel are dull.
The first two chapters of the novel are dull.
(b) Only should be placed immediately before the word it qualifies.
He only lost his ticket in the stampede. Incorrect
Only he lost his ticket in the stampede. Correct
(c) An infinitive verb should not be spit.
I request you to kindly to help me. Incorrect
I request you kindly to help me. Correct
(d) Care should be taken in the use of verbs.
The doctor saw the pulse of the patient. Incorrect
The doctor felt the pulse of the patient. Correct
He told the truth. Incorrect
He spoke the truth. Correct
Do not speak a lie. Incorrect
Do not tell a lie. Correct
Our team made a goal. Incorrect
Our team scored a goal. Correct
He is taking a bath. Incorrect
He is having a bath. Correct
I tell my prayers in the morning. Incorrect
I say my prayers in the morning. Correct
Conditional Clause and Main Clause

If I have enough money,

conditional clause

I will go to Japan.

main clause
I will go to Japan,
main clause

if I have enough money

conditional clause
First, Second, and Third Conditional

1. First conditional: If I have enough money, I will go to Japan.

2. Second conditional:

If I had enough money, I would go to Japan.

3. Third conditional:

If I had had enough money, I would have gone to Japan.

Conditional clause Main clause

1. If + Present Tense

will + inf / present tense / imperative

If you help me with the dishes (if + pres),

I will help you with your homework. (will + inf)
If the sum of the digits of a number is divisible by three,
the number is divisible by three (Pres. tense)
If you see Mr Fox tonight, tell him I am ill. (imperative).
2. If + Past Tense

would + inf

3. If + Past Perfect Tense would have + past participle

We do not normally use will or would in the conditional clause,
only in the main clause.
Uses of the Conditional

First conditional
Nature: Open condition, what is said in the condition is possible.
Time: This condition refers either to present or to future time.
e.g. If he is late, we will have to go without him.
If my mother knows about this, we are in serious trouble.

Second conditional
Nature: unreal (impossible) or improbable situations.
Time: present; the TENSE is past, but we are talking about the present, now.
e.g. If I knew her name, I would tell you.
If I were you, I would tell my father.
Compare: If I become president, I will change the social security system. (Said by a
presidential candidate)
If I became president, I would change the social security system. (Said by a
schoolboy: improbable)
If we win this match, we are qualified for the semifinals.
If I won a million pounds, I would stop teaching. (improbable)

Third conditional
Nature: unreal
Time: Past (so we are talking about a situation that was not so in the past.)
e.g. If you had warned me, I would not have told your father about that party.(But
you didn't, and I have).
Remember!

1. The conditional construction does not normally use will or would in if-clauses.
EXCEPTION: If will or would express willingness, as in requests, they can be used in
if-clauses.
e.g. If you will come this way, the manager will see you now.
I would be grateful if you would give me a little help.
(= please, come this way; please, give me...)
2. For the second conditional, were replaces was:
If I were a rich man...
3. After if, we can either use "some(-one, -where...)" or "any(-one, -where...).
If I have some spare time next weekend....or :
If I have any spare time...
4. Instead of if not, we can use unless.
e.g. I'll be back tomorrow unless there is a plane strike.
He'll accept the job unless the salary is too low.
5.There is a "mixed type" as well, for the present results of an unreal condition in
the past:
If + Past Perfect - would + inf.
If you had warned me [then], I would not be in prison [now].
Conditional Sentences

Introduction

In this lecture our concern is not with subtleties in the logical or semantic properties
of conditional sentences, but with the tight connection between the meanings of
English conditional sentences and features of their grammatical form.
In a conditional sentence, there are two parts, (1) the antecedent = the protasis,
and (2) the consequent = the apodosis. In general I will refer to them simply as "P"
and "Q", from the logician's tradition of representing material implication as "P
implies Q".

Most of the examples we consider will be of the form "if P, Q", but actually there are
numerous ways of expressing the meanings that get expressed in English
conditional sentences. Here are some examples:

"If you come closer, you'll be able to see the parade."

