INTRODUCTION

In India, ADR methods have a very ancient legacy. Indian civilization

expressly encouraged the settlement of differences by Tribunals chosen by
the parties themselves. An equivalent of it in the old Indian system is the
Peoples Court known as the Panchayat. The position out side India was
akin in the sense; submission of disputes to the decision of private persons
was recognised under the Roman law known by the name of Compromysm
(compromise), arbitration was a mode of settling controversies much
favored in the civil law of the continent. The Greeks attached particular
importance to arbitration. The attitude of English law towards arbitration has
been fluctuating from stiff opposition to moderate welcome. The Common
Law Courts looked jealously at agreements to submit disputes to extrajudicial determination140.
The word Arbiter was originally used as a non-technical designation of a
person to whom controversy was referred for decision irrespective of any law.
Subsequently the word Arbiter has been attached to a technical name of a person
selected with reference to an established system for friendly determination of
controversies, which though not a judicial process is yet to be regulated by law by
implication. Arbitration is a term derived from the nomenclature of Roman law. It
is applied to an arrangement for taking, and abiding by judgment of a

140

Russell on Arbitration , twenty second edition,2003, p 362,para 8-002

1 | Page

selected person in some disputed matter instead of carrying it to the

established Courts of justice141.
Before the enactment of Arbitration and Conciliation Act,1996 the
statutory provisions on arbitration in India were contained in three different
enactments, namely, The Arbitration Act, 1940, The Arbitration (Protocol and
Convention) Act, 1937 and The Foreign Awards (Recognition and
Enforcement) Act, 1961. The Arbitration Act, 1940 laid down the framework
within which domestic arbitration was concluded in India, while the other two
Acts dealt with foreign awards. The Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996 has
repealed The Arbitration Act, 1940, The Arbitration (Protocol and Convention)
Act, 1937 and The Foreign Awards (Recognition and Enforcement) Act, 1961.
The history of the Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996 has been discussed in
the previous chapters of this study. The Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996
also defines the law relating to conciliation providing for matters connected
therewith and incidental thereto on the basis of Model Law on International
Commercial Arbitration adopted by the United Nations Commission on
International Trade Law (UNCITRAL) in 1985. This modern law seeks to
provide for an effective mode of settlement of disputes between the parties,
both for domestic and for international commercial arbitration. Thus, an
elaborate codified recognition to the concept of arbitration and conciliation is
given in India by the enactment of The Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996.
Its emergence is one of the most significant movements, both in terms of
judicial reforms as well as conflict management. The alternative dispute
redressal methods like arbitration, conciliation, mediation, and their hybrids
have become a global necessity and the study on its utility is undeniable.
141

Salil K. Roy Chowdhury and H.K.Saharay Arbitration Law p 3, (IIIrd edn), Eastern Law House.

The ADR methods are seen to be speedier, more informal and cheaper
than conventional judicial procedure. They provide a forum more convenient to
the parties who can choose the time, place and procedure, for conducting the
preferred dispute redressal process. Further, where the dispute concerns a
technical matter, the parties have the opportunity to select the expert who
possesses appropriate special qualifications or skills in that trade. The study
precedes with the purpose that, alternative disputes redressal mechanisms, are
to be encouraged among the disputants to reduce the delays and high pendency
of cases in Courts. The alternative dispute redressal methods have to be looked
up to with all earnest so that the litigant public has a faith in the speedy process
of resolving their disputes with these processes142.

4.1 LITIGATION AND ARBITRATION

Litigation is a Judicial controversy, a contest in a Court of law; a judicial
proceeding for the purpose of enforcing a right 143. In Vide Mury Exportation Vs
Khaitan and Sons144 case, it was held that, litigation and arbitration are both
methods of resolving disputes, one in a Court of law while the other through a
private Tribunal. Litigation is a Public Process. The Courts has the dignity,
authority and attract public confidence. Free Legal aid is available in cases of
litigation. In this process, any party can institute litigation. It follows adversarial
procedure, thus formal and inflexible Rules and Procedures are strictly followed.
In litigations, parties to the dispute have no voice in selection of adjudicators,
Judge or Jury. Adjudicators apply the laws and the decisions of the High Court and
Supreme Court are precedents for the subordinate Courts. Remedy in the form of
appeal against decisions of the Court is available to the disputed
142

State of J & K Vs Dev Dutt Pandit(1999)7 SCC 339.

143

P.Ramanatha Aiyars (2002),The Law Lexicon,p1135.

AIR 1956 Cal 644,648.

144

parties. Remedies may include compensatory and punitive damages, injunctive

relief .The complete process of litigation is generally expensive. In many cases,
differences between the parties to the dispute are so highlighted that the parties
sometimes take extreme positions in that adversarial atmosphere. Litigation
usually ends in winning, loosing situation and compromise are rare, thus causing
concern, anxiety and stress. Litigation is a process where justice is delayed due to
the various auxiliary factors from the part of Litigants, Advocates and Judges
along with the procedural complications involved in the process of litigation 145.
Arbitration is a private process, as the initiation of arbitration is

under an agreement. It may be less adversarial, less formal, and flexible with
the adoption of simpler procedures. Arbitration does not follow any formal
rules of evidence. The findings are limited to some documents, with no
interrogatories or depositions. Generally, the disputed parties select the
Adjudicators. Adjudicators are selected based on their qualification and
expertise. Their decisions do not formally set precedents to any other
arbitration. Vacation of award is generally limited to arbitrator's misconduct
and bias. Arbitrators normally are empowered to grant compensatory
damages including provisional relief. All these factors usually reduced costs
and makes way for delivery of quick justice 146. The process of Conciliation
and Mediation is distinguishable from Arbitration as the disputed partys
willingness to submit to mediation or conciliation does not bind them to
accept the recommendation of the conciliation or mediator but an
arbitrators award, by contrast, is binding on the parties 147.

