ABSTRACT

This is the design and construction of body health indication using

Atmel89s52 which sense the volume of temperature from a giving
human body and also the heart pressure and use it to determine
the body health level and displays the result in and LCD.
This devices makes use of a microcontroller which sense the logic
data through an ADC which converts the pressure and the
temperature of the body to digital and displays the output.
This system is found in hospitals and clinic centers for human
body diagnosis and health checks.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRUDUCTION
1.1

BACKGROUND STUDY

Temperature is the degree of hotness and coldness of a body

atmospheric conditions, other human issues like heart rate
monitor and beat pressure are also monitored.
This is the design and construction of body health indicator which
makes use of body temperature and pressure to detect the
change in a human body, this was reveled from the effect that
human body system changes because of abnormal body state as
a result of health issues and other internal health problems going
on in the internal system of a human being.
So this system has two sensors, the temperature sensor LM35 and
the pressure sensor which detects the pressure of the body
through the heart beat rate of the body. The signal from the
sensors are converted to digital by the ADC then the output of the
ADC is paralleled to the microcontroller which will be displayed in
the LCD.
This system is used in hospitals to detect healthiness of a human
being.
1.2

STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

The need for home medication before going to the hospital is very
important it is known as first aid treatment, so it is important to
have most of this devices at home to help render help before the
main treatment is procured.
1.3

AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE DESIGN

In this project aim to design and constructed an electronic system

which could read the rate of change in body conduction using
heat level of a body using a temperature sensor.
1.4

SCOPE OF THE PROJECT

In this project, we cover the design and construction of a body

health indicator, mode of operation, important and its various
applications.

1.5

LIMITATION OF THE PROJECT

This includes:
a. It can only read the temperature and pressure of a body.
b. It is only for fever detection
c. It will only indicate the temperature of the body and display
the fever level of that body.
1.6
Significance of the project
A. it intruded a simpler ways for body maintain.
B. it arts as a first aid treatment machine for home and office use.

1.7

PROJECT REPORT ORGNIZATION

The chapters and their contents are as follows:

Chapter one is the introductory chapter that gives the aim, scope
and limitations of the project. Chapter Two is literature review. It
deliberates on different related works done by several authors
with dates. It also discusses on the limitations of some of these
works.
In chapter three, I discussed the practical system analysis of the
project design. Also discussed is the requirement analysis, which
is all the information, gathered form a wide research on battery
charger systems. Chapter four deals with the system testing and
evaluation, also how the components were tested. Chapter five
contains the component cost and evaluation. Finally the summary
of this project is discussed in detail in chapter six. The
contributions of the project, achievements, and problems for
further enhancement, and reference are discussed in this chapter.

CHPATER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 DESIGN HISTORICAL REVIEW

Between the 1st and 2nd century (Common Era)

Galen, a Roman physician, was the first to write
about the human heart, saying it is the source of
the bodys heat. His book was translated, became a best-seller
worldwide and remained unquestioned for centuries. Among his
inaccuracies he thought the heart only had two chambers when it
actually has four.

Around the year 1000 AD

Even around the year 1000, the famous Persian
physician Avicenna was still taking Galens
conclusions at face value, and spreading
inaccuracies in his books.

Year 1500

While studying the human anatomy first hand

becomes more common, the reference to past
publications still overshadows actual observations.
Even the famous Leonardo Da Vinci fell for it and
drew a heart with only two chambers.

Year 1543
In 1543, Andreas Vesalius published De Humani
Corporis Fabrica, a book he wrote after studying real
corpses. For the first time it is acknowledged that the
heart has four chambers and not two. But its not over! At that
time the hearts function is still under debate.

Year 1628
The first study on blood circulation was published in
1628 by William Harvey an English physician. He
came to the conclusion that the heart acts as a pump. At that
point it wasnt clear that blood circulated, but after a little
calculation he was pretty sure that blood is not consumed by
the organs. The physician then concluded that blood must be
going though a cycle.

Year 1733
The first measurement of what was then called the
force of blood is described in the book Haema
staticks in 1733, by Stephan Hales. He used a

water manometer to measure the blood pressure in the arteries of

various animals.

Year 1817
The stethoscope, an essential tool for taking blood
pressure, is invented by French doctor Ren
Laennec in 1817. Doctors dont need to put their ear
to the patients body anymore! The auscultatory method he
developed uses the stethoscope to tell the difference between the
systole and diastole pressures.

Year 1828
In his doctoral thesis Recherches sur la force du
cur aortique published in 1828, French physician
Jean Poiseuille is the first to show how to measure
blood pressure with a mercury manometer. To quantify blood
pressure Jean uses the Centimeters of Mercury unit (cmHg),
which is still being used by doctors nowadays.

Year 1854
The first device to estimate blood pressure
externally, in a non-intrusive way, was the
sphygmograph from the Greek words for pulse
and write. The precursor of todays blood pressure
cuffs was invented by the German physiologist Karl von
Vierordt in 1854.

Year 1896

Italian internist Scipione Riva-Rocci introduced the first blood

pressure monitor a sphygmomanometer with the pneumatic cuff
invented by Dunlop. Still, the 2-inch wide cuff is not big enough to
provide accurate measures.

Year 1901
Harvey Williams Cushing, a famous
neurosurgeon, introduced blood pressure
measurement to North America and helped spread the use in the
western world.

Year 1905
Russian physician Nikolai Korotkov was able to
measure the diastolic blood pressure in 1905 using
his improved version of the sphygmomanometer.

Year 1993
Japanese company Panasonic released a compact
and automatic wrist cuff to measure your blood pressure.

Year 2010

French company Withings releases the Smart

Blood Pressure Monitor, which can be plugged
directly to an iPhone, iPad or iPod touch. The
measurements are automatically uploaded and synched with the
users account, and are made available anytime, anywhere.
Sharing readings with your family or doctor becomes a childs
play.