(the form we'll mainly be considering)
"Unless you come closer you won't be able to see the parade."
(If you don't stand closer, you won't be able to see the parade)
"Do you like it? It's yours!"
(If you like it, it's yours)
"Come here and I'll give you a kiss."
(If you come here, I'll give you a kiss.)
"Criticize him the slightest bit and he starts crying."
(If you criticize him the slightest bit, he starts crying.)
"Get out of here or I'll call the police."
(If you don't get out of here I'll call the police.)
"Anyone who does that deserves to be punished."
(If anyone does that, they deserve to be punished.)
"With his hat on he would look older."
(If he had his hat on, he would look older.)
"Otherwise, I wouldn't be here."
(If things were not the way they are, I wouldn't be here.)
Our main examples will be of type (1) above, marked by the introducer "if", and with
the antecedent or subordinate clause preceding the consequent or main clause.
(Hence, "if P,Q".)

Dependencies in Conditional Clauses

It is common to think of "if" in English as a kind of conjunction, and to think of the

meaning of a conditional sentence as a straightforward product of the meanings of
its component clauses. In the simplest way of thinking of this, the truth of a
conditional sentence is a product of the truth values of its individual clauses,
according to a truth-table that holds the full sentence to be true unless the P part is
true while the Q part is false.
This implies, of course, that each of the parts of a conditional sentence could stand
on its own, and could have its truth determined independently of the other. Consider
the following sentences:

If it rains in California, everybody always gets gloomy.

If I touched Jimmy, he would burst into tears. Is it true that "it rains in California"?
Yes. Is it true that "everybody always gets gloomy"? No. Therefore, sentence (1) is
false.
But of course that line of reasoning doesn't make sense. We have to understand the
phrase "in California" as taking the entire sentence in its scope, just as we
understand "everybody" as taking in Californians who experience rain, which is not
at all what "everybody" means in a self-standing sentence. Sentence (1) is
undoubtedly false, but not for the reason worked out from the truth-table for
material implication.

Is it true that "I touched Jimmy"? No. I wouldn't think of it. Is it true that "he would
burst into tears"? I can't answer that, since a sentence with a conditional modal
can't be evaluated on its own. Assuming, for the same of argument, that the second
clause is either true or false, then sentence (2) is true. But we know, of course, that
the truth of this sentence, as we usually understand it, cannot be determined in that
way.

The point is, of course, that the subtle ways in which we understand the actual
conditional sentences that get used in everyday talk involve detailed consideration
of the actual grammatical form of the sentences themselves.

Types of Meanings of Conditional Sentences

Eve Sweetser, in From Etymology to Pragmatics has classified conditional semantics

according to the three domains she speaks of in that book, the content domain, the
epistemic domain, and the speech act domain. Content-based conditionals are
understood by relating the content of the two clauses to each other. A typical way in
which content conditionals can be understood is for the "P" clause to identify a
situation which causes or automatically results in the state of affairs signalled by
the "Q" clause. This is the case for
If you drop it, it will break.
If you say that again, I'll slap you.
If it rains, we'll cancel the picnic.
Epistemic conditionals are understood as expressions of the reasoning process. If
the state of affairs represented by the "P" clause turns out to be true, then we are
licensed to believe what we are told in the "Q" clause. Thus:
If their lights are on, the Wilsons are home from their vacation.
If the streets are wet, it rained last night.
If she wins, she's been practicing in secret.
And speech act conditionals are understood as pre-posing to a speech act a "P"
clause that identifies the situation which got the speaker to provide the speech act.
Thus:
If you're hungry, I could find something for you in the fridge.
If you leave before I see you again, have a good time.
If what I said offended you, I apologize.
We will see, in comparing the verbal forms of conditional sentences, that some
combinations can only have the epistemic interpretation, others can have either an
epistemic or a content interpretation. I have not explored the formal conditions for
being a speech-act conditional.
Verbal Forms

A major descriptive problem that grammarians have to face in dealing with English
conditional sentences involves the complex system of compatibility relations
between the two parts of a conditional sentence. That is, certain verbal forms
occurring in the antecedent clause of a conditional sentence are compatible only
with certain other verbal forms in the consequent clause. Some examples of
compatible combinations are these:

If she opens it, they will escape.

