Galerius

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Galerius
53rd Emperor of the Roman Empire
Porphyry bust of Galerius
1 March or 21 May 293[1][2]:4,
38[3]:288[4]:146[5]:645[6]
1 May
305 (as Caesar, under
Diocletian)[7]
1 May 305 late April or
early May 311 (as Augustus
alongside Constantius (until July
Reign
25, 306) then Severus (until
spring 307) then Constantine
(from ca. September 307;
unrecognized by Galerius'
coinage from ca. September
307 to November 308) then
Licinius (from 11 November
308))[2]:46
Gaius Galerius Valerius
Full name
Maximianus Augustus[7]
Born
ca. 260[2]:37, 46
Birthplace Serdica[8] (Sofia, Bulgaria)
Late April or early May 311
Died
(aged 51)[9]
Place of
Serdica (Sofia), Bulgaria
death
Serdica or Felix Romuliana
Buried
(Gamzigrad)[10]
Predecessor Maximian and Diocletian[7]
Maximinus, Constantine, and
Successor
Licinius[2]:7
Consort to Galeria Valeria[2]:38
Candidianus
Issue
Valeria Maximilla, Roman
Empress
Mother
Romula (alleged)[2]:378

Galerius (Latin: Gaius Galerius Valerius Maximianus Augustus;[11] c. 260

April or May 311), was Roman Emperor from 305 to 311.[12] During his
reign he campaigned, aided by Diocletian, against the Sassanid Empire,
sacking their capital Ctesiphon in 299. He also campaigned across the
Danube against the Carpi, defeating them in 297 and 300. Although he
was a staunch opponent of Christianity, Galerius ended the Diocletianic
Persecution when he issued an edict of toleration in 311.

Contents

1 Early life
2 War with Persia
o 2.1 Invasion, counterinvasion
o 2.2 Peace negotiations
3 Persecution of Christians
4 Rule as Augustus
5 Death
6 Anti-Roman accusations
7 See also
8 References
o 8.1 Ancient sources
o 8.2 Modern sources
9 Notes
10 Citations
11 External links

Early life[ source | ]

Galerius was born in Serdica,[13] though some modern scholars consider
the strategic site where he later built his palace named after his mother
Felix Romuliana (Gamzigrad) his birth and funeral place. [10] His
father was a Thracian and his mother Romula was a Dacian woman, who
left Dacia because of the Carpians' attacks.[14]:19 He originally followed his
father's occupation, that of a herdsman, where he got his surname of
Armentarius (Latin: armentum, herd).
He served with distinction as a soldier under Emperors Aurelian and
Probus, and in 293 at the establishment of the Tetrarchy, was designated
Caesar along with Constantius Chlorus, receiving in marriage Diocletian's
daughter Valeria (later known as Galeria Valeria), and at the same time
being entrusted with the care of the Illyrian provinces. After a few years
campaigning against Sarmatians and Goths on the Danube, he received
command of the legions on the eastern Imperial limits. Soon after his
appointment, Galerius would be dispatched to Egypt to fight the rebellious
cities Busiris and Coptos.[15]

War with Persia[ source | ]

See also: Roman relations with the Parthians and Sassanids and RomanPersian Wars

Invasion, counterinvasion[ source | ]