145

146
147

Milon K Banerji.,Arbitration Versus Litigation,p61-62(PC.Rao &William Sheffield,ADR,Universal Law

Publishing House,1997.)

Michale Pryles (ed).Dispute Resolution in Asia , Second Edition,123-153.

Robert Merkin , Arbitration Law edn 2004,p 168,para 6.6.

4.2 ARBITRATION AND CONCILIATION ACT, 1996

With a view to give effect the law relating to domestic arbitration,
international commercial arbitration, enforcement of foreign awards and to
define the law relating to conciliation, the Arbitration and Conciliation Bill
th

1995148 was introduced in the Rajya Sabha on 16 May 1995. The Arbitration
and Conciliation Act, 1996149 received the Presidential assent and was brought
into force from 16 August 1996150,the Act being a continuation of the Ordinance
is deemed to have been effective from 25 January 1996 when the first
Ordinance came into force151. The long title of this Act replicates that, the object
of the Act is to consolidate and amend the law relating to domestic arbitration,
international commercial arbitration and enforcement of foreign arbitral awards
as also to define the law relating to conciliation and for matters connected
therewith or incidental thereto.

4.2.1

SALIENT

FEATURES

OF

THE

ARBITRATION AND CONCILIATION ACT, 1996

The Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996 152 lays considerable stress on
the party autonomy. The party to the dispute can decide the number of arbitrators,
the rules of procedure, and the rules governing the substance of the dispute, the
place of arbitration and the language of the arbitrators. The major advantage of the
new law is that, it facilitates quick resolution of the commercial disputes and
speeds up arbitration procedure by minimizing intervention by the Court. Under
the new law, a Court may provide certain interim measures of protection at a
partys request
148
149
150
151
152

Bill No.30 of 1995.

The Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996. (No. 26 of 1996).
Notification No. GSR 375 (E) published in the Gazette of India, Extraordinary ,Pt II

Fuerst Day Lawson Ltd. VS.Jindal Exports Ltd.(2001)6 SCC 356.

The Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996 herein after referred to as 1996 Act

and may offer assistance in taking evidence or recovering documents at the request
of the arbitral tribunal or a party to the reference. The award of an arbitrator is
itself enforceable as a decree of Court and is not required to be made a Rule of
Court. The arbitrator has to give reasons for his award. However, no reasons need
to be given if the disputant parties agree before hand to such a thing. In Babar Ali
Vs Union of India153 case it was held by Supreme Court that , The Arbitration and
Conciliation Act,1996 is neither unconstitutional nor in any way offends the basic
structure of the Constitution of India, as Judicial review is available for
challenging the award in accordance with the procedure laid down therein. The
time and manner of the judicial scrutiny can be legitimately laid down by the Act
passed by the parliament.

4.2.2 PREAMBLE
Preamble to the 1996 Act is an introductory, prefatory and an
explanatory note about the sections namely that of the Arbitration and
Conciliation Act, 1996. United Nations Commission on International Trade
Law (UNCITRAL) adopted the UNCITRAL Model Law on International
Commercial Arbitration in 1985. Thereby, the General Assembly of the United
Nations recommended that all countries give due consideration to the said
Model Law, in view of the desirability of uniformity of the law of arbitral
procedures and the specific needs of international commercial arbitration
practice. The United Nations Commission on International Trade Law has
adopted the UNCITRAL Conciliation Rules in 1980. Thereby, the General
Assembly of the United Nations recommended the use of the said Rules in
cases where a dispute arises in the context of international commercial relations
and the parties seek an amicable settlement of that dispute by recourse to
153

(2000) 2 SCC 178

conciliation. The said Model Law and Rules has a significant contribution to the
establishment of a unified legal framework for the fair and efficient settlement of
disputes arising in international commercial relations.
Based on the above facts the Parliament of India considered that it was
expedient to make law with respect to arbitration and conciliation, taking into
account the aforesaid Model Law and Rules in the forty-seventh year of the
Republic. The Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996 repealed the Arbitration Act
of 1940, the Arbitration (Protocol and Convention) Act of 1937 and the Foreign
Awards (Recognition and Enforcement) Act of 1961. Supreme Court in Fuerst Day
Lawson Ltd Vs Jindal Exports Ltd154 held that the provisions of the Arbitration and
Conciliation Act, 1996 have to be interpreted and construed independent to that
the Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1940. In order to get any further help in
construing the provisions, it is more relevant to refer to the United Nations
Commission on International Trade Law. The Arbitration and Conciliation Act,
1996 is divided into following parts, Part I deals with the Domestic arbitration.
Part II deals with the Enforcement of foreign awards. Part III deals with the
Conciliation procedures and Part IV of the Act deals with the Supplementary
provisions. Act has three Schedules namely, The First Schedule on the
Convention on recognition and enforcement of foreign arbitral award as per New
York convention, the Second Schedule on the Protocol on Arbitration clauses and
Third Schedule on the convention on the execution of foreign arbitral awards as
per Geneva Convention. In Konkan Railways Corp. Ltd. V. Mehul Construction
Co155 case, Supreme Court of India stated that the Arbitration and Conciliation Act,
1996 was introduced in order to attract

154

A.I.R. 2001 S.C.2293.,and also Sundaram Finance Ltd Vs NEPC India Ltd.AIR 1999 S.C 565.

155

(2000) 7 SCC 201.

the international mercantile community and at the time of interpretation, regard

must be had to the objectives behind the enactment of the Act.

4.3 ARBITRATION
The Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996 governs the arbitration
procedures in India. Part-I of the Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996
comprises of 43 sections spread over ten chapters, making detailed provisions
relating to domestic arbitration and International commercial arbitration held in
India under this Act. Arbitration means, a process of dispute resolution in which
a neutral third party called arbitrator, renders a decision after a hearing at which
both parties have an opportunity to be heard 156. Arbitration is a consensual process.
It is not a matter of coercion. No arbitration statute can require parties to arbitrate
when they have not agreed to do so. Nor can it prevent them from excluding
certain claims from the scope of arbitration agreement in any manner they choose.
It requires Courts just to enforce privately negotiated agreements to arbitrate, like
other contracts, in accordance with their terms.157.