If she opened it, they would escape.
If she had opened it, they would have escaped.
If she opened it, they escaped.
Some examples of incompatible (or at least difficult-to-contextualize) combinations
are the following:
*If she'll open it, they had escaped.
*If she were here, I'll be happy.
*If she opens it, she had misunderstood my message.
What we need for this set of facts is some set of general principles according to
which these acceptability judgments, and the accompanying interpretations, can
get explained.
The tools we need for stating these principles include the following:

First, we need to have a vocabulary for describing the various verbal forms which
enter into the compatibility relations just mentioned;
second, we need to speak of something I will refer to as "epistemic stance" - the
speaker's stance on the reality of the proposition expressed in the antecedent
clause;
third, we will need to notice that some sentences give expression to what we can
call the "interlocutors' interest" - the speaker's view that of the alternatives
recognized by a conditional sentence, one is looked on as matching the speaker's or
the hearer's interest (this will be modified below); and
fourth, we will need to notice features of "polarity" - the difference between positive
polarity and negative polarity.
Describing the selection of verbal forms in English conditional sentences is made
complex by the facts that some of the relevant categories are not identifiable with
particular morphemes or particular individual grammatical notions, but with
complexes of these. What this means is that we will have to give different names to
forms that have the same, or almost the same, superficial appearance.
Furthermore, in discussing the categories we need, it is necessary to keep in mind

the difference between "Time" (which we take as a semantic notion) and "Tense" (a
grammatical notion).

The names of the verbal-form categories we will use are these:

present
the form which, in the copula, results in is, am, are and in the non-modal verbs uses
the sibilant suffix to express third-person-singular agreement (walks)
past
the form which, in the copula, results in was, were and otherwise, in the "regular"
cases, the simple past-tense inflection (walked)
future
the expression of future meaning with the modal will followed by the unmarked
infinitive
present subjunctive
this form is the same as the past- tense form, except that, in some dialects (perhaps
especially in the U.S.) there is a single form for the copula: were
past subjunctive
this form is the same as the pluperfect form (had gone, etc.), except that in
colloquial English we also find a more complex form (had've gone, etc.), and in
colloquial American English we find a form identical to what I will call "conditional
perfect": would have gone.
conditional
this form is constructed with would or could plus the unmarked infinitive (would go,
etc).
conditional perfect
this form is constructed with would or could plus the perfect infinitive (would have
gone, etc.)
In general, "perfect aspect" and "progressive aspect" can coexist with most of these
forms and contribute their own meanings. In other words, in describing a conditional

antecedent, the form "if he has seen her" will be simply classified as "present" for
present purposes.

Epistemic Stance

In the immediately following discussion we will combine conditional sentences with