In 294, Narseh, a son of Shapur I who had been passed over for the
Sassanid succession, came into power in Persia. Narseh probably moved
to eliminate Bahram III, a young man installed by a noble named
Vahunam in the wake of Bahram II's death in 293.[3]:292[5]:69 In early 294,
Narseh sent Diocletian the customary package of gifts, but within Persia
he was destroying every trace of his immediate predecessors, erasing
their names from public monuments. He sought to identify himself with
the warlike reigns of Ardashir (r. 22641) and Shapur (r. 24172),
who had sacked Roman Antioch and captured Emperor Valerian. [5]:6970
In 295 or 296, Narseh declared war on Rome. He appears to have first
invaded western Armenia, retaking the lands delivered to Tiridates in the
peace of 287. He would occupy the lands there until the following year.[3]
[16][17]:292[4]:149
The late historian Ammianus Marcellinus is the only source
detailing the initial invasion of Armenia.[18] Southern (1999, 149) dates the
invasion to 295; Barnes (1982, 17, 293) mentions an earlier, unsuccessful
invasion by Narseh based on the fact that the title Persici Maximi was
given to all four emperors; Odahl (2004, 59) concurs with Barnes and
suggests that Saracen princes in the Syrian desert collaborated with
Narseh's invasion. Narseh then moved south into Roman Mesopotamia,
where he inflicted a severe defeat on Galerius, then commander of the
Eastern forces, in the region between Carrhae (Harran, Turkey) and
Callinicum (Ar-Raqqah, Syria).[17] Diocletian may or may not have been
present at the battle,[3]:652 but would present himself soon afterwards at
Antioch, where the official version of events was made clear: Galerius was
to take all the blame for the affair. In Antioch, Diocletian forced Galerius to
walk a mile in advance of his imperial cart while still clad in the purple
robes of an emperor.[3][17]:2923 The message conveyed was clear: the loss
at Carrhae was not due to the failings of the empire's soldiers, but due to
the failings of their commander, and Galerius' failures would not be
accepted.[19] It is also possible that Galerius' position at the head of the
caravan was merely the conventional organization of an imperial
progression, designed to show a Caesar's deference to his Augustus. [20]
Detail of Galerius attacking Narseh on the Arch of Galerius at Thessaloniki,
Greece, the city where Galerius carried out most of his administrative
actions.[4]:151
Galerius had been reinforced, probably in the spring of 298, by a new
contingent collected from the empire's Danubian holdings. [21] Narseh did

not advance from Armenia and Mesopotamia, leaving Galerius to lead the
offensive in 298 with an attack on northern Mesopotamia via Armenia. [19]
Diocletian may or may not have been present to assist the campaign.[22]
Narseh retreated to Armenia to fight Galerius' force, to Narseh's
disadvantage: the rugged Armenian terrain was favorable to Roman
infantry, but not to Sassanid cavalry. Local aid gave Galerius the
advantage of surprise over the Persian forces, and, in two successive
battles, Galerius secured victories over Narseh.[19][21]
During the second encounter, the Battle of Satala in 298, Roman forces
seized Narseh's camp, his treasury, his harem, and his wife. [19][21] Narseh's
wife would live out the remainder of the war in Daphne, a suburb of
Antioch, serving as a constant reminder to the Persians of the Roman
victory.[19] Galerius advanced into Media and Adiabene, winning continuous
victories, most prominently near Theodosiopolis (Erzurum), [4]:151 and
securing Nisibis (Nusaybin) before 1 October 298. He moved down the
Tigris, taking Ctesiphon, and gazing onwards to the ruins of Babylon
before returning to Roman territory via the Euphrates.[21] No source ever
specifically claims that Ctesiphon was sacked, but it is assumed to have
been, primarily due to the seizure of Narseh's wife and harem [4]:150.

Peace negotiations[ source | ]

Narseh had previously sent an ambassador to Galerius to plead for the
return of his wife and children, but Galerius had dismissed this
ambassador, reminding him of how Shapur had treated Valerian. [21] The
Romans, in any case, treated Narseh's captured family with tact, perhaps
seeking to evoke comparisons to Alexander and his beneficent conduct
towards the family of Darius III.[19] Peace negotiations began in the spring
of 299, with both Diocletian and Galerius presiding. Their magister
memoriae (secretary) Sicorius Probus was sent to Narseh to present
terms.[21]
The conditions of the Peace of Nisibis were heavy: [19] Persia would give up
territory to Rome, making the Tigris the boundary between the two
empires. Further terms specified that Armenia was returned to Roman
domination, with the fort of Ziatha as its border; Caucasian Iberia would
pay allegiance to Rome under a Roman appointee; Nisibis, now under
Roman rule, would become the sole conduit for trade between Persia and
Rome; and Rome would exercise control over the five satrapies between
the Tigris and Armenia: Ingilene, Sophanene (Sophene), Arzanene
(Aghdznik), Corduene, and Zabdicene (near modern Hakkri, Turkey).
These regions included the passage of the Tigris through the Anti-Taurus
range; the Bitlis pass, the quickest southerly route into Persian Armenia;
and access to the Tur Abdin plateau. With these territories, Rome would
have an advance station north of Ctesiphon, and would be able to slow
any future advance of Persian forces through the region. [23] Under the
terms of the peace Tiridates would regain both his throne and the entirety

of his ancestral claim, and Rome would secure a wide zone of cultural
influence in the region.[21] The fact that the empire was able to sustain
such constant warfare on so many fronts has been taken as a sign of the
essential efficacy of the Diocletianic system and the goodwill of the army
towards the tetrarchic enterprise.[4]:150.