As defined under Section 2(1) (a) of Arbitration and Conciliation Act,

1996 it covers any arbitration whether it is administered by any permanent
arbitral institution or not. It also covers arbitration relied on voluntary
agreement by the private parties or by operation of law. The Arbitration and
Conciliation Act, 1996 does not provide definition of the word "Arbitration".
Arbitration, in law, is a form of Alternative Dispute Resolution - specifically, a
legal alternative to litigation, whereby the parties to a dispute agree to submit
their respective positions (through agreement or hearing) to a neutral third
party called the Arbitrator for resolution of the dispute between them. The
literal meaning is that
156

Black's Law Dictionary, 6th edn. (1990), West Publishing Co., p.105.

157

Volt Information Sciences, Inc Vs Leland Stanford University 489 US 468(1989)

"settlement" of differences or disputes by mutual understanding or agreement by

the parties where the rights and liabilities of the parties are determined in judicial
point of view which are binding to them, such settlement may be before the
arbitral tribunal but not by the Court of law.

In Jivaji Raja Vs Khimiji Poonja & Company 158., Bombay High Court
observed that, arbitration is the reference of dispute or difference between two
or more parties to a person chosen by the parties or appointed under statutory
authority, for determination of the same. In a broad sense, it is substitution of
ordinary judicial machinery by a mutually chosen tribunal i.e., an Arbitrator or
an Arbitral Institution.

4.3.1 KINDS OF ARBITRATION

Depending on the terms of arbitration agreement, the subject matter of the
dispute in arbitration, and the laws governing such arbitrations, arbitrations can
be classified into different types, such as159
Ad-hoc Arbitration: The Ad-hoc Arbitration is agreed to and arranged by the
parties themselves without recourse to an arbitral institution. It is to get the
justice, in the balance of the un-settled part of their dispute only. It may be
either International or Domestic arbitration160.

Domestic arbitration: The Domestic arbitration means, an arbitration

which takes place in India, wherein parties are Indians and the dispute is
decided in accordance with substantive law in India
International Arbitration: An Arbitration, which may take place either within
India or outside India but, where there are ingredients of foreign
158

AIR 1934 Bom 476.

159

160

Indu Malhotra & OP.Malhotra, The Law and Practice of Arbitration And Conciliation,2 nd
Edn2006.p115-129

Russell on Arbitration,twenty second edn,2003,p29,para 2-010.

origin in relation to the parties, or the subject matter of the dispute. In this
process, the dispute is decided in accordance with substantive law in India or
any other country, depending on the contract in this regard and the rules of
conflict of laws are termed as International Arbitration.
Institutional Arbitration: It means, an arbitration conducted by an arbitral
institution in accordance with the prescribed rules of the institution. In such
kind of arbitration, there is prior agreement between the parties that in case of
future differences or disputes arising between the parties during their
commercial transactions, such differences or disputes will be settled by
arbitration as per clause provide in the agreement and in accordance with the
rules of that particular arbitral institution. The arbitrator or arbitrators, as the
case may be is appointed from the panel maintained by the institution either by
disputants or by the governing body of the institution. The Arbitration and
Conciliation Act, 1996 gives recognition and effect to the agreement of the
parties to arbitrate according to institutional rules and subject to institutional
supervision. Some of the leading Indian institutions providing for institutional
arbitration are, The Indian Council of Arbitration (ICA), New Delhi, The
Federation of Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industries (FICCI), New
Delhi and The International Center for Alternative Dispute Resolution
(ICADA). Some of the leading international institutions are The International
Chamber of Commerce (ICC), Paris, The London Court of International
Arbitration (LCIA), London and The American Arbitration Association (AAA).
The World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO) is an agency of the
United

92

Nations, which is offering its services exclusively for the intellectual

property disputes. WIPO is based in Geneva.161
Statutory Arbitration: It is mandatory form of arbitration, which is
imposed on the parties by operation of law. It is conducted in accordance
with the provisions of an enactment, which specifically provides for
arbitration in respect of disputes arising on matters covered by the
concerned enactment byelaws or Rules made there under having the force of
law. In such a case, the parties have no option as such but to abide by the
law of land. It is apparent that statutory arbitration differs from the other
types of arbitration for the reason that, the consent of parties is not
necessary, it is compulsory form Arbitration and it is binding on the Parties
as the law of land. As an example to it, Sections 24, 31 and 32 of the
Defence of India Act, 1971 and Section 43(c) of The Indian Trusts Act, 1882
are the statutory provision, which deals with statutory arbitration.

Foreign Arbitration: When arbitration proceedings are conducted in a

place outside India and the Award is required to be enforced in India, it is
termed as Foreign Arbitration.
Fast Track Arbitration or Documents Only Arbitration: The Documents only
arbitration is not oral and is based only on the claim statement and statement of
defence, and a written reply by the claimant, if any. It also includes the documents
the document submitted by the parties with their statements along with a list of
reference to the documents or other evidences submitted by them. The written
submission may take the form of a letter to the tribunal from the party or his
representative, or may

161

Indu Malhotra & OP.Malhotra, The Law and Practice of Arbitration And Conciliation,2 nd Edn
2006.p117

be a more formal document produced by lawyers .162The parties may agree upon, or
in default, the tribunal may adopt the procedure to resolve the dispute only on the
basis of the documents submitted to the tribunal and without any oral hearing or
cross-examination of the witnesses.163

Look Sniff Arbitration: Institutions specialised in special types of disputes

have their own special rules to meet the specific requirements for the conduct
of arbitration in their specialised areas. Look Sniff Arbitration is a hybrid
arbitration, and also known as quality arbitration. It is a combination of the
arbitral process and expert opinion. On the bases of the evidence and inspection
of goods or commodities that are subject matter of the dispute placed before the
arbitrator, who is selected based on his specialized knowledge, expertise and
experience in a particular area of trade or business, the arbitrator decides the
dispute and makes his award. The award may relate to the quality or price of
the goods or both. There is no formal hearing for taking evidence or hearing
oral submissions. For example, Rules of the London Court of International
Arbitration (LCIA) permit the arbitrator, on his own, to ascertain the quality of
goods and their prevalent price.164
Flip Flop Arbitration: This type of arbitration has its origin in a United States
arbitration case, which dealt with a baseball player. In such arbitration, the parties
formulate their respective cases beforehand. They then invite the arbitrator to
choose one of the two. On the evidences adduced by the parties, the arbitrator
decides which submission is the correct submission, and then makes an award in
favour of that party. After both parties have submitted their respective cases to the
arbitrator,
162
163

164

Russell on Arbitration,22nd edn,2003 pp195-96,para 5-128.

