Damages To Shore Protection Facilities Induced by The Great East Japan Earthquake Tsunami

Kato, F. et al.
Paper:
Damages to Shore Protection Facilities Induced by

the Great East Japan Earthquake Tsunami
Fuminori Kato, Yoshio Suwa, Kunihiro Watanabe, and Satoshi Hatogai
National Institute for Land and Infrastructure Management,
Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism
Asahi 1, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-0804, Japan
E-mail: {katou-f92fr, suwa-y22aa, watanabe-k92tc, hatogai-s8310}@nilim.go.jp
[Received February 22, 2013; accepted May 8, 2013]
After clarifying high-speed flow, pressure change,

and scouring using model experiments when tsunamis
overflow coastal dikes, the damage to coastal dikes
caused during the Great East Japan Earthquake is
summarized and the mechanism of categorized damage patterns of coastal dikes is discussed. Multiple logistic regression analysis is performed using external
force acting affecting damaged coastal dikes and structure specifications, and overflow depth and armor
width of landward toes are extracted as elements influencing such damage. Based on these results, structure innovation that persistently exerts effects during
tsunami overflow is clarified for coastal dikes.
Keywords: tsunami, shore protection facilities, coastal
dikes, the Great East Japan Earthquake
1. Introduction
Tsunamis overflowed coastal dikes and revetments in
areas from Aomori Prefecture to Chiba Prefecture during
the Off the Pacific Coast Tohoku Earthquake occurring on
March 11, 2011, causing widespread flood damage. Shore
protection facilities such as coastal dikes were damaged in
various areas and approximately 190 km of a total of approximately 300 km of coastal dikes were completely or
partially destroyed in the three worst affected prefectures
of Iwate, Miyagi, and Fukushima.
Shore protection facilities including dikes, groins,
revetments, bulkheads, and detached breakwaters in
coastal protection areas are constructed in order to prevent
invasion or erosion of sea water. In the Technical Standards and Commentaries for Shore Protection Facilities
in Japan specified by the Japan Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism and the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries of Japan, shore protection
facilities are regulated to satisfy desired functions and to
be safe against effects to be considered in the purpose of
the Seacoast Act, shore protection, development and
conservation of seashore environments, and appropriate public use. For example, dikes should have one or
all of the following functions: preventing sea water invasion due to storm surges or tsunamis, reducing wave
612
overtopping, or preventing erosion due to sea water. In

addition, safe structures against storm surges, tsunamis,
waves, earthquakes, and other effects are prerequisite for
dikes. Tsunamis that are likely to reach shore protection
facilities should be used for the design.
Crown heights of coastal dikes considering wave runup
have been used since typhoon No.13 in 1953 in order
to address storm surges and high waves, and three-sided
structures armoring seaward slopes, crowns, and landward slopes with concrete have been adopted to deal with
wave overtopping to a certain extent due to the irregularity of waves. Meanwhile, in order to address tsunamis,
tsunamis that are likely to arrive are used for design taking the maximum tsunami based on flooding records and
numerical computation into account and crown heights
should be determined so as to not cause overflow in the
case of likely tsunamis. Structures for tsunamis with a
height of more than the design target are not specified in
technical standards.
Tsunamis generated by the Great East Japan Earthquake exceeded those used for the design of coastal dikes
and the like in many parts. Responding to this, the Committee for Technical Investigation on Measures for Earthquakes and Tsunamis Based on the Lessons Learned from
the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake of the Central Disaster Prevention Council pointed out that it is necessary to
assume 2 levels of tsunamis when taking measures against
tsunamis [1]: (i) tsunamis of the maximum class to be
addressed by means of overall disaster prevention measures focusing on resident evacuation and (ii) frequent
tsunamis to be suppressed using shore protection facilities and so on. The committee also suggested the necessity of promoting and maintaining technical development
for structures that manifest effects persistently even when
the height of the tsunami is exceeded the design target.
Damage situation of shore protection facilities due to
the tsunami generated by the Great East Japan Earthquake must be analyzed sufficiently when studying structures safe against tsunamis less than the design target and
persistent against tsunamis higher than the design target. In this paper, after introducing damage situation of
shore protection facilities considering hydraulic phenomena generated when tsunamis overflow coastal facilities,
damage mechanisms of coastal dikes, typical shore proJournal of Disaster Research Vol.8 No.4, 2013
Damages to Shore Protection Facilities Induced

by the Great East Japan Earthquake Tsunami
Fig. 1. Distribution of cross-sectional average flow velocity.
Fig. 2. Distribution of piezometric head.
tection facilities, are discussed for preventing sea water

invasion due to tsunamis.
2. Hydraulic Phenomenon in the Case of

Tsunami Overflow
2.1. Flow Velocity and Pressure near Coastal Dikes
Tsunami overflow over coastal dikes is an unsteady
phenomenon with large temporal variation in water levels,
whereas flow velocity and pressure near coastal dikes in
a steady overflow depth are significant indices for investigating scouring in landward toes due to tsunami overflow and stability of landward slope armor. A dike model
was placed in a water channel with a length of 40 m, a
width of 1 m, and a height of 1.5 m to reproduce tsunami
overflow by supplying water from the channel end using a
pump, then flow velocity and pressure near coastal dikes
were measured. The reduction scale of the experiment
was 1/25th . Water level and the piezometric head were
measured at 60 points using a point gauges and manometer, respectively.
Figure 1 shows the distribution of water levels and
cross-sectional average flow velocity near a dike obtained
in experiments simulating tsunami overflow over a dike
with a height of 6 m (gradient: 1 : 2, crown width: 3 m) in
on-site scale. Values in the figure are indicated in the onsite scale. Cross-sectional average flow velocity increases
Journal of Disaster Research Vol.8 No.4, 2013
with descending landward slope, reaching approximately

10 m/s at the landward toe (longitudinal distance: 0 m).
In addition, flow velocity increases in the region from the
landward toe to the point of longitudinal distance of approximately 10 m in overflow depth of 6 m and 10 m,
showing an increase in flow velocity on the land side of
the dike. As indicated, flow velocity increases in the landward slope and the landward toe when a tsunami overflows over a dike.
Figure 2 shows the distribution of the piezometric head
for the fixed bed surface obtained in the same experiments
as shown in Fig. 1. In the landward slope top (longitudinal
distance: 12 m), the piezometric head is reduced locally.
This means that pressure on the dike surface is reduced in
the landward slope top and negative pressure is generated
at overflow depths of 6 m and 10 m. In contrast, the piezometric head increased locally in the landward toe with increased pressure. The range and extent of the increase
also increase with overflow depth.
2.2. Scouring in Landward Toes of Coastal Dikes