Persecution of Christians[ source | ]

Main article: Diocletian Persecution
Detail of the Arch of Galerius in Thessaloniki.
Christians had lived in peace during most of the rule of Diocletian. The
persecutions that began with an edict of February 24, 303, were cred by
Christians to Galerius' work, as he was a fierce advocate of the old ways
and old gods. Christian houses of assembly were destroyed, for fear of
sion in secret gatherings.
Diocletian was not anti-Christian during the first part of his reign, and
historians have claimed that Galerius decided to prod him into persecuting
them by secretly burning the Imperial Palace and blaming it on Christian
saboteurs. Regardless of who was at fault for the fire, Diocletian's rage
was aroused and he began one of the last and greatest Christian
persecutions in the history of the Roman Empire.
It was at the insistence of Galerius that the last edicts of persecution
against the Christians were published, beginning on February 24, 303, and
this policy of repression was maintained by him until the appearance of
the general edict of toleration, issued from Nicomedia in April 311,
apparently during his last bout of illness, in his own name and in those of
Licinius and Constantine (see Edict of Toleration by Galerius). Initially one
of the leading figures in the persecutions, Galerius later admitted that the
policy of trying to eradicate Christianity had failed, saying: "wherefore, for
this our indulgence, they ought to pray to their God for our safety, for that
of the republic, and for their own, that the republic may continue
uninjured on every side, and that they may be able to live securely in their
homes." Lactantius gives the text of the edict in his moralized chronicle of
the bad ends to which all the persecutors came, De Mortibus
Persecutorum.[24] This marked the end of official persecution of Christians.
Christianity was officially legalized in the Roman Empire two years later in
313 by Constantine and Licinius in the Edict of Milan. [12]:125

Rule as Augustus[ source | ]

Follis of Galerius
After the elevation of Constantius I and Galerius to the rank of Augusti,
two new Caesars were required to supply their place, and to complete the

system of the Imperial government. The two persons whom Galerius

promoted to the rank of Caesar were very much Galerius' creatures, and
he hoped to enhance his authority throughout the empire with their
elevation.[25]
First was Maximinus Daia, whose mother was Galerius' sister. An
inexperienced youth with little formal education, he was invested with the
purple, exalted to the dignity of Caesar, and assigned the command of
Egypt and Syria. Second was Severus, Galerius' comrade in arms; he was
sent to Milan to receive the possession of Italy and Africa. According to
the forms of the constitution, Severus acknowledged the supremacy of the
western emperor; but he was absolutely devoted to the commands of his
benefactor Galerius, who, reserving to himself the intermediate countries
from the confines of Italy to those of Syria, firmly established his power
over three quarters of the empire.[25]
His hopes were dashed when his colleague Constantius died at York in 306
and the legions elevated his son Constantine to the position of Augustus.
Galerius only discovered this when he received a letter from Constantine,
who informed him of his father's death, modestly asserted his natural
claim to the succession, and respectfully lamented that the enthusiastic
violence of his troops had not allowed him to obtain the Imperial purple in
the regular and constitutional manner. The first emotions of Galerius were
those of surprise, disappointment, and rage; and, as he could seldom
restrain his passions, he threatened to burn both the letter and the
messenger.[26][27][28][29]
But when he had time to reconsider his position, he inevitably saw that his
chances of winning a war against Constantine was doubtful at best,
especially given that he was well aware of Constantines strengths as
Constantine had been his guest for some time at Nicomedia, not to
mention the attachment of the troops to him.[25] Therefore, without either
condemning or ratifying the choice of the British army, Galerius accepted
the son of his deceased colleague as the ruler of the provinces beyond the
Alps; but he gave him only the title of Caesar, and the fourth rank among
the Roman princes, whilst he conferred the vacant place of Augustus on
his favourite Severus.
The ambitious spirit of Galerius was only just over this disappointment
when he beheld the unexpected loss of Italy to Maxentius, who was
married to his daughter Valeria Maximilla[30] Galerius need for
additional revenue had persuaded him to make a very strict and rigorous
examination of the property of his subjects for the purpose of a general
taxation. A very minute survey was taken of their real estates and,
wherever there was the slightest suspicion of concealment, torture was
used to obtain a sincere declaration of their personal wealth. Italy had
traditionally been exempt from any form of taxation, but Galerius ignored
this precedent, and the officers of the revenue already began to number