sentences having a temporal subordinate clause. We can distinguish three sorts of
epistemic stance - positive, neutral, and negative - which will indicate the degree of
the speaker's commitment to the actuality of the proposition expressed in a
subordinate clause. In the case of positive epistemic stance, the speaker accepts
the truth of the proposition expressed in the subordinate clause: Thus, in "when Pat
opened the door, the dog escaped", the speaker accepts the idea that Pat did
indeed open the door and asserts that at that time the dog escaped. In the case of
neutral epistemic stance, the speaker takes no stand on the truth of the proposition
expressed by the subordinate clause. Thus in, "If Pat left the door open, the dog
undoubtedly escaped", the speaker does not know whether or not Pat left the door
open, but asserts an unfortunate consequence of such a state of affairs. And in the
case of negative epistemic stance, the speaker assumes that "P" is not true, where
"P" is a proposition derivable from (and preserving the polarity of) the form of the
antecedent clause. Thus, in "If Pat had left the door open, the dog would have
escaped," we hear the sentence as revealing the speaker's belief that Pat did not
leave the door open. In using the words "positive" and "negative" epistemic stance,
rather than, say, "believes true" and "believes false", I have in mind the fact that we
may be dealing with conceits rather than beliefs. And in the case of future-time
expressions, such as the difference between "If she invites them, they'll go" and "If
she invited them, they'd go", we will interpret the latter sentence not as expressing
the speaker's belief that "they" won't get invited, but that - say - "other things being
equal", they're not likely to get invited.
It seems to me that there are three basic types of conditional sentences, from the
point of view of Epistemic Stance. I can refer to these as Generic (in which the
speaker accepts the existence of instances of P but is presenting the "conditional"
as a general principle), Neutral (in which the speaker makes no commitment about
the actuality of P), and Negative (in which the speaker doubts the actuality of P).
The following tables will show the relationships between Epistemic Stance, "Time",
and Verbal Form. Each cell in these tables names the form of the verbal expression
that expresses the Epistemic Stance (the table), the Time (the column), and
appearance as Antecedent or Consequence (the row). Any conditional sentence can
be formed by choosing, from one of the tables, one cell from the upper column and
one cell from the lower column. (There are some other constraints, to be noted
below.)

Generic
Neutral Epistemic Stance

Negative Epistemic Stance

Examples of Neutral-ES and Negative-ES conditionals, illustrating each formal
possibility, follow:
Neutral Epistemic Stance
It should be noticed that there are different pragmatic purposes to conditional
sentences, which we can think of as causative versus inferential. Those in which the
time of the antecedent follows the time of the consequent are necessarily of the
inferential type.
Negative Epistemic Stance
The upper left ("past subjunctive") corner of the Negative ES diagram has a special
status, in that there is a variety of forms that can express it. The standard form is
identical to the pluperfect: "If I hadn't opened it." But there is a general colloquial
form "If I hadn't 've opened it" and there is a special American colloquial form "If I
wouldn't have opened it." Thus:
if I hadn't opened it
if I hadn't've opened it
if I wouldn't have opened it
A very important fact to notice about this collection of alternatives, and their
evaluations, is that it characterizes not only the past Neg-ES forms of conditional
antecedents, but also other contexts with Neg-ES meanings.
One such context is as the complement of the verb "wish". Wish is the only verb in
English which accepts these forms in its complement. We find (with the same
acceptability judgments):
I wish I hadn't said that.
I wish I hadn't've said that.
I wish I wouldn't've said that.

The verb wish is used not only for expressing past counterfactual wishes, but also
for expressing present and future wishes. In the case of present- time wishes, we
find the sentential complements of wish taking the same present-subjunctive form
we found with present Neg-ES antecedents. Thus, in "I wish you lived closer to
Berkeley", the past-tense form is used to express a wish about a present-time
situation, and in "I wish she were here", the special form "were" (rather than "was")
can be used.
There is one observation that keeps us from concluding that the complements of
wish are simply identical, in their formal requirements, with Neg-ES antecedents,
and that has to do with the FUTURE form. The future Neg-ES antecedent form is the
same as the past tense, but in the case of wish, we do not get "*I wish you
introduced me to Louise tomorrow", but "I wish you would introduce me to Louise
tomorrow." How are we going to account for the obligatory "would" in this clause? I
propose that clausal complements of wish and the antecedents of Neg-ES
conditonals are indeed constructed in accordance with the same principles, but so
far we have left out one set of facts. When such a clause expresses the
Interlocutors' Interest (or that of some other discourse-relevant individual), the
future-time version is formed with the modal "would". Since "wish" necessarily
expresses the speaker's interests, the construction with "would" is obligatory in that
case.
This means that we should be able to find cases of "would" in the Neg-ES
antecedents of conditional sentences, and that such clauses should be taken as
expressing one or both of the conversation participants' interests. That is, in fact,
what we find.
Consider first a comparison of cases where we learn from the consequent whether
or not the speaker has a positive interest in the outcome.
If you spoke to my father about that, we'd get in serious trouble.
If you spoke to my father about that, I might get permission to go.
Both of these sentences are acceptable. We can infer from the first one that the
speaker wants the addressee not to have this conversation, and from the second
one that the conversation with the father is desired. But the grammatical form of
the sentence does not express these judgments. But now let us look at the same
sentences with would:
?If you would speak to my father about that, we'd get in serious trouble
If you would speak to my father about that, I might get permission to go.
The oddity of the first of these sentences is that the consequent seems to contradict
the assumption suggested by the verb form in the antecedent, assuming that the
speaker of the sentence does not want trouble.