Year 2014
Following the success of the original BP monitor,
Withings launched the Wireless Blood Pressure
Monitor. Thanks to the Bluetooth technology that
has been added, this model offers more
compatibility options. You can use it with Android or iOS devices,
wirelessly or using your devices cable.

2.2 DESIGN COMPARISION WITH THE ALREADY EXITING

ONE
In the design comparison of the already existing ones, they are
only use in measuring body pressure to determine the health level
of patient, but in this system it is inco-operated with temperature
detector to be know the fever level thus making it more efficient
than the already existing system.

CHAPTER THREE
DESIGN METHODOLOGY
3.1 CONCEPT
The conceptual design gives an overview on the functions of the
major block, how they are integrated and the data flow
arrangement. This system which is designed was design for the
knowledge on an existing system which I got from the internet.

3.2 PROJECT SPECIFICATION

The project is concentrated on the design and implementation of
body heath indicator which is use in different place like in

hospitals, in clinic center, and other place like homes and for first
aid treatment if sports fields.

3.3 DESIGN STEPS

This includes the stages passed for the design and construction of
this project.
3.3.1 Information Gathering
The link which enhanced my knowledge to the design and
construction of this project was as a result my curiosity, some
which was gotten form the internet research I did, some from the
school environment, form the already existing product which was
the main source of my knowledge on how to go about the project
then others was from my teacher and supervisor etc. all this
information I gathered for the design and construction of this
project.
3.4

Design pattern

In the designation of this project, we employed different design

pattern to run a test of this design to checkout for its perfection
when fully designed. From the origin of the design, from the list of
the circuit symbol, the way they operate help me to have a better

design of this project were employed different strategies to run

the test operation for each component for clarifications and better
understanding of them.
3.4.1

Design approach

Before the design we first of all have our design designed using
some

simulation

software

like

the

professional

schematic

designer, eagle, livewire and proteus lite which they all gave use
the same out analysis of the circuit. Them I made my circuit
diagram (complete schematic of my design) and debugged the
complete design which gave me a full highlight and hint of the
physical operation of the design.
3.4.2

Design processes

The procedures that lead to the complete designs of this project

followed gradual processes first:
3.4.3
The

Choice of component
choice

of

component

depends

on

the

design

circuit

requirement, were the components to be used depends on circuit

connections and operation requirement.
3.4.4

Component layout

Component layout is the layout for each component according to

the location of the component symbol. This helps to allocate
components to fit the operation of the circuit which is dependent
on the circuit diagram.
3.4.5

Component mounting

Component mounting or placing is the art or process of placing

the components in the required fittings to enable lead soldering of
the components to the circuit printed or Vero boards before inter
connecting the components depending on the circuit connections.
3.4.6

Soldering and clearing

Soldering of the components is very essential to electronic circuit

design as it helps to hard hold the component leads from falling
off from the circuit which can cause permanent damage to the
component circuitry.
Clearing always cause before comes after soldering, as it is the
process of removing tiny segmented leads which could cause
bridges to the circuit network leading to burnt and fire outbreak
from the circuit.
3.4.7

Running cross check

Running check after any circuit design is required as it gives no

room for errors after design. This also helps to correct the network
errors and enhance operation as required after design.
3.4.8

Project testing

Project testing is the art of placing the design in a running mode

for test and operation analysis, this helps to show the designer
that how accurate his/her work is and encourage upgrading the
present design when dealing with that type of design.
3.6 Packaging
Packaging is the art of covering the inner structure of design
using some natural inspirational art of design in other to attract
the viewer for recommended comment. Packaging involves the
covering of the inner nature of a design which only through its
look sends a message to anybody who gaze at it what it really is.
The appearance of any design one made is a thing to be consider
important as it is the only way which a
3.4 COMPONENT LISTING
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

Microcontroller (Atmel89s52)
Transistor (c1815)
Capacitors
IC socket (40 Pins)
Resistor

f.
g.

Voltage regulatory
LM35

3.5 TOOLS USED FOR THE DESIGN

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

Soldering iron
Screw driver
Soldering lead
Drilling machine
Vero board

3.6 PLATFORMS TOOLS

Before the design we first of all have our design designed using
some

simulation

software

like

the

professional

schematic

designer, eagle, livewire and proteuslite which they all gave use
the same out analysis of the circuit. Them I made my circuit
diagram (complete schematic of my design) and debugged the
complete design which gave me a full highlight and hint of the
physical operation of the design.

CHAPTER FOUR: SYSTEM DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION

4.1 DESCRIPTION
This is the description of the individual component which is used
in this design as it to be read to the novice a better understanding
of the work is to be well emphasized by the writer to enhance the
benefit of this design when the process is still on. In this chapter
we are to show the different components involved and how they
are user by the devices for that purpose.

4.2 BLOCK DIGRAM OF THE PROJECT

4.3 BLOCK DIAGRAM DESCRIPTION

a. Temperature sensor converts the physical temperature of the
environment to electrical energy.
b. Pressure sensor unit converts the physical pressure of the
environment to electrical energy.
c. Multiplexer synchronized the both signal as one and feed it
to the microcontroller.
d. The microcontroller reads the adc signal and status pin and
compare it to the existing program and display it output in
the LCD
e. The lcd displays the whole data from the microcontroller

f. The power supply distributes power to the whole circuit

board.