the Roman people, and to settle the proportion of the new taxes. Italy
began to murmur against this indignity and Maxentius used this sentiment
to declare himself emperor in Italy, to the fury of Galerius. Therefore,
Galerius ordered his colleague Severus to immediately march to Rome, in
the full confidence that, by his unexpected arrival, he would easily
suppress the rebellion.[25] Severus was captured after his troops deserted
to their old commander Maximian, who had once again been elevated to
the rank of co-emperor, this time by his son Maxentius. He was later
executed.
The importance of the occasion needed the presence and abilities of
Galerius. At the head of a powerful army collected from Illyricum and the
East, he entered Italy, determined to avenge Severus and to punish the
rebellious Romans.[12]:122 But due to the skill of Maximian, Galerius found
every place hostile, fortified, and inaccessible; and though he forced his
way as far as Narni, within sixty miles of Rome, his control in Italy was
confined to the narrow limits of his camp.
Seeing that he was facing ever-greater difficulties, Galerius made the first
advances towards reconciliation, and dispatched two officers to tempt the
Romans by the offer of a conference, and the declaration of his paternal
regard for Maxentius, reminding them that they would obtain much more
from his willing generosity than anything that might have been obtained
through a military campaign. The offers of Galerius were rejected with
firmness, his friendship refused, and it was not long before he discovered
that unless he retreated, he might have succumbed to the fate of Severus.
It was not a moment too soon; large monetary gifts from Maxentius to his
soldiers had corrupted the fidelity of the Illyrian legions. When Galerius
finally began his withdrawal from Italy, it was only with great difficulty
that he managed to stop his veterans deserting him.[25]
In frustration, Galerius allowed his legions to ravage the countryside as
they passed northwards. Maxentius declined to make a general
engagement.
With so many emperors now in existence, in 308 Galerius, together with
the retired emperor Diocletian and the now active Maximian, called an
imperial 'conference' at Carnuntum on the River Danube to rectify the
situation and bring some order back into the imperial government. [12]:120
Here it was agreed that Galerius long-time friend and military
companion Licinius, who had been entrusted by Galerius with the defense
of the Danube while Galerius was in Italy, would become Augustus in the
West, with Constantine as his Caesar. In the East, Galerius remained
Augustus and Maximinus remained his Caesar. Maximian was to retire,
and Maxentius was declared a usurper.
Galerius plan soon failed. The news of Licinius promotion was no
sooner carried into the East, than Maximinus, who governed, the

provinces of Egypt and Syria, rejected his position as Caesar, and,

notwithstanding the prayers as well as arguments of Galerius, exacted,
the equal title of Augustus.[25] For the first, and indeed for the last time,
six emperors administered the Roman world. And though the opposition of
interest, and the memory of a recent war, divided the empire into two
great hostile powers, their mutual fears and the fading authority of
Galerius produced an apparent tranquility in the imperial government.
The last years of Galerius saw him relinquishing his aspirations towards
being the supreme emperor of the empire, though he managed to retain
the position of first among equals. He spent the remainder of his years
enjoying himself and ordering some important public works, such as
discharging into the Danube the superfluous waters of Lake Pelso, and
cutting down the immense forests that encompassed it. [25]

Death[ source | ]
Galerius died in late April or early May 311[31] from a horribly gruesome
disease described by Eusebius[32] and Lactantius,[33] possibly some form of
bowel cancer, gangrene or Fournier gangrene.
Gamzigrad-Romuliana, Palace of Galerius near Zajear in Serbia he had
constructed in his birthplace, was inscribed into the World Heritage List in
June 2007.