Having seen that there is a separate form for Neg-ES future antecedents revealing
participant interests, we can now ask whether such a possibility also exists for
Neutral-ES sentences. It appears there is, namely in the form of the modal "will". We
noted earlier that FUTURE Neutral-ES antecedents use the simple present tense
form, instead of the expected will-future; but we can find "will" in sentences
exhibiting the participants' positive interests. Compare:
If the sun'll shine we'll be able to have our picnic.
?If it'll rain, we'll have to cancel the picnic.
If you break another dish, I'll give you a spanking.
?If you'll break another dish, I'll give you a spanking.
The questioned sentences in the preceding set are all odd, since they suggest that
the speaker wants it to rain, or wants the addressee to break a dish.
In earlier work I suggested that the will...will form of a conditional sentence was
dedicated to "negotiations" or "negotiated offers". supported by sentences like "If
you'll wash the dishes, I'll dry" and "If it'll make you feel any better, I'll stay another
day or two". But I think now that the explanation of these forms is more general,
and that the "negotiation" aspect of the interpretation of these sentences is merely
a by-product of the sentences' ability to express both participants' interests.
There is a generalization to be captured here. We are now free to say that in futuretime antecedents, the modal will is used, and that this form has its present-tense
form will in the Neutral- ES case, the past-tense form would in the Negative- ES
case. Hence:
In the cases where the future antecedent expresses the interlocutors' interests, the
form will is used, in each case: It is well known that the antecedent clauses of
conditional sentences are - or are capable of being - "negative polarity contexts",
but this is only when the sentence does not express the interlocutors' interest.
Some linguistic forms are generally welcome in only positive (or "positive interest")
sentences, e.g., "a little". Other expressions, e.g., "any" (in the relevant meaning),
are generally welcome only in sentences expressing uncertainty or negative
interest. Compare the following,
If you come a little closer, you'll be able to see better.
If you come any closer, I'll call the police.
In the former case, I invite you to come closer, and propose a reason why you
should be interested in doing so. In the latter case, I discourage you from coming
closer, and I propose a reason for you to want to do otherwise.

If we were to examine the compatibility problems for antecedent and consequent

verbal forms in English conditional sentences, mentioned at the beginning of this
section, we will find that the ones which are possible are those that "fall out from"
the combined principles governing tenses, epistemic stance, and interlocutor
interests, and that the ones which are impossible cannot be derived from the
patterns that such principles create.
The Challenge
What are the things that need to be explained in a theory of English conditional
sentences?
The P clause can appear before or after the Q clause.
The Q clause can begin with "then" only when the P clause comes first.
The relation between the P-clause and its relevant Q-clause appears to be one of
long-distance dependencies, which makes it similar to the LI construction.
But there's a contradiction here, since the "sealing" (or "island" phenomena that we
observe in other instances of LI (in particular in respect to the so- called "WHisland")) doe not seem to hold in the case of conditional sentences.
There are compatibility relations in the form of the verbal expressions in the two
clauses, such that the form of the verbal expression in each clause depends on
whether
the clause is P or Q
the clause is of tense past, present, or future
or perhaps simply past vs. nonpast, in the negative cases?
the epistemic stance is neutral or negative
the event signalled by P is of positive interest to somebody
In some cases the structural feature which is the formal reflection of some such
combination of conditions is morphologically complex, and not in a way that lends
itself to being understood as a single constituent. This is so, because we have
regarded VPs with complex auxiliaries as right-branching structures, where each
successive auxiliary is in construction with the entire remainder of the VP. That is,
we are not free, willy nilly, to regard "would have" as a single unit, since the
structure we have imposed on such sequences is, say, "[would [have [eaten it]]]"
and not "[would have] [eaten it]"
(One wonders what this has to do with some observations of Joyce Tang Boyland
(whose office is across the corridor from our classroom) about modal+have