4.3

Component analysis and design

In this chapter the component used and there various
functions are discussed, how they were chose and there

various datasheet description

4.4 Component listing
The component used in this design includes:
a. Atmel89s52(Atmel89c52)
b. LM7805 voltage regulator
c. C1815 bipolar transistor
d. 10uf,100uf,1nf capacitor
e. Led
f. Resistors
g. Debouncing button
h. Vero board
i. Soldering iron
j. Soldering lead
k. Connecting copper wire
l. Lm35
m.
LCD
4.5 Component descriptions
Here, the various component are describe and analyzed for the
user aim.
a. Atmel89s52(Atmel89c52)

The

AT89s52

is

low

powered

5V

microcontroller,

high

performance cmos 8-bit microcomputer with 8Kbytes of flash

programmable, 32bit IO ports and erasable read only memory
(EEPROM). The device is manufactured using Atmel`s high density
nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with the
industry standard MCS-51 instruction set and pin out. The on-chip
flash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed in system
or by a conventional nonvolatile memory programmer. By
combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with flash on a monolithic chip,
the Atmel AT89s52 is a powerful microcomputer, which provides a
highly flexible and cost effective solution to many embedded
control application.
The AT89s52 is designed with static logic for operation down to
zero frequency and support two software selectable power saving
modes. The idle mode stops the CPU while allowing the RAM,
timer/counters, serial port and interrupt system to continue
functioning. The power down mode saves the RAM contents but
freezes the oscillator disabling all other chip functions until the
next hardware reset

Fig4.1 Pin configuration of AT89S52

Features of AT89S52
Programmable serial channel
Compatible with MCS-51TM product
8Kbytes of in-system Reprogrammable flash memory - Endurance:
1,000 write/Erase cycles
Fully static operation:0Hz to 12MHz
Three-level program memory lock

256x 32-bit external RAM

32 programmable I/O lines

Two 16-bit timer/counters
Six interrupt sources
Low-power idle and power-down modes.

Fig 4.2 Block diagram of AT89s52 internal circuitry

Pin description
Vcc
Supply voltage.
GND
Ground.
Port 0

Port 0 is an 8-bit open-drain bi-directional I/O port. As an output

port, each pin can sink eight TTL inputs. When 1s are written to
port 0 pins, the pins can be used as high impedance inputs. Port 0
may also be configured to be the multiplexed low order
Address/data bus during accesses to external program and data
memory. In this mode P0 has internal pull-ups. Port 0 also receives
the code bytes during Flash programming, and outputs the code
bytes during program verification. External pull-ups are required
during program verification.
Port 1
Port 1 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The
Port 1 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are
written to Port 1 pins they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups
and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 1 pins that are
externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the
internal pull-ups. Port 1 also receives the low-order address bytes
during Flash programming and verification.
Port 2

Port 2 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The

Port 2 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are
written to Port 2 pins they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups
and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 2 pins that are
externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the
internal pull-ups. Port 2 emits the high-order address byte during
fetches from external program memory and during accesses to
external data memory that uses 16-bit addresses (MOVX @
DPTR). In this application, it uses strong internal pull-ups when
emitting 1s. During accesses to external data memory that uses
8-bit addresses (MOVX @ RI), Port 2 emits the contents of the P2
Special Function Register.
Port 2 also receives the high-order address bits and some control
signals during Flash programming and verification.
Port 3
Port 3 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The
Port 3 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are
written to Port 3 pins they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups
and can be used as inputs. As inputs,

Port 3 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current
(IIL) because of the pull-ups. Port 3 also serves the functions of
various special features of the AT89S51 as listed below.
Alternate functions of port 3

Table 4.1: port 3 pin functions

Port 3 also receives some control signals for Flash programming
and verification.
RST
Reset input. A high on this pin for two machine cycles while the
oscillator is running resets the device.
ALE/PROG

Address Latch Enable output pulse for latching the low byte of the
address during accesses to external memory. This pin is also the
program pulse input (PROG) during Flash programming. In normal
operation ALE is emitted at a constant rate of 1/6 the oscillator
frequency, and may be used for external timing or clocking
purposes. Note, however, that one ALE pulse is skipped during
each access to external Data Memory. If desired, ALE operation
can be disabled by setting bit 0 of SFR location 8EH. With the bit
set, ALE is active only during a MOVX or MOVC instruction.
Otherwise, the pin is weakly pulled high. Setting the ALE-disable
bit has no effect if the microcontroller is in external execution
mode.
PSEN
Program Store Enable is the read strobe to external program
memory. When the AT89C51 is executing code from external
program memory, PSEN is activated twice each machine cycle,
except that two PSEN activations are skipped during each access
to external data memory.
EA/VPP

External Access Enable. EA must be strapped to GND in order to

enable the device to fetch code from external program memory
locations starting at 0000H up to FFFFH.
Note, however, that if lock bit 1 is programmed, EA will be
internally latched on reset.

EA should be strapped to VCC for

internal program executions. This pin also receives the 12-volt

programming enable voltage (VPP) during Flash programming, for
parts that require 12-volt VPP.
XTAL1
Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the internal
clock operating circuit.
b. LM7805 voltage regulator

Fig 4.3 a sample circuit of a power supply using 7805 voltage

regulator
A regulated power supply is very much essential for several
electronic devices due to the semiconductor material employed in
them have a fixed rate of current as well as voltage. The device
may get damaged if there is any deviation from the fixed rate.
The AC power supply gets converted into constant DC by this
circuit. By the help of a voltage regulator DC, unregulated output
will be fixed to a constant voltage. The circuit is made up of linear
voltage regulator 7805 along with capacitors and resistors with
bridge rectifier made up from diodes. From giving an unchanging
voltage

supply

to

building

confident

that

output

reaches

uninterrupted to the appliance, the diodes along with capacitors

handle elevated efficient signal conveyal.
Description:
As we have previously talked about that regulated power supply is
a device that mechanized on DC voltages and also it can uphold
its output accurately at a fixed voltage all the time although if
there is a significant alteration in the DC input voltage.

ICs regulator is mainly used in the circuit to maintain the exact

voltage which is followed by the power supply. A regulator is
mainly employed with the capacitor connected in parallel to the
input terminal and the output terminal of the IC regulator. For the
checking of gigantic alterations in the input as well as in the
output filter, capacitors are used. While the bypass capacitors are
used to check the small period spikes on the input and output
level. Bypass capacitors are mainly of small values that are used
to bypass the small period pulses straightly into the Earth.
A circuit diagram having regulator IC and all the above discussed
components arrangement revealed in the figure below.