Anti-Roman accusations[ source | ]

According to Lactantius, Galerius affirmed his Dacian identity and avowed
himself the enemy of the Roman name once made emperor, even
proposing that the empire should be called, not the Roman, but the
Dacian Empire, much to the horror of the patricians and senators. He
exhibited anti-Roman attitude as soon as he had attained the highest
power, treating the Roman citizens with ruthless cruelty, like the
conquerors treated the conquered, all in the name of the same treatment
that the victorious Trajan had applied to the conquered Dacians,
forefathers of Galerius, two centuries before.[34]

See also[ source | ]

Arch and Tomb of Galerius

Civil Wars of the Tetrarchy (306324)

References[ source | ]
Ancient sources[ source | ]

Codex Theodosianus.

Epitome de Caesaribus.

Banchich, Thomas M., trans. A Booklet About the Style of Life

and the Manners of the Imperatores. Canisius College
Translated Texts 1. Buffalo, NY: Canisius College, 2009. Online
at De Imperatoribus Romanis. Accessed 15 August 2009.

Eusebius of Caesarea.

Historia Ecclesiastica (Church History).

McGiffert, Arthur Cushman, trans. Church History. From

Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, Vol. 1. ed by
Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature
Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and ed for New Advent by Kevin
Knight. Online at New Advent. Accessed 25 August 2009.

Vita Constantini (Life of Constantine).

Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. Life of Constantine. From

Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, Vol. 1. ed by
Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature
Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and ed for New Advent by Kevin
Knight. Online at New Advent. Accessed 25 August 2009.

Festus. Breviarium.

Mommsen, T. and Paul M. Meyer, eds. Theodosiani libri XVI

cum Constitutionibus Sirmondianis et Leges novellae ad
Theodosianum pertinentes2 (in Latin). Berlin: Weidmann,
[1905] 1954. Complied by Nicholas Palmer, revised by Tony
Honor for Oxford Text Archive, 1984. Prepared for online
use by R.W.B. Salway, 1999. Preface, books 18. Online at
University College London and the University of Grenoble.
Accessed 25 August 2009.
Unknown ion (in Latin). Online at AncientRome.ru. Accessed
15 August 2009.

Banchich, Thomas M., and Jennifer A. Meka, trans. Breviarium

of the Accomplishments of the Roman People. Canisius
College Translated Texts 2. Buffalo, NY: Canisius College,
2001. Online at De Imperatoribus Romanis. Accessed 15
August 2009.

Lactantius. De Mortibus Persecutorum (On the Deaths of the

Persecutors).

XII Panegyrici Latini (Twelve Latin Panegyrics).

Fletcher, William, trans. Of the Manner in Which the

Persecutors Died. From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers,
Second Series, Vol. 7. ed by Alexander Roberts, James
Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe. Buffalo, NY: Christian
Literature Publishing Co., 1886. Revised and ed for New
Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent. Accessed 25
August 2009.

Nixon, C.E.V., and Barbara Saylor Rodgers, ed. and trans. In

Praise of Later Roman Emperors: The Panegyrici Latini.
Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994.

Zosimus. Historia Nova (New History).

Unknown, trans. The History of Count Zosimus. London: Green

and Champlin, 1814. Online at Tertullian. Accessed 15 August
2009.[notes 1]

Modern sources[ source | ]

Banchich, Thomas M. "Iulianus (c. 286293 AD)." De

Imperatoribus Romanis (1997). Accessed March 8, 2008.
Barnes, Timothy D. "Lactantius and Constantine." The Journal of
Roman Studies 63 (1973): 2946.
Barnes, Timothy D. Constantine and Eusebius. Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press, 1981. ISBN 978-0-674-16531-1
Barnes, Timothy D. The New Empire of Diocletian and Constantine.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982. ISBN 0-78372221-4
Bleckmann, Bruno. "Diocletianus." In Brill's New Pauly, Volume 4, ed
by Hubert Cancik and Helmut Schneider, 42938. Leiden: Brill,
2002. ISBN 90-04-12259-1
Bowman, Alan K., Peter Garnsey, and Averil Cameron. The
Cambridge Ancient History, Volume XII: The Crisis of Empire.
Cambridge University Press, 2005. ISBN 0-521-30199-8
Brown, Peter. The Rise of Western Christendom. Oxford: Blackwell
Publishing, 2003. ISBN 0-631-22138-7
Burgess, R.W. "The Date of the Persecution of Christians in the
Army". Journal of Theological Studies 47:1 (1996): 157158.
Canduci, Alexander. Triumph and Tragedy: The Rise and Fall of
Rome's Immortal Emperors. Pier 9, 2010. ISBN 978-1-74196-598-8
Corcoran, Simon. The Empire of the Tetrarchs: Imperial
Pronouncements and Government, AD 284324. Oxford:
Clarendon Press, 1996. ISBN 0-19-815304-X