Scouring in landward toes due to tsunami overflow was
reproduced by developing a moving bed (sand with a central particle diameter of 0.25 mm) on the land side of a
dike after placing a dike model of a fixed bed in the same
channel as used in experiments described in Section 2.1.
The scale of the experiment was 1/25.
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Kato, F. et al.
Fig. 3. Land shape after overflow.
Figure 3 shows land shapes after tsunami overflows

over a dike with a height of 6 m (gradient: 1 : 2, crown
width: 3 m) for 10 minutes in the on-site scale. Values
in the figure are indicated in the on-site scale. The depth
and range of scouring on the land side of the dike tends
to increase with overflow depth. The maximum value for
the scour depth is equivalent to the overflow depth below
an overflow depth of 6 m, and the channel bed 12.5 m
under the surface before overflow is exposed at an overflow depth of 10 m. Focusing on work around the foundation of the landward toe shows that scouring occurs beneath the foundation work at overflow depths of 6 m and
10 m, causing the dike itself to flow easily out from under
foundation work. Results show that the landward toe is
scoured by the high-speed flow associated with tsunami
overflow.
Fig. 4. Dikes on the Taro coast (white line: primary dike,

red line: secondary dike).
3. Damage to Shore Protection Facilities

3.1. Overview
Shore protection facilities such as coastal dikes and
revetments were damaged due to the Great East Japan
Earthquake. In this section, damage to coastal dikes and
the like is reviewed centering on the prefectures most adversely affected Iwate, Miyagi, and Fukushima.
Settlement and block scattering of detached breakwaters, groins, and artificial headlands in addition to coastal
dikes and revetments occurred on some shores. Detached
breakwaters and groins are facilities meant to function to
minimize wind waves and swells and to control drift sand,
and are thus neither expected to reduce tsunamis nor required to provide safety against tsunamis and earthquakes.
These facilities are thought to be damaged by high-speed
flow and scouring due to the effects of tsunamis that were
not considered in facility design.
3.2. Damage in Iwate Prefecture
Shore protection facilities in Iwate Prefecture suffered
some kind of damage along almost their entire length.
Damage to the Taro and Takada coasts is introduced in
examples.
On the Taro coast of Miyako city, dikes of T.P. +10 m
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Fig. 5. Damage to the primary dike on the Taro coast.
were constructed along the fishing harbor (white line) and

on the land side (red line) as shown in Fig. 4. The dike
along the fishing harbor was located in line with the coast
line, while the dike on the land side was designed to divert
ascending tsunamis to the east. The inundation height of
tsunamis reached T.P. +16.3 m in the Great East Japan
Earthquake, causing overflows over the land-side dike. As
a result, the dike along the fishing harbor was broken as
shown in Fig. 5, whereas the dike on the land side kept in
its original shape despite partial scouring of the landward

Fig. 8. Depth contour for the Takada coast (broken line:

waterfront line before the earthquake).
Fig. 6. Damage to the secondary dike on the Taro coast.
On the Otanabe coast of Fudai village, where no

tsunami overflow occurred, the main body of the coastal
dike was not damaged and the hinterland did not suffer from flooding. This is a case in which the functions of coastal dikes were maintained and flooding in
the hinterland was prevented if tsunamis did not overflow over coastal dikes. On the Urube coast in Fudai village, tsunamis exceeded the crown of the Fudai water gate
slightly with some flooding of the hinterland although the
control bridge was destroyed.
Fig. 7. Damage to the dike on the Takada coast.
slope (Fig. 6). Based on this damage example, a report

suggested that a design method for normal lines of coastal
dikes considering the ascending direction of tsunamis be
devised [2].
On the Takada coast of Rikuzen-Takada city, both
coastal dikes were damaged and the land shape of the
coast was changed. On the Takada coast, where sand
beaches and pine-covered areas stretched over 2 km before the Great Earthquake, a primary dike with a height of
T.P. +3.0 m on the sea side of pine-covered areas and a
secondary dike with a height of T.P. +5.5 m immediately
behind pine-covered areas were created after tsunamis
due to the Chile earthquake in 1960. Furukawanuma
pond, located on the land side of the secondary dike,
discharges water through the Kawaharagawa river water
gate. Tsunamis overflowed well over coastal dikes, causing flooding in most urban areas to an inundation height
of approximately T.P. +13 m near coastal dikes. As a
result, the 2 coastal dikes were almost broken as shown
in Fig. 7 and all pine trees vanished except one. Pinecovered areas before the Great Earthquake had become
largely submerged and the coast was washed away completely as shown in Fig. 8 surveyed in May 2011.
3.3. Damage in Miyagi Prefecture

Shore protection facilities in Miyagi Prefecture were
damaged along almost their entire length. An overview of
damage in Miyagi Prefecture has already been reported
elsewhere [3], so this paper introduces damage to the
southern part of the Sendai Plain from the mouth of the
Nanakitagawa River to the border of Fukushima Prefecture, along with changes in land shape.
In the southern part of the Sendai Plain, dikes of T.P.
+6.2 - +7.2 m have been developed in many sections, although there are some sections with no dikes or with dune
dikes north of the Abukuma River. South of the Abukuma
River, some sections have been provided with artificial
headlands in order to minimize erosion. Tsunamis overflowed over coastal dikes during the Great East Japan
Earthquake, with an inundation height near the coast exceeding T.P. +10.0 m in some places. Coastal dikes were
damaged over a wide range, and completely destroyed in
some part as shown in Fig. 9. The shoreline retreated
significantly in places where the coastal dike was completely destroyed, showing major changes in coastal land
shape due to the breakage of coastal dikes. In addition, reports have pointed out that channels of former rivers and
drainage were greatly eroded because flow resulting from
tsunami backrush concentrated on them [4, 5].
Figure 10 shows calculation results for the crosssection fracture rate of dikes (fracture amount of crosssection area before and after damage / cross-section area
before damage) using altitude data of 1 m meshes obtained by an aerial laser survey in March 2011. Because
a variety of structure types is used for the targeted coastal
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Kato, F. et al.
Natori
River
Abukuma
River
fracture rate of dike cross-section

upright dikes
sloping dikes
submergence of dike crowns

upright dikes
sloping dikes
60
80
100 (m)
10
9
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
submergence of dike crowns (m)
fracture rate of dike cross-section (%)
90
40
Fig. 11. Average scouring width in the southern part of the