In shipping and Grain Trade Disputes , this method of arbitration is used.Rules of London Maritime Arbitratirs
Association(LMAA) and Grain and Feedstock Trade Association(GAFTA)..

Indu Malhotra & OP.Malhotra, The Law and Practice of Arbitration And Conciliation,2 nd
Edn2006.p124-125.

he makes an award either favoring the claimant of the respondent. He

cannot pick and choose from a partys case. If a party inflates its claim,
then it is possible that it will everything. This type of arbitration is also
known as pendulum arbitration.165
International Commercial Arbitration: Section 2(1)(f) of the Arbitration and
Conciliation Act,1996 defines an 'International Commercial Arbitration' as the
one in which at least one of the parties is a resident of a country other than
India, or a body corporate incorporated in any country other than India, or a
company or association or a body of individuals whose central management
and control is exercised in any country other than India. Arbitration with the
government of a foreign country is also considered to be an international
commercial arbitration.

Thus, the above classifications of the process under different heads

reflects that, the process of arbitration is flexible enough so that, it can be
altered and modified according to the dispute to its best form, by the
disputed parties. Thus, it is a fact that the above classification is not
exhaustive. The best method or the form of arbitration is to be chosen by
the parties according to their requirement, which can help them fulfill the
objective of an amicable resolution of the dispute for the betterment of
all.

THE COURT REFERRAL TO ARBITRATION

If a party to the dispute approaches the Court despite the presence of an

arbitration agreement, the other party can raise the objection. The Arbitration
and Conciliation Act, 1996 further says that, the party must raise such an
objection before submitting his first statement on the substance of dispute. The
original arbitration agreement or its certified copy must accompany such
objection. On such application, the judicial authority shall refer the parties to
arbitration. Since the word used is shall, it is mandatory for judicial authority
to refer the matter to arbitration178. However, once the opposite party makes the
first statement to Court, the matter has to continue in the Court. Once the other
party for referring the matter to arbitration makes an application, the arbitrator
can continue with arbitration and even make an arbitral award. The Supreme
Court of India in P.Anand Gajapathi Raju Vs P.V.G Raju 179 case held that
arbitration agreement being brought into existence while action is pending
before Court is also a valid arbitration agreement. The language of section 8 is
peremptory. It is therefore, obligator for the Court to refer the parties to the
arbitration in terms of their arbitration agreement. The Supreme Court of India
in the case of Haryana Telecom Ltd Vs Sterlite Industries (India) Ltd 180 held
that, notwithstanding any agreement between the parties, an arbitrator would
have no jurisdiction to order winding up of a company.
The Supreme Court of India in S.N Palanitkar Vs State of Bihar 181 case
held that, merely because there is an arbitration clause in a commercial agreement,
that cannot prevent criminal prosecution against
178
179
180
181

The Arbitration and Conciliation Act,1996. Section 8

AIR 2000 S.C 1886.
AIR 1999 SC 2354.
AIR 2002 Bom 8.

the accused if an act constitutes a criminal offence is made out even

prima facie.
4.3.4 INTERIM MEASURES OF PROTECTION
The Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996 under Section 9 empowers the
Court to take certain interim measures of protection including granting of interim
injunctions, preservation, interim custody, sale of goods, appointment of receivers,
etc. Supreme Court of India in the case of Bhatia International Vs Bulk Trading
SA182 held that, the provisions such as section 9 of the 1996 Act, relating to interim
measures of protection by the Court were the, 'general provisions which are
applicable to international commercial arbitrations held outside India, unless
excluded either expressly by a statute or by an agreement between parties, or by
implication'. Thus, it is open for parties in an international arbitration with the seat
of arbitration outside India to apply for interim measures of protection within India
where the assets relating to the dispute are located in India. The Supreme Court of
India in Firm Ashok Traders Vs Gurumukh Das Saluja183 case held that, the Court
under Section 9 is only formulating interim measures to protect the right under
adjudication before the Arbitral Tribunal from being frustrated. The Court is
conferred with the same power for making the specified order as it has for the
purpose of and in relation to any proceeding before it through the venue of the
proceedings in relation to which the power under Section 9 is sought to exercised
is the Arbitral Tribunal. The Supreme Court of India in Sundaram Finance Ltd Vs
NEPC India Ltd184 case held that, inorder to give full effect to Section 9, it would
not be necessary that a notice invoking the arbitration clause must be issued to the
opposite party
182
183
184

2002(4 ) SCC 105

2004 (3) SCC 155.
AIR 1999 SC 565.

before an application under section 9 can be filled. Thus, the Court is not debarred
from dealing with an application merely because no notice has been issued under
Section21 of Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996.