Corcoran, "Before Constantine", Simon. "Before Constantine." In

The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Constantine, ed by Noel
Lenski, 3558. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006.
Hardcover ISBN 0-521-81838-9 Paperback ISBN 0-521-52157-2
DiMaio, Jr., Michael. "Constantius I Chlorus (305306 AD)." De
Imperatoribus Romanis (1996a). Accessed March 8, 2008.
DiMaio, Jr., Michael. "Galerius (305311 AD)." De Imperatoribus
Romanis (1996b). Accessed March 8, 2008.
DiMaio, Jr., Michael. "Maximianus Herculius (286305 AD)." De
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Elliott, T. G. The Christianity of Constantine the Great. Scranton, PA:
University of Scranton Press, 1996. ISBN 0-940866-59-5
Gibbon, Edward, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,
Chapter 14
Harries, Jill. Law and Empire in Late Antiquity. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1999. Hardcover ISBN 0-521-41087-8
Paperback ISBN 0-521-42273-6
Helgeland, John. "Christians and the Roman Army A.D. 173337."
Church History 43:2 (1974): 149163, 200.
Jones, A.H.M. The Later Roman Empire, 284602: A Social,
Economic and Administrative Survey. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins
University, 1986.
Lenski, Noel. "The Reign of Constantine." In The Cambridge
Companion to the Age of Constantine, ed by Noel Lenski, 5990.
New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006b. Hardcover ISBN 0521-81838-9 Paperback ISBN 0-521-52157-2
Mackay, Christopher S. "Lactantius and the Succession to
Diocletian." Classical Philology 94:2 (1999): 198209.
Mathisen, Ralph W. "Diocletian (284305 AD.)." De Imperatoribus
Romanis (1997). Accessed February 16, 2008.
Odahl, Charles Matson. Constantine and the Christian Empire. New
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0-415-31938-2
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Notes[ source | ]
1.

^ This ion and translation is not very good. The pagination is

broken in several places, there are many typographical errors
(including several replacements of "Julian" with "Jovian" and
"Constantine" with "Constantius"). It is nonetheless the only
translation of the Historia Nova in the public domain.[35]

Citations[ source | ]
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, pp. 89.

^ a b c d e f Barnes, New Empire.
^ a b c d e Potter, The Roman Empire at Bay.
^ a b c d e f Southern, Severus to Constantine.
^ a b c Williams, Diocletian.
^ The earlier dates for Galerius' appointment have been
argued for based on the suggestion that the appointments of
Constantius and Galerius were timed to coincide (Barnes 1981,
89; Southern 1999, 146). Barnes (1982, 62) argues against a
dating of 21 May 293 in Nicomedia originating in Seston,
Diocltien, 88ff., stating that the evidence adduced (the Paschal
Chronicle 521 = Chronica Minora 1.229 and Lactantius, DMP 19.2) is
invalid and confused. Lactantius is commenting on Diocletian and
the place where Diocletian was acclaimed, and that the
"Maximianus" in the text is therefore a later gloss; the Paschal
Chronicle is not authoritative for this period for events outside
Egypt, and may simply be commenting on the day when the laureled
image of the new emperors arrived in Alexandria. Potter (2004, 650)
agrees that locating the acclamation to Nicomedia is false, but
believes that Seston's other evidence makes a strong case for a
temporal lag between the two Caesars' acclamations.
7.
^ a b c Barnes, New Empire, p. 4.
8.
^ Eutropius. Breviarivm historiae romanae, IX, 22
Template:Ref-la
9.
^ Lactantius, DMP 35.4. The exact date is lost in a lacuna
(Barnes 1982, 6).
10.
^ a b Barnes, New Empire, p. 37.
11.
^ In Classical Latin, Galerius' name would be inscribed as
GAIVS GALERIVS VALERIVS MAXIMIANVS AVGVSTVS.