Sendai Plain.
Fig. 9. Breakage in coastal dikes in the southern part of the

Sendai Plain.
100
20
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
classification No.
Fig. 10. Fracture rate of dike cross-section and submergence

of crowns.
dikes, the coast was divided into 24 sections based on

jurisdiction and structure type and average fracture rates
were calculated for each section. Structure types were
classified into upright dikes (steeper than 1 : 2) and sloping dikes (1 : 2 or milder) based on the gradient. The
dike cross-section fracture rate exceeds 80% at No.4 in
the Fukanuma district of the Sendai coast (south), No.14
in the Yokosuka district of the Watari cost, and No.19 in
the Nakahama district of the Yamamoto coast, but falls
below 20% at No.2 in the Fukanuma fishing harbor coast,
No.3 in the Fukanuma district of the Sendai coast (south),
and Nos.23 and 24 on the Isohama fishing harbor coast.
The fracture rate roughly corresponds to the dike breakage rate.
Figure 11 shows the width of scouring on the land side
of coastal dikes in the southern part of the Sendai plain.
The scouring width was obtained by an aerial laser survey conducted after the Great East Japan Earthquake. For
approximately 40 km along the sand coast, the scouring
width averaged approximately 30 m. Values are larger in
the southern part where the dike breakage rate was high.
3.4. Damage in Fukushima Prefecture

In Fukushima Prefecture, coastal dikes and revetments
collapsed and wave absorbing works and offshore facili616
Fig. 12. Damage to the parapet on the coast in Uedaiwama

district.
ties were submerged and scattered in various areas. Damage to the coast in the Uedaiwama district of Iwaki city is
focused on in this section.
A revetment with parapets and a crown height of T.P.
+4.5 m had been constructed on the coast in the Uedaiwama district located on the left bank of the Samegawa
River mouth. The inundation height of tsunamis due to
the Great East Japan Earthquake was T.P. +8.7 m and the
overflow depth is assumed to be 4.6 m considering that
ground was submerged for 0.4 m due to the earthquake.
The tsunami overflow destroyed the parapet, as shown in
Fig. 12, for 71% of the total parapet length according to
one report [6]. The crown height of the parapet on the adjoining coast in the Uedasanuka district was T.P. +6.2 m,
resulting in limited damage to the parapet.
4. Damage Mechanisms in Coastal Dike

Coastal dikes are designed to be high to prevent
tsunami overflow and to maintain structural safety against
the tsunami for design. Coastal dikes such as those on

the Otanabe coast what tsunamis did not overflow were

not damaged by tsunamis during the Great East Japan
Earthquake. Damage occurred, however, to many parts of
coasts where tsunami height exceeded the crown height
of coastal dikes because tsunami overflow had not been
considered in the design of coastal dikes.
Results of a field survey on coastal dikes damaged by
tsunamis during the Great East Japan Earthquake showed
the damage to coastal dikes could be classified into the
following 8 patterns [7]:
(i) Damage due to scouring of landward toes
(ii) Damage from landward slopes and crowns
(iii) Damage to parapets due to tsunami runup
Fig. 13. Deep erosion in a land-side coastal dike.
(iv) Damage from scouring of seaward slope toes

(v) Damage to parapets due to tsunami backrush
(vi) Overturning of gravity dikes due to tsunami runup
(vii) Overturning of gravity dikes due to tsunami backrush
(viii) Damage mainly due to seismic vibration
These patterns of damage are introduced with concrete
examples and the mechanism of tsunami overflow as it
relates to damage is discussed below. The results of analysis on the relationship between structure specifications
of coastal dikes and damage are also reported. Analysis was conducted in order to find the direction of study
on innovations for making persistent structures for coastal
dikes against the tsunami overflow dealt with in the next
section.
4.1. Damage due to Scouring of Landward Toes

Scouring in landward toes of coastal dikes described in
Section 2.3 was observed frequently in coastal dikes that
were not completely destroyed. On the Kabasaki coast
of Miyagi Prefecture, for example, deep erosion of the
coastal dike on the land side extended in the direction of
the coast as shown in Fig. 13. In addition to scouring
in landward slope toes, landward slopes and crowns were
eroded in the coastal dike shown in Fig. 14.
The land-side of dike was scoured due to tsunami overflow over the coastal dike as discussed in Section 2.2. In
the damage mechanism assumed, the landward slope armor was washed away, followed by the dike body, due
to scouring in landward toes of coastal dikes as shown in
Fig. 15.
4.2. Damage from Landward Slope Tops and
Crowns
The armor of landward slopes or crowns was swept
away in some cases where scouring in landward toes of
coastal dikes was not obvious. On the Kanehama coast of
Iwate Prefecture shown in Fig. 16, scouring in the landward toe is not obvious and the landward slope armor
Fig. 14. Coastal dike with the crown and landward slope eroded.
(1) Scouring at
landward toe
flow
Destruction proceeds
(2) Floating away
of landward armor
(3) Washing away
of dike body
Fig. 15. Damage mechanisms due to scouring of landward toes.
near the landward toe remains, while the above armor is

washed away. It is indicated that this damage is likely
to have been caused by lifting of the landward slope armor due to overflow-associated pressure depression on the
landward slope top [8]. On the Omagari coast of Miyagi
Prefecture shown in Fig. 17, the landward slope armor
was not damaged and only the crown armor was washed
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Kato, F. et al.
Floating away of
Landward Armor
Fig. 16. Washout of landward slope armor on the Kanehama

coast of Iwate Prefecture.
Fig. 19. Damage to parapets on the Toyoma coast of

Fukushima Prefecture.
(1) Wave force acting on the parapet
Floating away of
Crown Armor
(2) Parapet break
Fig. 17. Washout of crown armor on the Omagari coast of

Miyagi Prefecture.
(1) Floating away
of landward armor
flow
Fig. 20. Damage mechanism of gravity dikes.