DEFAULT OF THE PARTIES

The parties may agree as to the powers to be possessed by the arbitral

tribunal, in the event that a party fails to proceed properly and expeditiously with
the arbitration, or non-abidance of an order or with the directions of the tribunal.
In the absence of such agreement Section 25 of Arbitration and Conciliation Act,
1996 confers default powers on the tribunal. This section clearly mentions that,
unless otherwise agreed by the parties, where, without showing sufficient cause, if
the claimant fails to communicate his statement of claim in accordance with
subsection (1) of section 23, the arbitral tribunal shall terminate the proceedings. If
the respondent fails to communicate his statement of defence in accordance with
sub-section (1) of section 23, the arbitral tribunal shall continue the proceedings
without treating that failure in itself as an admission of the alienations by the
claimant. A party fails to appear at an oral hearing or to produce documentary
evidence; the arbitral tribunal may continue the proceedings and make the arbitral
award on the evidence before it252.
It is to be noted that a default award has more serious consequences than a
default judgment of a Court, because it is generally not open to recourse under
Section 34 or appeal under Section 37 of this Act. Therefore once the arbitral
tribunal has made the award, it no longer has jurisdiction over the dispute. The
main principles governing arbitral
252

The Arbitration and Conciliation Act,1996. Section 25 (a)(b)and (c).

proceedings are that the default does not constitute admission of the liability,
hence does not automatically validate the arguments of a party and secondly
default by a party must not paralyze or even slow down the progress of the
arbitral proceedings. Thus, the arbitral tribunal must primarily examine the
merits of a partys legal and factual arguments and must go ahead despite the
absence of defaulting party. The requirement of due process is complied with
where the defaulting party has been notified of the proceedings and progress
thereof, and has been given opportunity to present its case at each stage of the
proceedings. Thus, the party to the arbitral proceeding cannot obstruct the
arbitration by refusing to participate in the proceedings253.

Chapter 6 of the Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996 has

mandatory provisions as it leaves little room for the parties for individual
alteration of the proceeding. The reason being, this chapter has the
provisions that regulate the award-making process and thus meant to
settle the dispute finally.
4.3.8 SETTLEMENT DURING ARBITRATION PROCEEDING
It is permissible for parties to arrive at mutual settlement even when
arbitration is proceeding. Settlement of a disputed claim to avoid a lawsuit is, an
agreement ending a dispute or law suit, arrived at either in or out of Court, for
settling a dispute on what appears to the parties to be equitable terms, having
regard to the uncertainty they are in regarding the facts or the law and the facts
together254. In fact, even the Tribunal can make efforts to encourage mutual
settlement. If parties settle the dispute by mutual agreement, the arbitration shall
be terminated. However, if
253
254

Fouchard, Gaillard and Goldman on International Commercial Arbitration,1999,pp662-664,para

1224.
Blacks Law Dictionary, eighth edn,2004,p 1405.

both parties and the Arbitral Tribunal agree, the settlement can be recorded
in the form of an arbitral award on agreed terms. Such Arbitral Award shall
have the same force as any other Arbitral Award 255.It was held in Malpati
Sevasangh Vs Gujarat State Khadi nad Village Industries Bourd 256 case that,
an effective compromise presupposes that both the parties to the dispute are
willing to abide by the terms and conditions of the agreement. Otherwise, it
cannot be said to be effective because a compromise cannot be one sided, as
both the sides to the dispute should agree for such compromise.

4.3.9 ARBITRAL AWARD

The decision of the Arbitral Tribunal is termed as 'Arbitral Award'.
Arbitrator can decide the dispute ex aequo et bono (in justice and in good faith) if
both the parties expressly authorize him to do so 257. Section 28 of the Arbitration
and Conciliation Act,1996 grants autonomy to the parties to choose the substantive
law to be applied to Arbitration other than an international commercial
arbitration as well as to an international commercial arbitration, where the place
of arbitration is in India. The Supreme Court of India in Sumitomo Heavy
Industries Vs Oil and Natural Gas Co Ltd 258held that, where the parties had made
an express choice of Indian law as proper law of the contract, then it would follow
that the proper law of the arbitration agreement is also Indian Law. It was held as
the arbitration agreement is part of the substance of the underlying contract and
terms of arbitration clause are held to be clear in that respect 259.The provisions has
made a vital improvement in making international commercial arbitration
considerably more user-friendly and
255

The Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996. Section 30

256

2004 (2)Arb. LR 521 (Guj)

257

258
259

The Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996. Section 28(2)

1998 (1) 1 SCC 305.

Channel Tunnel Group Ltd Vs Balfour Beatty Construction Ltd.1993 (1) ALL ER 664.

flexible260. In the arbitral proceedings with more than one arbitrator, the
decision of Arbitral Tribunal will be by majority 261. In the Shin-Etsu
Chemical Co Ltd.Vs.Aksh Optifibre Ltd and another 262 Case it was held that,
in an application for reference rejected on the ground of invalidity of
agreement under Section 45 of the Act, the judicial authority is required to
pass reasoned order after hearing parties. Impugned order is liable to appeal
under Section 50(1) (a) of the Act.

4.3.9.1 FORM AND CONTENTS OF ARBITRAL AWARD

The award must be in writing and signed by the members of Arbitral
Tribunal263.Therefore, an award is complete and final only when the arbitrators
sign it. It was also held that once an arbitrator has signed an award, he becomes
functus officio. It is not necessary that it should also be delivered, pronounced, or
filed in the Court264. It must state the reasons for the award unless the parties have
agreed that no reason for the award is to be given 265. Reasons are the link between
the material on which certain conclusions are based and the actual conclusion. This
was held by the Supreme Court of India in the Union of India Vs Mohanlal
Kapoor266case. The Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996 does not prescribe any
particular form for a reasoned award. The reasoned award is emphasized under the
1996 Act in order to enable the parties and the reviewing Courts 267 to understand
the facts and the general reasoning which led the arbitrator to conclude that this
was the decisive point, and to understand the facts and so consider the position
with respect to
260
261
262
263
264
265
266
267

Peter Binder, International Commercial Arbitration In UNCITRAL Model Law Jurisdictions, second
edn,2005 p 238 , para 6-019.
The Arbitration and Conciliation Act,1996. Section 29
(2005)7SCC234
The Arbitration and Conciliation Act,1996. Section 31(1)
Satwant Singh Sodhi Vs State of Punjab 1999 (3) SCC 487
The Arbitration and Conciliation Act,1996. Section 31(3)
1972 (2)SCC 836
Russell on Arbitration ,22nd Ed ,2003 ,p 238,para 6-028.