12.
^ a b c d Canduci, Triumph & Tragedy.:119
13.
^ Maximianus Galerius in Dacia haud longe a Serdica
natus, Eutropii Breviarum IX. 22.
14.
^ Lactantius, de Mortibus Persecutorum.
15.
^ Rees, Diocletian and the Tetrarchy, p. 14, citing William
Leadbetter, "Galerius and the Revolt of the Thebaid, 293/4,"
Antichthon 34 (2000) 8294.
16.
^ Ammianus Marcellinus 23.5.11.
17.
^ a b c Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, p. 17.
18.
^ Potter (2004), pp. 6512 Missing or empty |title= (help).
19.
^ a b c d e f g Potter, The Roman Empire at Bay, p. 293.
20.
^ Rees, Diocletian and the Tetrarchy, p. 14.
21.
^ a b c d e f g Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, p. 18.
22.
^ Lactantius (DMP 9.6) derides Diocletian for his absence from
the front; Southern (1999, 151, 33536), on the basis of a dating
of the African campaigns one year earlier than that given by Barnes,
places him at Galerius' southern flank. Southern sees the Persian
campaign progressing along the lines of Marcus Aurelius' (r.
16180) earlier, unsuccessful Parthian campaign, which also had
an emperor manning the southern flank.
23.
^ The acceptance of these terms by the Persians also meant
that Syriac culture would earn long-term influence in the region on
both sides of the Tigris. With the heavily Christian Syriac peoples so
near their border, Armenia would also become susceptible to
Christian influence in later years, leading to its eventual conversion
under Tiridates. Potter, The Roman Empire at Bay, p. 293.
24.
^ Lactantius, "34, 35", De Mortibus Persecutorum [On the
Deaths of the Persecutors]
25.
^ a b c d e f g Gibbon, Edward, "14", Decline and Fall of the
Roman Empire.
26.
^ Barnes, CE, 289.
27.
^ Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 62.
28.
^ Odahl, 7980.
29.
^ Rees, 160.
30.
^ DiMaio, Jr., Michael. "Maxentius (306-312 A.D.)". De
Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online resource of Roman Rulers and
Their Families. Retrieved 20 July 2013.
31.
^ Corcoran, Simon, The empire of the tetrarchs: imperial
pronouncements and government, AD 284324, p. 187.
32.
^ Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiae 352-356
33.
^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorem 33
34.
^ Lactanius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 23
35.
^ Roger Pearse, "Preface to the online ion of Zosimus' New
History". 19 November 2003, rev. 20 August 2003. Accessed 15
August 2009.

External links[ source | ]

media creations has media related to: Galerius

Medieval Sourcebook: Edict of Toleration by Galerius, 311.
Gaius Galerius Valerius Maximianus
Lactantius about Galerius in his "De Mortibus Persecutorum" chapter
XXIII & XXVII
Catholic resource
Galerius
Constantinian dynasty
Born: 250 Died: April or May 311

Preceded by
Diocletian, Maximian

Preceded by
Diocletian,
Maximian
Preceded by
Diocletian,
Constantius Chlorus
Preceded by
Diocletian,
Maximian
Preceded by
Titus Flavius
Postumius Titianus ,
Virius Nepotianus

Preceded by
Diocletian ,
Maximian

Preceded by
Tatius Andronicus ,

Regnal titles
Roman Emperor
305 (Caesar from 293)311
Served alongside: Constantius
Chlorus, Constantine I, Licinius,
Maximinus

Political offices
Consul of the Roman
Empire
294
with Constantius Chlorus
Consul of the Roman
Empire
297
with Maximian
Consul of the Roman
Empire
300
with Constantius Chlorus
Consul of the Roman
Empire
302
with Constantius Chlorus
Consul of the Roman
Empire
305308
with Constantius Chlorus,
Maximian ,
Constantine I,
Flavius Valerius Severus,
Maximinus Daia,
Diocletian ,
Maxentius,
Valerius Romulus
Consul of the Roman
Empire