(2) Washing away
of dike body
(3) Washing away
of dike body
Fig. 18. Damage mechanism from landward slope tops and

crowns.
away.
This damage mechanism is schematized as shown in
Fig. 18. The armor of the landward slope or crown was
washed away first due to overflow and then the dike body
was swept and the total structure completely destroyed.
618
As described in Section 2.1, high-speed flow occurs on a

landward slope when a tsunami overflows a coastal dike,
reducing pressure at the landward slope top. The landward slope armor is considered to become unstable due to
such hydrodynamic force resulting from high-speed flow
and pressure depression on the landward slope top. The
lifting force on the landward slope armor, moreover, generated by rising of the phreatic surface of the dike body
due to the tsunami, presumably affected the stability of
the dike.
4.3. Damage to Parapets

Parapets that are built in order to reduce overflow of
wind waves and swells were destroyed in some cases. On
the Toyoma coast of Fukushima Prefecture, for example,
a parapet was overturned to the land side as shown in
Fig. 19.
This damage is assumed to have occurred when pressure due to tsunami runup or tsunami backrush exceeded
the strength of the joint of the parapet as shown in Fig. 20.

Fig. 21. Overturning of gravity dike in the Ryoishi fishing

harbor of Iwate Prefecture.
(1) Wave force acting on the seawall
Fig. 23. Damage from scouring in seaward toe on the Mizuumi coast of Iwate Prefecture.
(1) Scouring at seaward toe

flow
(2) Floating away

of seaward armor
Destruction
proceeds
(2) Overturning of seawall

(3) Washing away
of dike body
Destruction
proceeds
Fig. 22. Overturning mechanism of gravity dikes.

Fig. 24. Damage mechanism due to scouring of seaward toe.
4.4. Overturning of Gravity Dikes

As shown in Fig. 21, gravity coastal dikes were overturned in several locations. The dike in the figure was
overturned toward the land side, but some were overturned toward the sea side due to tsunami backrush.
This damage is considered to be generated when pressure acting on dikes due to tsunami runup or tsunami
backrush exceeds resistance against overturning as shown
in Fig. 22.
4.5. Damage from Scouring of Seaward Slope Toes
Section 4.1 focused on scouring in landward toes due
to the overflow during tsunami runup, whereas scouring in seaward toes is possible due to tsunami backrush.
Noguchi et al. [9], for example, reproduced scouring in
landward toes due to returning flow using a model experiment. The seaward toe on the Mizuumi coast of Iwate
Prefecture was actually damaged during the Great East
Japan Earthquake as shown in Fig. 23. This damage was

probably caused by the mechanism shown in Fig. 24 because of scouring from the seaward toe.
4.6. Results of Calculation and Analysis on Damage

4.6.1. Damage Pattern Occurrence Rates
Damage survey results obtained by local governments
from Aomori, Chiba, and other prefectures and the Tohoku Regional Bureau, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure
and Transportation were summarized in order to understand the rate of occurrence of damage patterns in Sections 4.1-4.5.
Damage patterns for coastal dikes were calculated for a
damage area of 99 km except for areas having no materials with which to judge damage patterns [7]. As a result,
damage from scouring in landward toes was the main pattern, accounting for 49.2% as shown in Fig. 25, followed
619
Kato, F. et al.
(1)
47.7%
(9)
2.6%
(8)
0.8% (7)
1.0%
(6)
0.8%
(5)
9.2%
(4)
5.2%
(2)
4.0%
(3)
1.0%
Fig. 25. Damage pattern rate over the whole affected length
(tabulation section of 99 km).
1.0
Collapse Length Ratios

Within Each Category
unknown
27.7%
(1) Damage due to scouring

of landward toes
(2) Damage from landward
slopes and crowns
(3) Damage to parapets due
to tsunami runup
(4) Damage from scouring of
seaward slope toes
(5) Damage to parapets due
to tsunami backwash
(6) Overturning of gravity
dikes due to tsunami
runup
(7) Overturning of gravity
dikes due to tsunami
backwash
(8) Damage mainly due to
seismic vibration
(9) Others
23.2
16.5
18.1
0.6
0.4
0.2
(a)
11.5
0.8
7.6
1.1
16.7
Numbers in figure are

total lengths of
dikes (km)
Complete
Collapse
Partial and
Complete Collapse
0.0
1.0

of Each Section
(total: 99km)
(b)
0.8
0.6
Complete
Collapse
0.4
0.2
Partial and
Complete Collapse
0.0
0
6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Overflow Depth
Fig. 28. Relationship between overflow depth and damage.
Fig. 26. Completely destroyed coastal dike on the Ninokura

coast in Iwanuma city, Miyagi Prefecture.
Seaward Slope
Gradient
Crown Width
Relative
Elevation
Landward
Slope Gradient
Landward Slope Toe Armoring
Fig. 27. Basic structure of three-surface armored coastal dike.
by damage to parapets due to backrush, accounting for

9.2%. Damage from landward slope tops and crowns and
damage from scouring of seaward slope toes accounted
for 4.5% and 3.4%, respectively.
4.6.2. Structure-Based Differences in Damage
The extent of damage due to tsunami overflow differed
depending on the coast. Some damage was partial and
others were completely destroyed (Fig. 26). The difference in damage extent is a significant factor affecting both
protection during disasters and time required for recovery.
In order to clarify conditions likely to completely destroy
coastal dikes, the relationship among damage conditions,
structural specifications, and the tsunami forces was analyzed focusing on three-surface armored coastal dikes
covered with concrete (Fig. 27) [10].
(1) Collection of damage cases and their damage evaluation
620
Damage data were organized in units of successive sections with the same structure because coastal dike structures on a coast were not necessarily the same. Data on facility structures were organized and structural parameters
dealt with included crown height and gradient obtained
from facility data books, completely destroyed length,
number of completely destroyed parts, partially destroyed
length, and overflow depth. In this paper, a state in which
all armor was washed away and no banking remained is
called completely destroyed and that in which the dike
body remained with armor partially or completely washed
away is called partially destroyed. Overflow depth was
obtained by subtracting dike crown height after ground
subsidence related to the earthquake from preliminary figures for nearby tsunami inundation height researched by
the Tohoku Earthquake Tsunami Joint Survey Group (as
of August 26, 2011).
(2) Overall damage data characteristics
In order to understand overall damage data characteristics, the sum of facility length and of damage length were
determined by 7 categories of overflow depth less than
2 m, 2-4 m, 4-6 m, 6-8 m, 8-12 m, 12-16 m, and 16-20 m
targeting all dikes damaged by overflow. Fig. 28(a) shows
the calculated damage length rate. The length of 225 sections was distributed from 3 to 3,756 m for a total length
of 94.6 km.
It was observed that the damage length rate tends to increase with increasing overflow depth, excluding scarce
data for an overflow depth of 16-20 m. As seen, however,
in Fig. 28(b), plotting all individual successive sections
without dividing them into categories of overflow depth,
the damage length rate was dispersed considerably evenly
for the same overflow depth. There is a section, for example, where the damage length rate of completely destroyed
dikes reaches 100% all dikes completely destroyed for
an overflow depth of approximately 3 m, while a section
with no completely destroyed dikes for overflow depth exceeded 10 m.

