Sulfuric Acid and John Harrison: The Chemical Revolution in America

Introduction

Throughout time, alchemists searched for ways to turn common minerals into gold and other valuable
substances. Back in the 8th century, alchemists discovered oil of vitriol.(1) Although they never found a
way to make gold, the oil of vitriol they discovered has become one of their most important
achievements. Eventually, scientists reclassified oil of vitriol as sulfuric acid.

Sulfuric acid is still the most highly produced manufactured chemical in the United States. According to
Chemical and Engineering News, the US produced 39.62 billion kilograms of sulfuric acid. Ethylene was
the second most produced chemical that year. The US produced 25.15 billion kilograms of ethylene.(2)
Philadelphia was the first place sulfuric acid was produced in the United States.

Uses

The reason the US produces so much sulfuric acid is simple. It has many uses.

Common uses:

 Sulfuric acid is used as the electrolyte in car batteries.

 Sulfuric acid mixes with aluminum to form aluminum sulfates. These aluminum sulfates are a
main ingredient in paper.
 Sulfuric acid combines with sodium compounds to help refine petroleum to create gasoline.
 Sulfuric acid has a high affinity for water and is sometimes used as a drying agent.
 Sulfuric acid combines with ammoniums and phosphates to produce fertilizers.
 Sulfuric acid removes oxides from iron and steel.
 Sulfuric acid was used in paints and dyes.

Early Production

Alchemists produced sulfuric acid all the way back to medieval times. They burned various sulfur
containing compounds in the presence of steam to create a weak form of the acid.
 Green and Blue Vitriol, Iron(II) Sulfate and Copper(II) Sulfate
respectively, are both sulfur containing compounds that were used to make sulfuric acid before the saltpeter method was
discovered.

ML2R Consultancy states that in the 17th century, the German-Dutch chemist Johann Glauber prepared
sulfuric acid by burning sulfur together with saltpeter (potassium nitrate, KNO 3), in the presence of
steam.(3) This was the best way to produce sulfuric acid until John Roebuck made a discovery in 1746.

Saltpeter(Potassium nitrate) in its most common form

John Roebuck found that replacing the typical glass chambers used previously with lead-lined chambers
allowed for better production efficiency of sulfuric acid. Lead chambers are built bigger, stronger, and
cheaper than glass chambers. Although Roebuck made this discovery in 1746, it was some time before
anyone in the US took advantage of this knowledge.

The Father of American Sulfuric Acid

John Harrison produced sulfuric acid on a large scale for the first time in the US. John Harrison was born
into a wealthy and famous family in Philadelphia. As part of his education, he spent two years studying
in England. Part of this time was spent learning from Joseph Priestley. Joseph Priestley was one of the
great scientists of the times. He even discovered oxygen. After studying in Europe, John returned to
Philadelphia and started a pharmacy.

During the late 1700’s and early 1800’s, Philadelphia boomed into a bustling manufacturing center.
John Harrison took advantage of this. His pharmacy made money and allowed him to work on other
projects. He soon started producing sulfuric acid in the back of his shop. In 1793, at the age of 20, he
used his knowledge that he gained in Europe to setup the lead chamber process.

Boosting Production

The lead chamber process is the method of sulfuric acid production that was first brought to the United
States by John Harrison. Lead chambers were used because they were not reactive with the other
chemicals used in the process and they were more durable than glass.

Typical lead chamber setup in the late 1700’s

As seen in the figure below, hot sulfur dioxide gas enters the bottom of a Glover Tower where it is
washed and then mixed with nitrous vitriol. This nitrous vitriol is sulfuric acid with nitric oxide and
nitrogen dioxide dissolved in it. The Glover Tower is a series of lead chambers that decrease the
temperature of and condense the weak acid. Some of the sulfur dioxide is oxidized to form sulfur
trioxide and dissolved in the acid wash to form Glover Acid. It is called this because it is formed in the
Glover Tower. From the Glover Tower, the SO 2 and SO3 enter the lead-lined chamber. Here they are
mixed with steam to create the acid.

Schematic of the lead chamber process

They are then moved to a final chamber where the resulting chemicals are separated and the sulfuric
acid is claimed. The chemist in charge recycles many of the byproducts to complete more iterations of
the process. This reuse of byproducts separates the lead chamber process from previous methods that
simply allowed the byproducts to escape into the atmosphere.

Initially Harrison was only able to produce about 45,000 lbs. of sulfuric acid per year. By 1804 his plant
was 18 ft high, 18 ft wide, and 50 ft long and could turn out nearly 500,000 lb annually.(4)

Cultural Significance

The production of sulfuric acid in Philadelphia allowed Americans to further break away from Europe.
Harrison’s plant broke the European monopoly on sulfuric acid. Previously, Americans depended on
England for many of their goods. With a reliable and capable plant in Philadelphia, the manufacturers
that needed sulfuric acid were able to expand. Harrison’s plant created jobs both within the plant and in
multiple related industries. This helped cement Philadelphia’s place as one of the best manufacturing
centers in history.

According to Workshop of the World’s website, Harrison’s plants moved throughout Philadelphia. At
times, he had plants in Spring Garden, Frankford, Kensington, and Gray’s Ferry. Harrison Brothers and
Co. employed nearly 500 workers in their paint factory, which used sulfuric acid.(5) It was one of the
largest production facilities in all of Philadelphia. Harrison Brothers and Co. remained in business until it
was bought by the chemical giant DuPont in 1917.

Conclusion

Sulfuric acid was and still is possibly the most widely used chemical in the world. Harrison’s process led
the way for chemical manufacturing in the United States. His plant created jobs and increased the
capability of other industries in the area. John Harrison saw an opportunity to make money and
increase production in Philadelphia. Without large amounts of sulfuric acid, the United States would not
be where it is today.