Succeeded by
Constantine I,
Licinius and
Maximinus
Succeeded by
Nummius Tuscus ,
Gaius Annius
Anullinus
Succeeded by
Anicius Faustus
Paulinus ,
Virius Gallus
Succeeded by
Titus Flavius
Postumius Titianus ,
Virius Nepotianus
Succeeded by
Diocletian ,
Maximian

Succeeded by
Licinius ,
Constantine I,
Maxentius,
Valerius Romulus

Succeeded by
Constantine I ,

Pompeius Probus,
Maxentius

311
with Maximinus Daia ,
Gaius Caeionius Rufius
Volusianus,
Aradius Rufinus
v
t
e

Roman emperors

Principate
27 BC
235 AD

Crisis
235284

Augustus
Tiberius
Caligula
Claudius
Nero
Galba
Otho
Vitellius
Vespasian
Titus
Domitian
Nerva
Trajan
Hadrian
Antoninus Pius
Marcus Aurelius with Lucius Verus
Commodus
Pertinax
Didius Julianus
Septimius Severus
Caracalla
Geta
Macrinus with Diadumenian
Elagabalus

Alexander Severus

Maximinus Thrax
Gordian I and Gordian II
Pupienus and Balbinus
Gordian III
Philip the Arab
Decius with Herennius Etruscus
Hostilian
Trebonianus Gallus with Volusianus

Licinius,
Maxentius

Dominate
284395

Western
Empire
395480

Aemilianus
Valerian
Gallienus with Saloninus
Claudius Gothicus
Quintillus
Aurelian
Tacitus
Florianus
Probus
Carus
Carinus

Numerian

Diocletian
Maximian
Constantius Chlorus
Galerius
Severus
Maxentius
Maximinus Daia
Licinius with Valerius Valens and Martinianus
Constantine the Great
Constantine II
Constans I
Constantius II with Vetranio
Julian
Jovian
Valentinian I
Valens
Gratian
Valentinian II

Theodosius I

Honorius with Constantine III

Constantius III
Joannes
Valentinian III
Petronius Maximus
Avitus
Majorian
Libius Severus
Anthemius
Olybrius
Glycerius

Eastern/
Byzantine
Empire
3951204

Julius Nepos

Romulus Augustulus

Arcadius
Theodosius II
Marcian
Leo I the Thracian
Leo II
Zeno
Basiliscus
Anastasius I
Justin I
Justinian I
Justin II
Tiberius II Constantine
Maurice
Phocas
Heraclius
Constantine III
Heraklonas
Constans II
Constantine IV
Justinian II
Leontios
Tiberios III
Philippikos
Anastasios II
Theodosios III
Leo III the Isaurian
Constantine V
Artabasdos
Leo IV the Khazar
Constantine VI
Irene
Nikephoros I
Staurakios
Michael I Rangabe
Leo V the Armenian
Michael II the Amorian
Theophilos
Michael III
Basil I the Macedonian
Leo VI the Wise
Alexander
Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos

Empire of
Nicaea
12041261

Eastern/
Byzantine
Empire
12611453

Romanos I Lekapenos
Romanos II
Nikephoros II Phokas
John I Tzimiskes
Basil II
Constantine VIII
Zoe
Romanos III Argyros
Michael IV the Paphlagonian
Michael V Kalaphates
Constantine IX Monomachos
Theodora
Michael VI Bringas
Isaac I Komnenos
Constantine X Doukas
Romanos IV Diogenes
Michael VII Doukas
Nikephoros III Botaneiates
Alexios I Komnenos
John II Komnenos
Manuel I Komnenos
Alexios II Komnenos
Andronikos I Komnenos
Isaac II Angelos
Alexios III Angelos
Alexios IV Angelos

Alexios V Doukas

Constantine Laskaris
Theodore I Laskaris
John III Doukas Vatatzes
Theodore II Laskaris

John IV Laskaris

Michael VIII Palaiologos

Andronikos II Palaiologos
Michael IX Palaiologos
Andronikos III Palaiologos
John V Palaiologos
John VI Kantakouzenos
Matthew Kantakouzenos
Andronikos IV Palaiologos
John VII Palaiologos
Andronikos V Palaiologos

Manuel II Palaiologos
John VIII Palaiologos

Constantine XI Palaiologos

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