0.8
11.3
0.6
1.3
0.4
2.1
1.9
0.2 1.8 1.6

3.3 0.4 0.5 1.6
0.0
1.0
0.8
2.0
0.3
(b)
Complete Collapse
Without Armoring
Complete Collapse
With Armoring
Complete Collapse
With Armoring
0.4
Envelope Curve
Without Armoring
0.2
Envelope Curve
With Armoring
0
0.8
4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Overflow Depth
Fig. 29. Differences in damage depending on the presence

or absence of landward toe armor.
(3) Comparison of damage by structural element

Figure 29 summarizes differences in damage depending on the presence or absence of landward toe armor
for 63 sections of coastal dikes with a length of 28.2 km
whose seaward and landward gradients were less than 1 : 2
and the relative elevation from hinterland to crown was
3 m or more. The rate of damage length to facility length
is defined as the damage length rate. The upper graph in
the figure, calculated by categorizing overflow depth into
6 levels (Fig. 29(a)), clearly shows that the damage length
rate of completely destroyed dikes is lower when landward toes are armored at an overflow depth of less than
12 m. This trend is observed in the lower graph in the
figure (Fig. 29(b)) of plots by successive section. Similar diagrams in Figs. 30 and 31 confirmed that the rate of
completely destroyed dikes is lower when landward and
seaward slopes are gentler than the case of steeper slopes.
(4) Multiple logistic regression analysis
In order to clarify which elements affect damage the
most among the structural elements dealt with in this paper, multiple logistic regression analysis was performed
using damage data for 170 sections with a length of
79.3 km in which all data for tsunami overflow depth and
5 structural elements (armor width of landward toe, seaward gradient, landward gradient, relative elevation from
hinterland ground to crown, and crown width) are given.
This paper assumes that full destruction probability is
determined for individual dikes based on the magnitude
0.02
0.4
1.5
1.9
1.1
0.2
0.9
0.8 6.0
0.0
0
0.3
8.8
Complete Collapse
With Gentler Slope
2.9
8
Complete Collapse
With Steeper Slope
10 12 14 16
Overflow Depth
Fig. 30. Differences in damage depending on the seaward

gradient (completely destroyed).
1.0
0.8
9.3
1.0
0.6
0.02
0.4
0.8
0
1.4
1.8
1.0
0.2
0.0
This is due to the fact that the phenomenon destroying dikes is a probability event including multiple conditions that cannot be unified, such as overflow depth duration, hinterland conditions, and detailed facilities structures. Fig. 28(a) is suitable for understanding the average trend in structure-based differences in damage, and
Fig. 28(b) should be checked because the magnitude of
variance in individual successive sections is also information significant in disaster planning.
11.1
0.6
Complete Collapse
Without Armoring
0.6
0.0

1.0
(a)


of Each Section

1.0
0.6
0.3
0.5
2
Complete Collapse
With Steeper Slope
Complete Collapse
With Gentler Slope
4
6
8 10 12 14 16
Overflow Depth
Fig. 31. Differences in damage depending on the landward

gradient (completely destroyed).
of external overflow force and expressed using Eq. (1), a

multiple logistic model, that includes the above 5 structural elements as explanatory variables:
PB =
1
1 + e( +1 X1 +2 X2 ++n Xn )
. . . . . (1)
n is the number of elements to be considered and X1 . . . Xn

are explanatory variables substituted for by the values of
each element. is a constant and 1 . . . n are coefficients.
As a result, the absolute value of standardized regression coefficients that are used as indices for comparing
relative influence among explanatory variables is larger in
the order of overflow depth, armor width of landward toe,
seaward gradient, and landward gradient, showing that the
armor width of the landward toe has the greatest influence
on full destruction probability among structural elements
(Table 1).
4.6.3. Effects of Landward Toe Armor
Because even narrow armor is considered to represent
the presence of armor regardless of the armor width in the
two-group comparison (Fig. 29), the length of dikes with
armor width less than 4 m accounts for approximately
70%. Such a width is small compared to the scouring
width of tsunami overflow, but considered effective because the starting point of scouring is moved further away
from the dike body. These results indicate that limited
armor helps prevent a dike from being completely destroyed. Results of multiple logistic regression analysis
also support this. It was found that measures for scouring
in landward toes should be ranked as highest priority in
order to make dikes less likely to be completely destroyed
due to tsunami overflow.
621
Kato, F. et al.
Table 1. Results of multiple logistic regression analysis.

explanatory variables (mean s. d.)
overflow depth 5.8 3.9 m
landward toe armor width 1.6 3.1 m
seaward slope gradient 1 : n 1.7 1.3
landward slope gradient 1 : n 1.5 0.4
relative elevation 3.5 1.9 m
crown width 3.6 2.3 m
coefficient
0.261
0.264
0.328
0.982
0.096
0.019
5. Response Based on Lessons Learned from

the Disaster
The coastal dike function of preventing sea water invasion due to tsunami was desired for tsunamis with a height
less than the design target, but from the viewpoint of damage reduction in hinterland is being sought for tsunamis
with a height exceeding the design target. Against this
background, the setting design tsunami water level is being clarified and persistent structures for coastal dikes are
being studied.
5.1. Setting of Design Tsunami Water Level