Fig 4.4 Regulated Power Supply Circuit

c. C1815 bipolar transistor

C1815 an NPN bipolar Transistors

Fig 4.5 Bipolar Transistor Basics

In the Diode tutorials we saw that simple diodes are made up
from two pieces of semiconductor material, either silicon or
germanium to form a simple PN-junction and we also learnt about
their properties and characteristics. If we now join together two
individual signal diodes back-to-back, this will give us two PNjunctions connected together in series that share a common P or
N terminal. The fusion of these two diodes produces a three layer,
two junction, three terminal device forming the basis of a Bipolar
Junction Transistor, or BJT for short.
Transistors are three terminal active devices made from different
semiconductor materials that can act as either an insulator or a
conductor by the application of a small signal voltage. The
transistors ability to change between these two states enables it

to have two basic functions: switching (digital electronics) or

amplification (analogue electronics). Then bipolar transistors
have the ability to operate within three different regions:
Active Region the transistor operates as an amplifier and
Ic = .Ib
Saturation

the transistor is Fully-ON operating as a

switch and Ic = I(saturation)

Cut-off the transistor is Fully-OFF operating as a switch
and Ic = 0

Fig 4.6 A Typical Bipolar Transistor

The word Transistor is an acronym, and is a combination of the
words Transfer Varistor used to describe their mode of operation
way back in their early days of development. There are two basic
types of bipolar transistor construction, PNP and NPN, which

basically describes the physical arrangement of the P-type and Ntype semiconductor materials from which they are made.
The Bipolar Transistor basic construction consists of two PNjunctions producing three connecting terminals with each terminal
being given a name to identify it from the other two. These three
terminals are known and labelled as the Emitter ( E ), the Base ( B
) and the Collector ( C ) respectively.
Bipolar Transistors are current regulating devices that control the
amount of current flowing through them in proportion to the
amount of biasing voltage applied to their base terminal acting
like a current-controlled switch. The principle of operation of the
two transistor types PNP and NPN, is exactly the same the only
difference being in their biasing and the polarity of the power
supply for each type.

Bipolar Transistor Construction

The construction and circuit symbols for both the PNP and NPN
bipolar transistor are given above with the arrow in the circuit
symbol always showing the direction of conventional current
flow between the base terminal and its emitter terminal. The
direction of the arrow always points from the positive P-type

region to the negative N-type region for both transistor types,

exactly the same as for the standard diode symbol.
Bipolar Transistor Configurations
As the Bipolar Transistor is a three terminal device, there are
basically three possible ways to connect it within an electronic
circuit with one terminal being common to both the input and
output. Each method of connection responding differently to its
input signal within a circuit as the static characteristics of the
transistor vary with each circuit arrangement.
Common Base Configuration

has Voltage Gain but no

Current Gain.
Common Emitter Configuration

has both Current and

Voltage Gain.
Common Collector Configuration has Current Gain but no
Voltage Gain.
The Common Base (CB) Configuration
As its name suggests, in the Common Base or grounded base
configuration, the BASE connection is common to both the input

signal AND the output signal with the input signal being applied
between the base and the emitter terminals. The corresponding
output signal is taken from between the base and the collector
terminals as shown with the base terminal grounded or connected
to a fixed reference voltage point.
The input current flowing into the emitter is quite large as its the
sum of both the base current and collector current respectively
therefore, the collector current output is less than the emitter
current input resulting in a current gain for this type of circuit of
1 (unity) or less, in other words the common base configuration
attenuates the input signal.
The Common Base Transistor Circuit

This type of amplifier configuration is a non-inverting voltage

amplifier circuit, in that the signal voltages Vin and Vout are inphase. This type of transistor arrangement is not very common
due to its unusually high voltage gain characteristics. Its input
characteristics represent that of a forward biased diode while the
output characteristics represent that of an illuminated photodiode.
Also this type of bipolar transistor configuration has a high ratio of
output to input resistance or more importantly load resistance
( RL ) to input resistance ( Rin ) giving it a value of Resistance
Gain.

Then

the

voltage

gain

(Av)

for

common

base

configuration is therefore given as:

Common Base Voltage Gain

Where: Ic/Ie is the current gain, alpha () and RL/Rin is the

resistance gain.

The common base circuit is generally only used in single stage

amplifier circuits such as microphone pre-amplifier or radio
frequency (Rf) amplifiers due to its very good high frequency
response.
The Common Emitter (CE) Configuration
In the Common Emitter or grounded emitter configuration, the
input signal is applied between the base and the emitter, while
the output is taken from between the collector and the emitter as
shown. This type of configuration is the most commonly used
circuit for transistor based amplifiers and which represents the
normal method of bipolar transistor connection.
The common emitter amplifier configuration produces the highest
current and power gain of all the three bipolar transistor
configurations. This is mainly because the input impedance is
LOW as it is connected to a forward biased PN-junction, while the
output impedance is HIGH as it is taken from a reverse biased PNjunction.

The Common Emitter Amplifier Circuit

In this type of configuration, the current flowing out of the

transistor must be equal to the currents flowing into the transistor
as the emitter current is given as Ie = Ic + Ib.
As the load resistance (RL) is connected in series with the
collector, the current gain of the common emitter transistor
configuration is quite large as it is the ratio of Ic/Ib. A transistors
current gain is given the Greek symbol of Beta, ().
As the emitter current for a common emitter configuration is
defined as Ie = Ic + Ib, the ratio of Ic/Ie is called Alpha, given the
Greek symbol of . Note: that the value of Alpha will always be
less than unity.