reviewing the award on any other issue which arose before the arbitrators
. In AK Kraipak Vs Union Of India269 the Supreme Court of India held that

268

there is increasing emphasis on the requirement of reasons in all judicial, quasijudicial and arbitral decisions. The award should be dated and place where it is
made should be mentioned. Copy of award should be given to each party 270. In
the Union of India Vs Tecco Trichy Engineers and Contractors 271 case, it was
held that, according to Section 31(5), 'after the arbitral award is made, a signed
copy shall be delivered to each party'. Section 2(1) (h) defines a "party" as
meaning 'a party to an arbitration agreement'. In a large organization like the
Railways, "party" as referred to in Section 2(1) (h) read with Section 34(3) has
to be construed to be a person directly connected and involved in the
proceedings and who is in control of the proceedings before the arbitrator. The
delivery of an arbitral award, to be effective, has to be 'received' by the party
and this delivery by the tribunal and receipt by the party sets in motion several
periods of limitation, therefore it is an important stage in the arbitral
proceedings.

KINDS OF AWARDS
The Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996 contemplates four types of
awards, namely the definition of award under Section 2(c) includes an interim
award. Section 31(6) authorizes an arbitral tribunal to make an interim award on
any matter with respect to which it may make final arbitral award at any time
during the arbitral proceeding. Interim award deals only with some of the matters
referred, so that the remaining matters will be dealt with later. As in case of
additional award , Section
268
269
270
271

Transcatalana De Commercio SA Vs Incobrasa Industrial E Commercial Brazileria SA [1995]1 Lloyds

Rep 215
1969 (2)SCC 262
The Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996.Section 31(5)
2005(1) RAJ 506 (SC)

33 (4) provides that, in the absence of an agreement by the parties to the contrary,
a party with notice to the opposing party may, within 30 days from the receipt of
the award, request the arbitral tribunal to make an additional award as to claims
presented in the arbitral proceedings but omitted from arbitral award. If the
tribunal considers such request to be justified, it shall make the additional award
within 60 days from the receipt of the request 272. If the parties settle their dispute
during arbitration proceeding, the arbitral tribunal shall terminate the proceedings
and if request by the parties and not object to by the arbitral tribunal, it shall record
the settlement in the form of an arbitral award on agreed terms .273
Section 35 of Arbitration and Conciliation Act,1996 says that once an arbitral
award has been made, signed and delivered to the parties, subject to the provisions
of part 1 of the Act, it shall be final and binding on the parties and persons
claiming under them respectively. Corollary rule is that an award must dispose of
all the issues in dispute, unless parties have so agreed. There is the residuary
power in the arbitral tribunal to terminate proceeding where it finds that a
continuation thereof has for any other reason, become unnecessary or impossible.
If the situation develops where the arbitration proceedings becomes in-fructus, or
with the continuation of the proceedings becomes impossible, the tribunal shall
order termination of the arbitral proceeding. Like wise if the subject matter of the
dispute is not arbitrable, or the contract has been frustrated or become impossible
of performance and so on the tribunal shall terminate the arbitral proceedings 274.

272

The Arbitration and Conciliation Act,1996. Section 33(5)

273

The Arbitration and Conciliation Act,1996. Section30(2)

274

The Arbitration and Conciliation Act,1996. Section 32 (2) c , Maharashtra State Electricity Board Vs Datar
Switchgears Ltd, 2003 (Supp) Arb LR 39, 63 (Bom).

In the Bhatia International Vs Bulk Trading S.A 275 case, it was held that
foreign awards are those where arbitration takes place in a convention country;
awards in arbitration proceedings, which take place in a non-convention
country, are considered neither as foreign awards nor as domestic awards under
the Act. The Court also stressed that 'Domestic Awards' include all awards
made under Part I of the Act. Awards made in an international commercial
arbitration held in a non-convention country will also be considered to be a
'domestic award'.

4.3.10 COST OF ARBITRATION

The cost of arbitration means reasonable cost relating to fees and
expenses of arbitrators and witnesses, legal fees and expenses, administration
fees of the institution supervising the arbitration and other expenses in
connection with arbitral proceedings. The tribunal can decide the cost and share
of each party276. If the parties refuse to pay the costs, the Arbitral Tribunal may
refuse to deliver its award. In such case, any party can approach Court. The
Court will ask for deposit from the parties and on such deposit, the award will
be delivered by the Tribunal. Then Court will decide the costs of arbitration and
shall pay the same to Arbitrators. Balance, if any, will be refunded to the
party277.

4.3.11 SETTING ASIDE OF AN ARBITRAL AWARD

The arbitration award made by the arbitral tribunal is open to challenge
on the grounds mentioned in section 34 of the 1996 Act. These grounds include
incapacity of a party, invalidity of the arbitration agreement, improper notice of
appointment of the arbitrators, dispute not contemplated by or not falling
within the terms of the arbitration,
275

2002 AIR SC 1432

276

The Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996 Section 31(8)