In order to recover shore protection facilities damaged
during the Great East Japan Earthquake, the Japan Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism and
the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries of
Japan indicated a setting method for design tsunami water level on July 8, 2011. The design tsunami required
for managing shore protection facilities such as coastal
dikes should basically be determined for an individual local coast dividing coast line considering natural conditions such as shapes of bays and mountains. Design
tsunami water level should be set using the following four
processes:
(i) Recorded heights of tsunamis are summarized.
Marked heights are collected as close to the coast
line as possible.
(ii) Tsunami heights are calculated using simulation for
past tsunamis lacking sufficient data on height.
(iii) Graphs are created that plot the year of occurrence on
the abscissa and tsunami height at coast line on the
ordinate and a group of tsunamis is selected that are
considered to arrive at a frequency of once in several
tens to one hundred and several tens of years as the
target tsunami group for setting the design tsunami
water level.
(iv) Tsunami water level distribution is calculated on local coasts for the target tsunami group by performing
simulation with a condition preventing tsunami invasion at the position of dikes on the local coast and
setting the design tsunami water level.
622
Value p
< 0.001
< 0.001
0.004
< 0.001
0.075
0.830
standardized regression
coefficients
1.013
0.810
0.436
0.403
0.183
0.044
odds ratio (95% CI)

1.30 (1.23-1.37)
0.77 (0.68-0.85)
0.72 (0.57-0.90)
0.37 (0.23-0.61)
1.10 (0.99-1.22)
1.02 (0.84-1.18)
The crown height of coastal dikes should be determined appropriately by coast managers (prefectural governments and the like) assuming required heights in relation to the design tsunami water level and height necessary for storm surge protection, comprehensively considering various functions of coasts, environment conservation, harmony with surrounding environments, economy,
ease of maintenance, constraints of construction, and public use.
Based on the concepts above, individual prefectural
government studies the design tsunami water level,
and worst affected prefectures of Iwate, Miyagi, and
Fukushima determined the design tsunami water level in
2011. As a result, on many of the coasts from Iwate
to Fukushima Prefectures, planned dike heights became
higher than those before the Great East Japan Earthquake.
The planned dike height on the Takada coast of Iwate prefecture, for example, was increased from the previous T.P.
+5.5 m to T.P. +12 m.
5.2. Introduction of Persistent Structures for

Coastal Dike Structures
According to Basic Concepts for Recovery of Coastal
Dike and the Like Damaged by the 2011 Great East Japan
Earthquake and Tsunami [12], established by the Committee on Tsunami Measures on coasts, one of the following two disaster reduction effects is to be incorporated in structures that persistently exert facility effects
even if coastal dikes are destroyed and collapse because of
tsunami overflow over the crown of coastal dikes and the
like due to tsunamis exceeding the design target height:
(i) Extend time as much as possible until facilities are
destroyed or collapse.
(ii) Reduce the possibility as much as possible in which
facilities are to be completely destroyed or swept
away.
Such innovations are expected to save time in evacuation, reduce inundation damage, reduce time and cost for
recovery, and conserve seaside shape.
As a result of investigation based on these concepts,
the following innovation is known to be effective against
scouring in landward toes and washout of landward armor:

landward slope armor (0.5m thick)
5.0m
rubble stones (0.3m thick)
foundation work
2.25m
2.25m
soil improvement
5.0m
crushed rocks (0.2m thick)
1.0m
1.0m
2.25m
Fig. 32. Landward armor protection and innovation.
(1) Measures against scouring in landward toes

As discussed in Sections 2.2 and 3.3, scouring occurs
in landward toes of coastal dikes when tsunamis overflow over coastal dikes. Section 4.6 showed that scouring in landward toes in related to damage to coastal dikes,
suggesting the possibility of reducing damage to coastal
dikes by protecting landward toes against scouring. As
described in Section 2.1, however, such protective structures can be washed away due to high-speed flow on landward toes. Foundation work integrated with toe of landward armor and soil improvement for increasing structural
stability are deemed as measures against scouring in landward toe as shown in Fig. 32.
(2) Increased stability of landward armor
As shown in Section 2.1, flow velocity on landward
slopes is quite high when tsunamis overflow coastal dikes.
This means that when unevenness is generated on the surface of landward armor due to uplift pressure acting on
the landward armor and suction from the dike body, landward armor becomes likely to be washed away because
it is directly affected by hydrodynamic forces. Measures
considered for this are to construct landward armor with
a depth equivalent to that of seaward armor as shown
in Fig. 32 and to design structures that engage concrete
blocks with notches at both ends in order to prevent blocks
from protruding on the landward slope even when they are
moved slightly due to suction from the dike body and so
on.
(3) Measures against negative pressure generated on landward top
As shown in Section 2.1, negative pressure may be generated because pressure on armor surfaces drops significantly around landward tops that join crown armor and
landward armor when tsunamis overflow over dikes. It is
necessary to extend crown armor to landward or seaward
armor as a measure against this.
(4) Necessity for addressing uplift pressure
When the water level on the sea side of the dike increases due to tsunamis, the phreatic surface under the
dike body begins to rise corresponding to the increased
water level. If the original phreatic surface is high in the
ground, it reaches the lower part of the dike body relatively sooner. In the case of impermeable armor for a purpose such as suction prevention, air may be caught in the
space between armor and the phreatic surface. The pressure of this air increases even when the phreatic surface
is located at a low position because the phreatic surface

rises at a certain speed depending on the tsunami water
level on the sea side of the dike. Air pressure may hinder
phreatic surface rise, leading to a situation in which uplift
dangerous to armor may act.
In order to prevent armor from being unstable for this
reason, it is important that permeable armor allows air to
be exhausted without increasing air pressure at a harmful
level when the phreatic surface rises.
(5) Response to infiltrated water in dike landward toes
Infiltrated water can percolate from around landward
toes because the phreatic line rises for a short term around
landward toes when the infiltrated water level drops immediately after tsunami overflow depending on soil conditions of the dike body and foundation. In such a situation, soil around the structure may become muddy and
landward armor may be damaged. Considering the possibility of such phenomena, the rise in phreatic line should
be minimized.
In the recovery of dikes on the Nanbu coast of Sendai
Bay (approximately 30 km long) damaged during the
Great East Japan Earthquake, a persistent structure using findings above mentioned was adopted as shown in
Fig. 33. Foundation work was integrated with landward
armor because landward toes may be a weak point against
high-speed flow. Furthermore, soil improvement was
performed around foundation work as a measure against
scouring in landward toes. A structure engaging concrete
blocks was adopted for landward armor and air vents were
made in the crown armor. Recovery construction was
completed for approximately 5 km near Sendai Airport by
March 2013 and remaining work will have been finished
by May 2016.
6. Conclusions
The four following major conclusions were obtained:
(i) Situations in which tsunamis overflowed coastal
dikes were reproduced in model experiments and
high-speed flow of approximately 10 m/s in landward toes was generated, showing that the depth and
range of scouring in the landward toe increases with
the overflow depth.
(ii) After giving an overview of the damage to shore protection facilities in Iwate, Miyagi, and Fukushima
Prefectures due to tsunamis during Great East Japan
Earthquake, the fact that the land shapes were significantly changed due to the damage to coastal dikes
and the distribution of scouring width in land-side of
coastal dikes in the southern part of the Sendai Plain
were clarified.
(iii) As a result of classifying damage patterns of coastal
dikes during Great East Japan Earthquake, damage
from scouring in landward toes accounts for half of
the damage length. Results of multiple logistic regression analysis using external force indices such as
623
Kato, F. et al.
Fig. 33. Dike structures on the Nanbu coast of Sendai Bay.
overflow depth and structure specifications of dikes