Since the electrical relationship between these three currents, Ib,

Ic and Ie is determined by the physical construction of the
transistor itself, any small change in the base current ( Ib ), will
result in a much larger change in the collector current ( Ic ).
Then, small changes in current flowing in the base will thus
control the current in the emitter-collector circuit. Typically, Beta
has a value between 20 and 200 for most general purpose
transistors. So if a transistor has a Beta value of say 100, then
one electron will flow from the base terminal for every 100
electrons flowing between the emitter-collector terminals.
By combining the expressions for both Alpha, and Beta, the
mathematical

relationship

between

these

parameters

therefore the current gain of the transistor can be given as:

and

Where: Ic is the current flowing into the collector terminal, Ib

is the current flowing into the base terminal and Ie is the
current flowing out of the emitter terminal.
Then to summarize a little. This type of bipolar transistor
configuration has a greater input impedance, current and power
gain than that of the common base configuration but its voltage
gain is much lower. The common emitter configuration is an
inverting amplifier circuit. This means that the resulting output
signal is 180o out-of-phase with the input voltage signal.
The Common Collector (CC) Configuration
In the Common Collector or grounded collector configuration,
the collector is now common through the supply. The input signal
is connected directly to the base, while the output is taken from
the emitter load as shown. This type of configuration is commonly
known as a Voltage Follower or Emitter Follower circuit.
The common collector, or emitter follower configuration is very
useful for impedance matching applications because of the very

high input impedance, in the region of hundreds of thousands of

Ohms while having a relatively low output impedance.
The Common Collector Transistor Circuit

The

common

emitter

configuration

has

current

gain

approximately equal to the value of the transistor itself. In the

common collector configuration the load resistance is situated in
series with the emitter so its current is equal to that of the emitter
current.
As the emitter current is the combination of the collector AND the
base current combined, the load resistance in this type of
transistor configuration also has both the collector current and the

input current of the base flowing through it. Then the current gain
of the circuit is given as:
The Common Collector Current Gain

This type of bipolar transistor configuration is a non-inverting

circuit in that the signal voltages of Vin and Vout are in-phase. It
has a voltage gain that is always less than 1 (unity). The load
resistance of the common collector transistor receives both the
base and collector currents giving a large current gain (as with
the common emitter configuration) therefore, providing good
current amplification with very little voltage gain.

We can now summarize the various relationships between the

transistors individual DC currents flowing through each leg and its
DC current gains given above in the following table.
Relationship between DC Currents and Gains

d. 10uf,100uf,1nf capacitor

A capacitor
(originally
known as a
Type

Passive

Invent
Ewald Georg von Kleist
ed
Electronic symbol

condenser)
is a passive
twoterminal
electrical
component

used to store electrical energy temporarily in an electric field. The

forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least
two electrical conductors (plates) separated by a dielectric (i.e. an
insulator that can store energy by becoming polarized). The
conductors can be thin films, foils or sintered beads of metal or
conductive electrolyte, etc. The nonconducting dielectric acts to
increase the capacitor's charge capacity. Materials commonly
used as dielectrics include glass, ceramic, plastic film, air,
vacuum, paper, mica, and oxide layers. Capacitors are widely

used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical

devices. Unlike a resistor, an ideal capacitor does not dissipate
energy. Instead, a capacitor stores energy in the form of an
electrostatic field between its plates.
When there is a potential difference across the conductors (e.g.,
when a capacitor is attached across a battery), an electric field
develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge +Q to
collect on one plate and negative charge Q to collect on the
other plate. If a battery has been attached to a capacitor for a
sufficient amount of time, no current can flow through the
capacitor. However, if a time-varying voltage is applied across the
leads of the capacitor, a displacement current can flow.
An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, its
capacitance. Capacitance is defined as the ratio of the electric
charge Q on each conductor to the potential difference V between
them. The SI unit of capacitance is the farad (F), which is equal to
one coulomb per volt (1 C/V). Typical capacitance values range
from about 1 pF (1012 F) to about 1 mF (103 F).

The larger the surface area of the "plates" (conductors) and the
narrower the gap between them, the greater the capacitance is.
In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small
amount of leakage current and also has an electric field strength
limit, known as the breakdown voltage. The conductors and leads
introduce an undesired inductance and resistance.
Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct
current while allowing alternating current to pass. In analog filter
networks, they smooth the output of power supplies. In resonant
circuits they tune radios to particular frequencies. In electric
power transmission systems, they stabilize voltage and power
flow.[1]

e. Led

 Blue, green, and red LEDs in

5 mm diffused case
Working
Electroluminescence
principle
Oleg Losev (1927)[1]
James
Invented

R.

Biard

(1961)[2]
Nick

Holonyak

(1962)[3]
First
October 1962
production
Pin
Anode and cathode
configuration
Electronic symbol

Parts of an LED. Although unlabeled, the flat bottom surfaces of

the anvil and post embedded inside the epoxy act as anchors, to
prevent the conductors from being forcefully pulled out via
mechanical strain or vibration.

A bulb-shaped modern retrofit LED lamp with aluminum heat sink,

a light diffusing dome and E27 screw base, using a built-in power
supply working on mains voltage
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a two-lead semiconductor light
source. It is a pn junction diode, which emits light when
activated.[4]
When a suitable voltage is applied to the leads, electrons are able
to recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing
energy

in

the

form

of

photons.

This

effect

is

called

electroluminescence, and the color of the light (corresponding to

the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy band gap

of the semiconductor.
An LED is often small in area (less than 1 mm2) and integrated
optical components may be used to shape its radiation pattern.[5]
Appearing as practical electronic components in 1962, [6] the
earliest LEDs emitted low-intensity infrared light. Infrared LEDs
are still frequently used as transmitting elements in remotecontrol circuits, such as those in remote controls for a wide
variety of consumer electronics. The first visible-light LEDs were
also of low intensity, and limited to red. Modern LEDs are
available across the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths,
with very high brightness.
Early LEDs were often used as indicator lamps for electronic
devices, replacing small incandescent bulbs. They were soon
packaged into numeric readouts in the form of seven-segment
displays, and were commonly seen in digital clocks.
Recent developments in LEDs permit them to be used in
environmental and task lighting. LEDs have many advantages

over

incandescent

light

sources

including

lower

energy

consumption, longer lifetime, improved physical robustness,

smaller size, and faster switching. Light-emitting diodes are now
used in applications as diverse as aviation lighting, automotive
headlamps, advertising, general lighting, traffic signals, camera
flashes and lighted wallpaper. As of 2015, LEDs powerful enough
for room lighting remain somewhat more expensive, and require
more precise current and heat management than compact
fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output.
LEDs have allowed new text, video displays, and sensors to be
developed, while their high switching rates are also used in
advanced communications technology.