277

Section 39

composition of the arbitral tribunal not in accordance with the agreement of the
parties, dispute incapable of settlement by arbitration under the law for the time
being in force and the award being in conflict with the public policy of India. It
was held by the Supreme Court in P. Anand Gajapathi Raju Vs P.V.G .Raju 278
case that, the Court to which the party shall have recourse to challenge the
award would be the Court as defined in Section 2 (e) and not the Court to
which an application under Section 8 of the Arbitration and Conciliation
Act,1996. The Supreme Court of India in, Union of India Vs Popular
Construction Co279 case held that, by virtue of Section34(1), recourse to the
Court against an arbitral award cannot be made beyond the prescribed period.
The time limit prescribed under Section34 to challenge an award is absolute
and un-extendible by Court under Section5 of Limitation Act.
The grounds of challenge under the Arbitration Act1940 were very wide
and included grounds such as 'errors of law arising on the face of the award'
making them more open to the challenge procedure. The Arbitration and
Conciliation Act, 1996 has very limited grounds of challenge based on the
UNCITRAL Model Law. Apart from jurisdictional grounds, the arbitral award
made by the arbitral tribunal can be set aside if the award is in conflict with the
public policy of India. In ONGC Vs Saw Pipes Ltd 280 case, the Supreme Court
interpreted the meaning of 'public policy' in a wide sense in case of a domestic
arbitration. It held that an arbitral award could be challenged on the ground that
it is contrary to fundamental policy of Indian law, the interest of India; or
justice or morality, patently illegal; or so unfair and unreasonable that it shocks
the conscience of the Court. Illegality of a
278

AIR 2000 S.C 1886

279

2001 (8)SCC 470.

2003 (5)SCC 705.

280

trivial nature, however, can be ignored. Under the 1996 Act, awards that
have become final and binding are enforceable in the domestic Courts
system in India and are deemed to be decrees of the Court.

4.3.12 FINALITY AND ENFORCEMENT OF ARBITRAL

AWARDS
The finality of arbitral awards in an arbitral proceeding is subject to Part
VIII of The Arbitration and Conciliation Act 1996. An award becomes final it
prevents the successful party from subsequently raising a claim on which he has
succeeded. Likewise, it prevents the loosing party from raising the issue on which
it has lost just because he believes that on the second occasion he may have a
more sympathetic tribunal, more convincing witnesses, or a better advocate. There
must be an end to disputes 281. Thus, Section 35 provides that an arbitral award shall
be final and binding on the parties and persons, claiming under them respectively.

Prior to 1940 an award could be executed in the same manner, to

the same extent and subject to the same limitation as a decree of the
Court282.Under the Arbitration Act 1940, under section17 ,an award could
be enforced by filing it in the Court and obtaining a judgment and decree
on it.
The Arbitration and Conciliation Act ,1996 under Section 36, provides
that, where the time for making an application to set aside the arbitral award
under section 34 has expired, or such application having been made, it has been
refused, the award shall be enforced under the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908
(5 of 1908) in the same manner as if it were a decree of the Court. This section
provides for the summary
281

Mustin and Boyd , Commercial Arbitration, second edn,1989,p413.

282

Kanhaya Lal Gauba Vs Peoples Bank of Northern India Ltd AIR 1935 Lah 49;Donald Graham and Co Vs
Kewalram and Ors AIR 1921 Sind 132.

procedure for excluding Court intervention at the enforcement stage, because

most of the object of arbitration would be defeated if a claimant who succeeds
in an arbitration has again stand in the queue of litigations seeking to enforce
their agreements. The fact that an arbitral award is enforceable as if it were a
decree does not render the arbitral proceeding as proceeding in a suit. Nor does
it render an arbitration a suit .All that this section provides is that for the
purpose of enforcement, an arbitral award can be enforced as if it were a
decree283.
The Supreme Court of India in Fuerst Day Lawson Ltd Vs Jindal
Exports Ltd284case held that, as the object of the Arbitration and Conciliation
Act, 1996 is to provide speedy and alternative solution to the dispute. Thereby,
for the enforcement of a foreign award there is no need to take separate
proceedings, one for deciding the enforceability of the award to make it a rule
of the Court or decree and other to take up execution thereafter. In one
proceeding, the Court enforcing a foreign award can deal with the entire matter.

4.3.12.1 INTERVENTION BY COURT

One of the major defects of earlier arbitration law was that the party could
access Court almost at every stage of arbitration - right from appointment of
arbitrator to implementation of final award. Thus, the defending party could
approach Court at various stages and stall the proceedings. Now, approach to
Court has been drastically curtailed. In some cases, if an objection is raised by the
party, the decision on that objection can be given by Arbitral Tribunal itself. After
the decision, the arbitration proceedings are continued and the aggrieved party can
approach Court only after Arbitral award is made. Appeal to Court is now
283
284

Saurabh Kalani Vs Tata Finance Ltd 2003(Supp)Arb LR 217,238 (Bom).

AIR 2001 SC 2293.

only on restricted grounds. Of course, Tribunal cannot be given unlimited

and uncontrolled powers and supervision of Courts cannot be totally
eliminated. An application to challenge the award will not be maintainable if
the party proposing to challenge it has accepted and acted upon it. The
Supreme Court in Pooran Chand Nangia Vs National fertilisers Ltd ,285 held
that the appellant had received the money, which was due to him under the
award accepting it unequivocally and without any reserve and so the
challenge was not maintainable that it did not lie in his mouth to challenge
the award. In Union of India Vs Popular Constructions Co ,286 the Supreme
Court held that by virtue of Sec34 (1) , recourse to the Court against an
arbitral award cannot be made beyond the prescribed period. The time limit
prescribed under Sec 34 to challenge an award is absolute and un-extendable
by Court under Section 5 of Limitation Act.

In the Venture Global Engineering Vs. Satyam Computer Services

Ltd. and Another

287

it was held that, in case of international commercial

arbitrations held out of India provisions of Part-I would apply unless the
parties by agreement express or implied, exclude all or any of its
provisions.
The Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996 has limited the powers of
Court. This Act has restricted the exercise of judicial powers, in other words
confined the extent of judicial intervention as provided under Section 5 of the
Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996. Section 5 says that, "Notwithstanding
anything contained in any other law for the time being in force, in matters
governed by this part, no judicial authority shall
285

2003 (8) SCC 245.

286

2001 (8) SCC 470 and MD, Army Welfare Housing Organisation Vs Sumangal Services Pvt Ltd (2004) 9
SCC 619. In DTC Vs Rose Advertising 2004 (3) Arb.LR 86 (Del).