indicated that the elements affecting the extent of
structural damage are mainly overflow depth and armor width of landward toe.
(iv) In structural innovation in coastal dikes, measure
against scouring in landward toes, increased stability
of landward armor, and response to negative pressure in landward slopes are necessary to exert effects
persistently against tsunami overflow.
Acknowledgements
Materials such as shore protection facility data books used for the
analysis of dike damage were collected in research by the Committee on Tsunami Measures on coasts. The authors wish to express their thanks to Aomori Prefecture, Iwate Prefecture, Miyagi
Prefecture, Fukushima Prefecture, Ibaraki Prefecture, Chiba Prefecture, and the Tohoku Regional Bureau, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transportation for their provision of damage research results and facility data books and Alpha Hydraulic Engineering Consultants Co., Ltd., for its cooperation in the remeasurement of fishing harbors. The authors also extend their gratitude to the River Department and Iwate and Sendai River and
National Road Office of the Tohoku Regional Bureau, Ministry of
Land, Infrastructure and Transportation, and the Iwate Prefecture
Land Maintenance Department for their invaluable support.
References:
[1] Committee for Technical Investigation on Countermeasures for
Earthquakes andTsunamis Based on the Lessons Learned from
the 2011 off the Pacific coast of Tohoku Earthquake, Report of
the Committee for Technical Investigation on Countermeasures for
Earthquakes andTsunamis Based on the Lessons Learned from the
2011 off the Pacific coast of Tohoku Earthquake, 2011.
[2] T. Ogasawara, Y. Matsubayashi, and S. Sakai, Characteristic of
the 2011 Tohoku Earthquake and Tsunami and its impact on the
northern Iwate coast, Coastal Engineering Journal, Vol.54, No.1,
12500003 (16 pages), 2012.
624
[3] A. Suppasri, S. Koshimura, K. Imai, E. Mas, H. Gokon, A. Muhari,

and F. Imamura, Damage characteristic and field survey of the
2011 Great East Japan Tsunami in Miyagi Prefecture, Coastal Engineering Journal, Vol.54, No.1, 12500005 (30 pages) , 2012.
[4] H. Tanaka, N. Xuan Tinh, M. Umeda, R. Hirao, E. Pradjoko, A.
Mano, and K. Udo, Coastal and estuaries morphology changes induced by the 2011 Great East Japan Earhquake Tsunami, Coastal
Engineering Journal, Vol.54, No.1, 12500010 (25 pages), 2012.
[5] A. Mano, H. Tanaka, and K. Udo, Destruction mechanism of
coastal levees on the Sendai Bay Coast hit by the 2011 Tsunami,
Proceedings of the 33rd International Conference on Coastal Engineering, management.14, 2012, http://journals.tdl.org/icce/index
.php/icce/article/view/6615 [accessed May 8, 2013]
[6] S. Sato, H. Liu, S. Takewaka, H. Nobuoka, and S. Aoki, Tsunami
damages of Nakoso Coast due to the 2011 Tohoku Tsunami,
Proceedings of the 33rd International Conference on Coastal Engineering, currents.2, 2012, http://journals.tdl.org/icce/index.php/
icce/article/view/6483 [accessed May 8, 2013]
[7] F. Kato, Y. Suwa, K. Watanabe, and S. Hatogai, Mechanisms
of coastal dike failure induced by the Great East Japan Earthquake Tsunami, Proceedings of the 33rd International Conference
on Coastal Engineering, structures.40, 2012, http://journals.tdl.org
/icce/index.php/icce/article/view/6596 [accessed May 8, 2013]
[8] H. Yeh, S. Sato, and Y. Tajima, The 11 March 2011 East Japan
Earthquake and Tsunami: Tsunami Effects on Coastal Infrastructure and Buildings, Pure and Applied Geophysics, DOI 10.1007/
s00024-012-0489-1, 2012.
[9] K. Noguchi, S. Sato, and S. Tanaka, Large-scale experiments on
tsunami overtopping and bed scour around coastal revetment, Proceedings of Coastal Engineering, JSCE, Vol.44, pp. 296-300, 1997
(in Japanese).
[10] K. Watanabe, Y. Suwa, F. Kato, and K. Fujita, Analysis of the damage to coastal dikes by the tsunami that occurred following the 2011
off the Pacific Coast of Tohoku Earthquake, Journal of Japan Society of Civil Engineers, Ser. B2 (Coastal Engineering), Vol.68, No.2,
pp. I 356-I 360, 2012 (in Japanese).
[11] Tohoku Earthquake Tsunami Joint Survey Group, Survey Results of
tsunami marks, http://www.coastal.jp/ttjt/ [accessed Aug. 26, 2011]
[12] The Committee on Tsunami Measures on coasts, Basic concepts
for recovery of coastal dike and the like damaged by the 2011 Great
East Japan Earthquake and Tsunami, 2011.