e. Resistors
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that
implements electrical resistance as a circuit element. Resistors
may be used to reduce current flow, and, at the same time,
may act to lower voltage levels within circuits. In electronic
circuits, resistors are used to limit current flow, to adjust signal

levels, bias active elements, and terminate transmission lines

among other uses. High-power resistors, that can dissipate
many watts of electrical power as heat, may be used as part of
motor controls, in power distribution systems, or as test loads
for generators. Fixed resistors have resistances that only
change slightly with temperature, time or operating voltage.
Variable resistors can be used to adjust circuit elements (such
as a volume control or a lamp dimmer), or as sensing devices
for heat, light, humidity, force, or chemical activity.
Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and
electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in electronic equipment.
Practical resistors as discrete components can be composed of
various compounds and forms. Resistors are also implemented
within integrated circuits.
The electrical function of a resistor is specified by its
resistance: common commercial resistors are manufactured
over a range of more than nine orders of magnitude. The
nominal value of the resistance falls within the manufacturing
tolerance, indicated on the component.

A typical axial-lead resistor

Type

Passive

Working
Electric resistance
principle
Electronic symbol

Two common schematic symbols

Axial-lead resistors on tape. The component is cut from the

tape during assembly and the part is inserted into the board.
Series and parallel resistors

The total resistance of resistors connected in series is the sum

of their individual resistance values.

The total resistance of resistors connected in parallel is the

reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of the individual
resistors.

For example, a 10 ohm resistor connected in parallel with a 5

ohm resistor and a 15 ohm resistor produces 1/1/10 + 1/5 +
1/15 ohms of resistance, or 30/11 = 2.727 ohms.
A resistor network that is a combination of parallel and series
connections can be broken up into smaller parts that are either
one or the other. Some complex networks of resistors cannot
be resolved in this manner, requiring more sophisticated circuit

analysis. Generally, the Y- transform, or matrix methods can

be used to solve such problems.[2][3][4]
Power dissipation
At any instant, the power P (watts) consumed by a resistor of
resistance R (ohms) is calculated as: where V (volts) is the
voltage across the resistor and I (amps) is the current flowing
through it. Using Ohm's law, the two other forms can be
derived. This power is converted into heat which must be
dissipated by the resistor's package before its temperature
rises excessively.
Resistors are rated

according to their

maximum power

dissipation. Discrete resistors in solid-state electronic systems

are typically rated as 1/10, 1/8, or 1/4 watt. They usually
absorb much less than a watt of electrical power and require
little attention to their power rating.
f. Debouncing button
In electrical engineering, a switch is an electrical component that
can break an electrical circuit, interrupting the current or diverting

it from one conductor to another. [1][2] The mechanism of a switch

may be operated directly by a human operator to control a circuit
(for example, a light switch or a keyboard button), may be
operated by a moving object such as a door-operated switch, or
may be operated by some sensing element for pressure,
temperature or flow. A relay is a switch that is operated by
electricity. Switches are made to handle a wide range of voltages
and currents; very large switches may be used to isolate highvoltage circuits in electrical substations.
Switch Debouncing
Switch debouncing is one of those things you generally have to
live with when playing with switches and digital circuits. If you
want to input a manual switch signal into a digital circuit you'll
need to debounce the signal so a single press doesn't appear like
multiple presses.
What is Switch Bounce?
The left-hand image below shows a simple push switch with a
pull-up resistor. The right hand image shows the trace at the
output terminal, Vout, when the switch is pressed. As can be seen,

pressing the switch does not provide a clean edge. If this signal
was used as an input to a digital counter, for example, you'd get
multiple counts rather than the expected single count.
Note that the same can also occur on the release fo a switch.
The problem is that the contacts within the switch don't make
contact cleanly, but actually slightly 'bounce'. The bounce is quite
slow, so you can recreate the trace, and the problem quite easily.

Simple
circuit

switch

pull-up

Switch bounce produced on switch

press

In the switch waveform the bouncing lasts for about 150us.

Switch Debouncer Circuit

There are many different approaches to cleaning up switch

bounce. Below is a debouncing circuit. The basic idea is to use a
capacitor to filter out any quick changes in the switch signal.

A Switch debouncing circuit

The circuit's operation can be explained by looking at the
equivalent circuits formed in the two switch states, open and
closed.

Debouncing circuit in switch open and closed states

Starting with the switch open.
The capacitor C1 will charge via R1 and D1.
In time, C1 will charge and Vb will reach within 0.7V of Vcc.
Therefore the output of the inverting Schmitt trigger will be a
logic 0.
Now close the switch
The capacitor will discharge via R2.
In time, C1 will discharge and Vb will reach 0V.
Therefore the output of the inverting Schmitt trigger will be a
logic 1.
But what about bounce conditions? If bounce occurs and there are
short periods of switch closure or opening, the capacitor will stop
the voltage at Vb immediately reaching Vcc or GND. Although,
bouncing will cause slight charging and discharging of the

capacitor, the hysteresis of the Schmitt trigger input will stop the
output from switching.
What about the diode? Well the resistor R2 is required as a
discharge path for the capacitor, without it, C1 will be shorted
when the switch is closed. Without the diode, D1, both R1 and R2
would form the capacitor charge path when the switch is open.
The combination of R1 and R2 would increase the capacitor
charge time, slowing down the circuit. So, can't you just make R1
smaller? Ideally no, when the switch is closed, R1 is connected
across the supply rails, so too small a resistor value would lead to
unwanted wasted current.

g. Vero board
Vero board is a brand of strip board, a pre-formed circuit board
material of copper strips on an insulating board which was
originated and developed in the early 1960s by the Electronics
Department of Vero Precision Engineering Ltd (VPE). It was
introduced as a general-purpose material for use in constructing

electronic circuits - differing from purpose-designed printed circuit

boards (PCBs) in that a variety of electronic circuits may be
constructed using a standard wiring board.
The first single-size Vero board product was the forerunner of the
numerous types of prototype wiring board which, with world-wide
use
have

over

five

become

decades,
known

as

Strip board.
The generic terms 'Vero
board' and 'strip board' are

Vero board piece

Product

Electronic component

Inventor

Terry Fitzpatrick

Company

Vero Electronics Ltd

Country

UK

now

taken

to

be

synonymous.