sequences functioning as single auxiliaries, in such colloquial sentences as "What

would have you said?". See J. T. Boyland, "A corpus study of would + have + pastparticiple in English", to appear in Nigel Vincent, ed., Historical Linguistics, 1995.)
Negative epistemic stance has to be understood in a special way in case the
intended time is 'future'. When it is present or past, the meaning is essentially that
of counterfactuality; but when it is future it appears to be a matter of other-thingsbeing-equal likelihood. ("If she asks me, I'll aaccept" versus "If she asked me, I'd
accept".)
The person whose "positive interest" is in question for the positive polarity
sentences is one or both interlocutors in a typical case, but it might also be the
"individual" we've been referring to as prag, that is, the person from whose point of
view something is being expressed, which by default will of course be the speaker
or addressee.
In our informal discussion of the two parts of a conditional sentence we have been
free to use words like "antecedent" vs. "consequent", or even "subordinate clause"
versus "main clause", but we need to do better than that in representing the
construction that will be able to take care of all of this. We will in fact need some
way of showing that the P clause has an "anchoring" function with respect to the Q
clause, since it provides the conditions under which the interpretation of the Q
clause is based. This might need to be integrated into our proposals for the
architecture of our semantic representations, where we once proposed
distinguishing "settings" from "scenes". The "settings" part included temporal
settings, including tense and aspect, but also temporal, locational, and hypothetical
adjuncts.
There appear to be some features shared by temporal and conditional adjuncts. One
of these is the use of present-tense for future meaning in the subordinate clause.
Another is the possibility of a sort of "correlative" phrasing, with "then", when the
subordinate clause precedes the main clause. Thus we have both
When he starts treating me like a friend, then I'll start showing him some respect.
If he does this, then I'll do that.
Shall we arrange for the conditional construction to iterate? I would prefer to think
of sentences like the following as instances of language play, and not as evidence of
some natural process in English: "If we had some ham, we could make some ham
and eggs, if we had some eggs."
All of this means, of course, that when we write up the construction description, it
will need to contain a number of primitive semantic/pragmatic notions that require
interpretations that have not yet been completely pinned down. These will include

our notions of anchoring, epistemic stance, prag's positive interest, and the notion
of prag itself.
Conditional sentences

The most common kind of conditional sentence that you are likely to meet will
contain two clauses, one of which will start with the word if, as in If it rains, we'll
have to stay at home. The clause without the if is the main clause of the sentence,
while the if clause is subordinate. The order of the two clauses is generally not that
important to the meaning of the sentence; so we can switch the if clause to the end
of the sentence if we want to.
Most grammar books tend to recognise four basic configurations of tenses in
conditional sentences which vary in structure according to the time that we are
talking about (past, present or future) and the meaning. These four types are
normally referred to as the zero, first, second and third conditionals; we will look at
the forms and meanings of each of these in turn and also examine some of the
alternatives to these four basic types.
Zero-type conditionals

Form and meaning

The form of the zero conditional causes no problems since the present tenses are
used in both clauses.
Zero-type conditionals
If clause
Main or conditional clause
If + Present tense
Present tense
If you heat water
it boils.
The zero conditional is normally used to talk about facts and to express general
truths.
First-type conditionals