Name:
Name:
Fuminori Kato
Kunihiro Watanabe
Affiliation:
Affiliation:
Senior Researcher, Coast Division, National Institute for Land and Infrastructure Management
Researcher, Coast Division, National Institute

for Land and Infrastructure Management
Address:
Address:
1 Asahi, Tsukuba 305-0804, Japan
Brief Career:
Brief Career:
1995 Researcher, Coast Division, Public Works Research Institute,

Ministry of Construction
2001 Researcher, Coast Division, National Institute for Land and
Infrastructure Management
2002- Senior Researcher, Coast Division, National Institute for Land and
Infrastructure
2006 Researcher, Ocean Research Institute, The University of Tokyo

Selected Publications:
Mechanisms of Coastal Dike Failure Induced by the Great East Japan

Earthquake Tsunami, Proceedings of 33rd International Conference on
Coastal Engineering, 2012.
Tsunami Damage Estimation in Consideration of Beach Transformation
and Dike Failure, Proceedings of Coastal Sediments 2007, 2007.
Large-Scale Experiment on Dynamic Response of Sand Bed around a
Cylinder due to Tsunami, Coastal Engineering 2000, 2000.
Analysis of the damage to coastal dikes by the tsunami that occurred

following the 2011 off the Pacific Coast of Tohoku Earthquake, Journal of
JSCE, Ser.B2 (Coastal Engineering), Vol.68, No.2, pp. I 356-I 360, 2012.
Academic Societies & Scientific Organizations:

Japan Society of Civil Engineers (JSCE)
The Oceanographic Society of Japan
The Japan Society of Fisheries Science (JSFS)

Japanese Association for Coastal Zone Studies (JACZS)
Japan Society for Disaster Information Studies (JASDIS)
Name:
Satoshi Hatogai
Affiliation:
Ex-Researcher, Coast Division, National Institute for Land and Infrastructure Management
Name:
Yoshio Suwa
Affiliation:
Head, Coast Division, National Institute for
Land and Infrastructure Management
Address:
Brief Career:
1996 Engineering Works Section, Tonegawa Jyoryu River Office

2009 Chief Official, Research Section, Shimodate River Office
2013- Chief Official, Engineering Works Section, Tonegawa Jyoryu River
Office
Brief Career:
Address:
1989-1993 Researcher, River Hydraulics Division, Public Works Research
Institute, Ministry of Construction
1999-2002 Senior Researcher, River Hydraulics Division, National
Institute for Land and Infrastructure Management
2008- Head, Coast Division, National Institute for Land and Infrastructure
Management
Mechanisms of Coastal Dike Failure Induced by the Great East Japan

Earthquake Tsunami, Proceedings of 33rd International Conference on
Coastal Engineering, 2012.
Hydraulic Model Experiments on Scour Landward of the Coastal Dike
Induced by Tsunami Overflow, Journal of Coastal Engineering, JSCE,
2012.
Analysis of the damage to coastal dikes by the tsunami that occurred

following the 2011 off the Pacific Coast of Tohoku Earthquake, Journal of
JSCE, Ser.B2 (Coastal Engineering), Vol.68, No.2, pp. I 356-I 360, 2012.
Hydraulic model experiments on scour landward of the coastal dike
induced by tsunami overflow, Journal of JSCE, Ser.B2 (Coastal
Engineering), Vol.68, No.2, pp. I 406-I 410, 2012.
Hydraulic Evaluation of Protection Work on Back Slope as a Kind of
Armor Levee Made of Filter Sheet Against Overflow, Proceeding of River
Technology, Vol.7, pp. 109-114, 2001.

625

Damages To Shore Protection Facilities Induced by The Great East Japan Earthquake Tsunami

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Damages To Shore Protection Facilities Induced by The Great East Japan Earthquake Tsunami

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Kato, F. et al.

Damages to Shore Protection Facilities Induced by

After clarifying high-speed flow, pressure change,

overtopping, or preventing erosion due to sea water. In

Damages to Shore Protection Facilities Induced

Fig. 1. Distribution of cross-sectional average flow velocity.

Fig. 2. Distribution of piezometric head.

tection facilities, are discussed for preventing sea water

2. Hydraulic Phenomenon in the Case of

with descending landward slope, reaching approximately

2.2. Scouring in Landward Toes of Coastal Dikes

Fig. 3. Land shape after overflow.

Figure 3 shows land shapes after tsunami overflows

Fig. 4. Dikes on the Taro coast (white line: primary dike,

3. Damage to Shore Protection Facilities

Fig. 5. Damage to the primary dike on the Taro coast.

were constructed along the fishing harbor (white line) and

Damages to Shore Protection Facilities Induced

Fig. 8. Depth contour for the Takada coast (broken line:

On the Otanabe coast of Fudai village, where no

Fig. 7. Damage to the dike on the Takada coast.

slope (Fig. 6). Based on this damage example, a report

3.3. Damage in Miyagi Prefecture

fracture rate of dike cross-section

submergence of dike crowns

submergence of dike crowns (m)

fracture rate of dike cross-section (%)

Fig. 11. Average scouring width in the southern part of the

Fig. 9. Breakage in coastal dikes in the southern part of the

Fig. 10. Fracture rate of dike cross-section and submergence

dikes, the coast was divided into 24 sections based on

3.4. Damage in Fukushima Prefecture

Fig. 12. Damage to the parapet on the coast in Uedaiwama

4. Damage Mechanisms in Coastal Dike

Damages to Shore Protection Facilities Induced

the Otanabe coast what tsunamis did not overflow were

Fig. 13. Deep erosion in a land-side coastal dike.

(iv) Damage from scouring of seaward slope toes

4.1. Damage due to Scouring of Landward Toes

Fig. 15. Damage mechanisms due to scouring of landward toes.

near the landward toe remains, while the above armor is

Fig. 16. Washout of landward slope armor on the Kanehama

Fig. 19. Damage to parapets on the Toyoma coast of

(1) Wave force acting on the parapet

(2) Parapet break

Fig. 17. Washout of crown armor on the Omagari coast of

Fig. 20. Damage mechanism of gravity dikes.

Fig. 18. Damage mechanism from landward slope tops and

As described in Section 2.1, high-speed flow occurs on a

4.3. Damage to Parapets

Damages to Shore Protection Facilities Induced

Fig. 21. Overturning of gravity dike in the Ryoishi fishing

(1) Wave force acting on the seawall

(1) Scouring at seaward toe

(2) Floating away

(2) Overturning of seawall

Fig. 22. Overturning mechanism of gravity dikes.

4.4. Overturning of Gravity Dikes

Japan Earthquake as shown in Fig. 23. This damage was

4.6. Results of Calculation and Analysis on Damage

Collapse Length Ratios

(1) Damage due to scouring

Numbers in figure are