Availability 1960 - present

Current suppliers
Vero

h. Soldering iron

Technologies

Ltd A soldering iron is a hand

tool used in soldering. It

http://www.verotl.com/
Pixel

Print

Ltd

(N.

http://www.veroboard.com/

America)

supplies heat to melt solder so that it can flow into the joint
between two work pieces.
A soldering iron is composed of a heated metal tip and an
insulated handle. Heating is often achieved electrically, by
passing an electric current (supplied through an electrical cord or
battery cables) through a resistive heating element. Cordless
irons can be heated by combustion of gas stored in a small tank,
often using a catalytic heater rather than a flame. Simple irons
less commonly used than in the past were simply a large copper
bit on a handle, heated in a flame.
Soldering irons are most often used for installation, repairs, and
limited production work in electronics assembly. High-volume
production lines use other soldering methods. [1] Large irons may
be used for soldering joints in sheet metal objects. Less common
uses include pyrography (burning designs into wood) and plastic
welding.

i. Soldering lead

Lead solder

Sn60Pb40 solder
Tin-lead (Sn-Pb) solders, also called soft solders, are commercially
available with tin concentrations between 5% and 70% by weight.
The greater the tin concentration, the greater the solders tensile
and

shear

strengths.

Alloys

commonly

used

for

electrical

soldering are 60/40 Sn-Pb, which melts at 188 C (370 F),[6] and
63/37 Sn-Pb used principally in electrical/electronic work. 63/37 is
a eutectic alloy of these metals, which:
1. has the lowest melting point (183 C or 361 F) of all the tinlead alloys; and
2. The melting point is truly a point not a range.

In plumbing, a higher proportion of lead was used, commonly

50/50. This had the advantage of making the alloy solidify more
slowly. With the pipes being physically fitted together before
soldering, the solder could be wiped over the joint to ensure water
tightness. Although lead water pipes were displaced by copper
when the significance of lead poisoning began to be fully
appreciated, lead solder was still used until the 1980s because it
was thought that the amount of lead that could leach into water
from the solder was negligible from a properly soldered joint. The
electrochemical couple of copper and lead promotes corrosion of
the lead and tin. Tin, however, is protected by insoluble oxide.
Since even small amounts of lead have been found detrimental to
health,[7] lead in plumbing solder was replaced by silver (foodgrade applications) or antimony, with copper often added, and the
proportion of tin was increased (see Lead-free solder.)
The addition of tinmore expensive than leadimproves wetting
properties of the alloy; lead itself has poor wetting characteristics.
High-tin tin-lead alloys have limited use as the workability range
can be provided by a cheaper high-lead alloy. [8]

In electronics, components on printed circuit boards (PCBs) are

connected to the printed circuit, and hence to other components,
by soldered joints. For miniaturized PCB joints with surface mount
components, solder paste has largely replaced solid solder.
Lead-tin solders readily dissolve gold plating and form brittle
intermetallics.[9] 60/40 Sn-Pb solder oxidizes on the surface,
forming a complex 4-layer structure: tin(IV) oxide on the surface,
below it a layer of tin(II) oxide with finely dispersed lead, followed
by a layer of tin(II) oxide with finely dispersed tin and lead, and
the solder alloy itself underneath.[10]
Lead, and to some degree tin, as used in solder contains small but
significant amounts of radioisotope impurities. Radioisotopes
undergoing alpha decay are a concern due to their tendency to
cause soft errors. Polonium-210 is especially problematic; lead210 beta decays to bismuth-210 which then beta decays to
polonium-210, an intense emitter of alpha particles. Uranium-238
and thorium-232 are other significant contaminants of alloys of
lead.[11][12]

j. Connecting copper wire

The definition of connecting wire is a piece of wire used to
attach two circuits or components together. The gauge or
size of the wire must be large enough to support the amount
of current flow.

4.6 Circuit diagram of the project

4.7 Circuit diagram analysis
4.6 Embedded software integration
After

the

design

of

the

circuit

the

microcontroller

was

programmed to control the whole circuit with the software

program running inside of it.
Software Development Process
In writing the software for this project a modular approach
was employed. This made it easier to check for errors and debug
the program. Three major tools were used in the development
process; the keil C51 compiler was used to translate from the
source code into the object code. The SDCC was employed to link

the program while the PACKIHX did the conversion from binary to
hex.
Choice of Programming Language
My implementation programming language for this project is ANSI
C programming language, reason being the fact that it combines
the elements of high level languages with the functionalism of
assembly language. C allows the manipulation of bits, bytes and
addresses. Also C codes are portable which means that it is
possible to adapt software written for one type of computer to
another.
Nevertheless, a special feature of ANSI C is that it allows the
direct manipulation of bits, bytes, words and pointers. This suits it
to

system-level

programming,

where

these

operations

are

common.

4.6.1 Programming language

This is an executable written commands which a computer can
understand when translated to binary format by a compiler.

4.6.2 Programming steps

Program Entry and Editing
After the design of the software, a text editor is employed to enter
the source code into the disk file. As noted earlier, the text editor
also functions to correct error in the program. The text editor used
is KEIL C51 compiler and text editor.