Form and meaning

The basic form for this type of conditional sentence can be seen in the chart below.
As before, the order of the clauses can be changed with no change in meaning.
This type refers to future possibilities that are certain or probable.
First-type conditionals
If clause
Main or conditional clause
If + Present tense
Future tense
If they don't arrive soon
If they are late
we'll leave without them.
I'm going to be angry.
You will note that on the if side of the sentence any present tense can be used,
while in the main clause the speaker is free to choose any future that helps to
express any additional meaning that the speaker wants to express.
If he's sleeping, he won't wake up until morning. (The Present Continuous in the first
part of the sentence expresses the present temporary nature of the situation and
the will in the second part is making a prediction about the future.)
Alan is going to post me the recipe, if he finds it. (In the first clause I am expressing
Alan's intention so going to is the best future to use, while the second clause
contains a Simple Present tense.)
If he's staying at the party, I'm leaving. (In the first clause I am thinking about the
possible current state of affairs, so I choose the Present Continuous, while in the
second I am referring to the future plan that I have in mind should he decide to
stay, so again I choose the Present Continuous.)
If you have finished the essay, leave it on my desk. (By using the Present Perfect
tense in the if clause I am stressing the completed nature of the action, while in the
second clause I have used an imperative, which has a future meaning.)
Second-type conditionals

Form and meaning

This type is often called the hypothetical or 'unreal' future conditional since it is
usually used to speculate about either very unlikely future situations or present and
future impossibilities.
Second-type conditionals
If clause
Main or conditional clause
If + Past tense
would + verb
If I had time
If I had wings
I would drop you off at school.
I would fly.
Other examples are:
If you were coming with us, you would have a great time. (Either I am not expecting
you to come or you have already told me that you do not intend to come, so the
situation is very unlikely to happen.)
I'm sure my mother would help if you asked her. (I am unsure whether you are going
to ask so I hedge my bets by using an 'unreal' conditional; if I had used I'm sure my
mother will help instead, this gives the impression that I feel you are likely to ask.)
If I were you, I'd call back later. (This is a fixed expression used for giving advice,
but since I can never be you, I use the future hypothetical conditional; you should
note that many people would say if I was you and this is becoming increasingly
common.)
Third-type conditionals

Form and meaning

This type refers to hypothetical situations in the past. In this case we use the Past
Perfect tenses in the if clause and would + have in the main clause.

Third-type conditionals
If clause
Main or conditional clause
If + Past Perfect tense
would have + past participle
If I had known about his condition
If we had known about the storm
I would have phoned for you earlier.
we wouldn't have started our journey.
The main uses of the third conditional are for speculating about the past, expressing
regrets, excusing our own actions and criticising others. Some of the uses tend to
overlap in practice as the examples below demonstrate:
If we'd taken the first turning, we would have been at home by now.
If I'd bought the lottery ticket, we would have won millions.
If I'd realised you were going to be so sensitive, I'd have kept quiet.
The meeting would've finished before 1:00 if you'd said less.
There is one other major variation to the form given in the chart above; in place of
the more usual
If I had known about his condition...
we can use
Had I known about his condition... where the if is omitted and the subject and
auxiliary verb are inverted.
Mixed conditionals
The four types of conditional sentence discussed above appear to fit into very rigid
patterns of form and meaning but we often find exceptions to these rules. In many
cases we may want to talk about events that happened or did not happen in the
past and the present results of those events. Therefore, we will often need to mix
clauses from different conditional types in order to get our meaning across clearly
and unambiguously. Taking one example from above, we might want to say:
If I'd bought the lottery ticket, we would be millionaires now.

In this sentence I want to refer to something that I did not do in the past (and
probably regret) and the possible effect that this action might have had on the
present - so I use a third-conditional if clause and a second-conditional main clause.
Swapping around these two types we also get:
If he was going to come, he would have arrived by now (with a second-conditional if
clause and a third-conditional main).
This kind of mixing of conditional types is not uncommon.