287

(2008)4SCC190

intervene except where so provided in this part." The Supreme Court of

India in the case of P. Anand Gajapathi Raju Vs P.V.G Raju 288 held that,
section 5 brings out clearly the object of the 1996 Act, namely, that of
encouraging resolution of dispute expeditiously and less expensively and
when there is an arbitration agreement, the Courts intervention should be
minimal. Finality of Arbitral Award under Section 35 is subject to the part
according to which an arbitral award shall be final and binding on the parties
and persons claiming under them respectively. Thus, Section 36 of the 1996
Act provided finality of arbitral awards and its enforcement, without
intervention of the Court. The Arbitral Tribunals are empowered to settle any
objections rose in respect of jurisdiction or scope of authority of the
arbitrators.
The 1996 Act provides for appeals against orders granting or refusing to
grant interim measures of protection under section 9 and orders setting aside or
refusing to set aside, the arbitral award under section 17 shall lie to the Court
authorized by law to here the appeals from original decrees of the Court passing
the order.289. Orders concerning the jurisdiction or authority of the tribunal or
award under Section 16(2),
(3) are also appealable. The appellate Court is usually the High Court. No other
statutory appeal is provided. Section 37 (3) prohibits a second appeal against the
appellate order under section 37 (1) and (2). These mandatory provisions shut the
door on the face of the second appeal whether through Scetion100 of the Code of
Civil Procedure 1908, or a Letters Patent appeal. In Nirma Ltd Vs Lurgi Lent Jes
Energietechnik GmbH290 case, dealing with a petition for special leave to appeal
under Art 136 of the Constitution, against an appellate order passed by City Civil
288

AIR 2000 S.C 1886.

289

The Arbitration and Conciliation Act,1996 Section 37

290

2002 (5) SCC 520.

Court, Ahmedabad under Section 37(2), a two judge Bench of the Supreme
Court contented itself by echoing the first part of the Shyam Sundar Agarwal
and Co Vs Union of India 291 case stating that, merely because a second appeal
against the appellant order is barred by the provisions of Section 37(3) of the
Act 1996 ,the remedy of revision under Section115 of Code of Civil Procedure
does not cease to be available to the petitioner. In other words if the Act
contains a provision which bars revisional power of the High Court which
militates against giving effect to a provision of the Act, the revisional
jurisdiction will stand superseded under the Act. Any subsequent appeal can go
only to the Supreme Court by way of a special leave292.

4.3.13 THE ADVANTAGES OF ARBITRATION OVER

LITIGATION
From the study of the provisions of The Arbitration and Conciliation Act,
1996 and the judicial reviews of the Courts under the said Act of 1996, it is
evident that, arbitration offers definite advantages that litigation from its very
nature can never provide. Courts have always adopted a conservative approach to
problems. The Courts of law are put into a straight jacket as it has to follow fixed
procedure and fixed rules of evidence. Arbitration, on the other hand, is more
informal. The Evidence Act is not applicable to arbitration. The Civil Procedure
Code has no application. The arbitrator need only proceed in a manner conforming
to justice, equity and good conscience. Arbitrator is not hunched in by any
formulated rules. One of the major advantages of arbitration is that an expert
arbitral tribunal can be selected considering the field of dispute, so much so that
the entire procedure can be conducted without the
291

1996(2) SCC 132,143.

292

The Arbitration and Conciliation Act,1996. Section 37 (3)

intervention of expert lawyers, with major gains in speed and economy. Thus,
many disputes as to quality in commodity trades, many disputes arising out of
construction contract etc. can be settled through arbitration in a speedy manner
at lesser cost and more quickly than through Courts. The relevance of
arbitration, its importance and its needs can never be over-emphasized. The
rapid and phenomenal growth of commerce and industry and the complex and
varied problems thrown out by them can find solution only through arbitration.
A final and enforceable decision can generally be obtained only by
recourse to the Courts or by arbitration. In arbitration, since both the parties agree
to the terms and conditions, they are bound by the decisions. It depends ultimately
on the goodwill and cooperation of the parties. Over 134 countries have signed the
1958 United Nations Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign
Arbitral Awards, known as the New York Convention. The Convention facilitates
enforcement of awards in all contracting states and there by provides international
recognition of the arbitral awards. On studying the provisions of the Arbitration
and Conciliation Act, 1996 it can be said that, in arbitral proceedings, parties can
place themselves on an equal footing in five key respects viz. place of arbitration,
language used, procedures or rules of law applied, nationality and legal
representation. Arbitration may take place in any country, in any language and
with arbitrators of any nationality. With this flexibility, it is generally possible to
structure a neutral procedure offering no undue advantage to any party.
In the cases of redressal of disputes through Court of law or judicial systems, do
not allow the parties to a dispute to choose their own judges. However, arbitration
offers the parties the unique opportunity to designate persons of their choice as
arbitrators, provided they are

independent. This enables the parties to have their disputes resolved by people who have
specialised competence in the relevant field. Arbitration is faster and less expensive than
litigation in the Courts. Although a complex international dispute may sometimes take a
great deal of time and money to resolve even by arbitration, the limited scope for challenge
against arbitral awards, as compared with Court judgments, offers a clear advantage. Above
all, it helps to ensure that the parties will not subsequently be entangled in a prolonged and
costly series of appeals. Furthermore, arbitration offers the parties the flexibility to set up
proceedings that can be conducted as quickly and economically as the circumstances allow.
The arbitration hearings are not public, and only the parties themselves receive copies of the
awards. This is of great significance in commercially sensitive disputes. Thus, the disputants
often seek to resolve their disputes through arbitration because of such perceived potential
advantages over judicial proceedings.

While the Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996 was not intended to supplant the
tried and tested judicial system with the non-formal private arbitration or the purely
consensual conciliation mechanisms. The new law certainly ushered in an era of
privatisation of the hitherto State monopoly over dispute settlement procedures and
institutions in conformity with the global rend of liberalisation of economic policies,
privatisation of industry and globalisation of markets.