4.6.3 Design program source code

4.6.4 Compilation of the source code (Language-assemblyhexadecimal or machine code)
After writing the program in the editors environment, the
software was use to compiler the entire program to generate a
hex file which will be burn into the microcontroller.
4.6.7 Burning of the hex file into the microcontrollers
In burning the hex into the microcontroller, we have to use an in
system programmer known as ISP programmer which will now
read and verifier the microcontroller design nomenclature and
then will copy the hex codes into the microcontroller.

4.6.8 Inserting the microcontroller into the hardware

design
Then after that the microcontroller will now be inserted into the
circuit for testing.

4.7 Packaging
As a prototype design, we have to copy an existing system which
makes use of a wireless car, so we employed toy car in
presentation for the real car system.
4.8 Design test and error corrections
After the packaging some errors was discovered due to wrong
packaging which affected the voltage transmission to the receiver
which but was corrected by packing the panels to different
location inside the adoptable box.
4.9 Final test
The final test was undergone for proper function and design
usage.

CHAPTER FIVE
DESIGN TEST AND INTEGRATION

5.1 APPLICATIONS OF THE PROJECT

This devices is use in various places like the following.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

In hospitals
In clinic centers
In military health issues
In sports
Etc.

5.2 COMPONENT TESTING AND OBSERVATIONS

System Testing and Integration
After the design and implementation phase, the system built has
to be tested for Durability, Efficiency, and Effectiveness and also
ascertain if there is need to modify this design. The system was
first assembled using a breadboard. All components were properly
inserted into the breadboard from whence some tests were
carried out at various stages.

To ensure proper functioning of components expected data, the

components were tested using a digital millimeter (DMM).
Resistors were tested to ensure that they were within the
tolerance value. Faulty resistors were discarded .The 78LS05
voltage regulator was also tested, the resulting output was 5.02v
which is just a deviation of 0.20v from the expected result of
5.00v.The LEDs were tested to ensure that they were all working
properly.
5.2.1

Test plan and Test data

This chapter entails an overall system testing of the integrated

design of the voltage measurement device. The testing and
integration is done to ensure that the design is functioning
properly as expected thereby enabling one or even intended
users for which the project was targeted for, appreciate its
implementation and equally approaches used in the design and
integration of the various modules of the project.
However, this involves checks made to ensure that all the various
units and subsystems function adequately. Also there has to be a
good

interface

subsystems.

existing

between

the

input/output

unit

When the totality of the modules was integrated together, the

system was created and all modules and sections responded to as
specified in the design through the power supply delivering into
the system designed.

5.2.2

Components Test

Similar components like resistors were packed together. Other

components includes capacitor, preset switches, transistor and
display unit
Reference was made to resistor color code data sheet to ascertain
the expected values of resistors used. Each resistor was tested
and the value read and recorded. Also for transistor test the DMM
was switched to the diode range with the symbol
The collector, base and emitter junctions were tested in the
following order. The collector, emitter and base pins were gotten
from the data analysis on power transistor.
Table 5.1 Test for Transistor
1 test on pins
2nd test on pins
st

Black probe
Collector
Emitter

Red probe
Base
Base

5.2.3 System Test

The system was powered and operated upon using several
possibilities but we used battery. They include depressing more
than one button at the same time and noting the output
responses of the system hardware. The system allows only one
input at a time.

5.2.4 Other Tests

Light emitting diode (LED) emits rays when forward biased .For
capacitors the DMM was switched to the 22uf range and the
capacitors were inserted into the slot provided for it by the meter.

5.2.5

EXPERIMENTED RESULT VS ACTUAL RESULT

Table 5.2 Experimented Value/ Actual value

COMPONENTS EXPERIMENTED ACTUAL UNIT

Resistor

Capacitor

Transistor

VALUE
10000

VALUE
10000

2000

2000

220

218

10000

9980

10

10.20

10

10.15

30

29.82

Rbe

520

550

Rbc

510

548

Display
5.00
5.02
5.3 Performance Evaluation

TOLERANCE

5%

From the table above, shows the range between the expected
value and the actual value can be tolerated. As a result of this the
drift in expected value has no critical effect on the system design
since the result current range was not also exceeded, also the
operational voltage range was not exceeded.

5.4

BILL

OF

ENGINEERING

MEASUREMENT

AND

EVALUATION

CHAPTER SIX
SUMMARY
6.1 Summary and Conclusion
This section of this project report forms the concluding part of the
write up and takes a look at some of the problems encountered
during the progressive job on the system and also brings in
suggestions for further improvement and/or enhancement for the
system design.

6.2 Summary of Achievement

The design and development of this project has really been

challenging, as I have been faced with choices far beyond what I
expected. But in the long run the result paid off.
After the complete design of the system, the deviation between
the expected result and the actual result was very close. The
performance and efficiency was beyond expectation and from
every ramification, the design of the project was a success.

6.3 Problems Encountered and Solution

During the course of the design of this system, there were series
of problems which came in the way of achieving the design goals
of this project, most of them where over come via share
troubleshooting, in some cases some parts require redesigning
and the software debugging also created a bit of a problem.
One major setback of this project is the availability of components
required to build the hardware of the system. In most cases I had
to look through electrical catalogs to obtain replacements of some
of the components which are not available in the market.
After developing the software for the microcontroller, it was very
difficult to find a firm/individual to help program the chip (burning

the embedded software on to the chip). This posed serious

problem as it brought about delay in the design time and it was
also costly, this also affected the overall cost of the system.
The final packaging of the design was also another trouble, as this
actually caused problems on the circuit board. Such problems
include

partial

contact

within

the

circuit

board,

between

components and also with the wiring. This was actually one of the
most challenging aspects of the circuit implementation phase.
Due to this fact, there was a lot of soldering and de-soldering to
ensure that the circuit was well implemented.

6.4 Suggestions for further improvement

It will be more appreciated if the system is designed to have
integrated voice output playback with video capture.

6.5: Conclusion

Going through the planning, flow process, design and software

implementation the system had really been a tough one; but on
the whole it has been a chance to show case a little bit of
craftsmanship.