2 Pipe

HYDRAULICS & HYDROLOGY
Chapter 2 Steady Flow in Pipes
2 STEADY FLOW IN PIPES

2.1 Reynolds Number
Reynolds, an engineering professor in early 1880 demonstrated two
different types of flow through an experiment:
Laminar flow
Turbulent flow
Reynolds apparatus
dye
dye filament
water
outlet
Laminar flow
at low velocity
dye filament remained intact

throughout the length of the
tube
fluid particles move in a

straight line
considered as moving in
layers
P.2-1
Turbulent flow
at high velocity
dye diffused over the whole

cross-section
fluid particles do not move in a
straight line
velocity in average sense
The transition of flow is due to change of velocity, size of pipe and

properties of fluid.
Reynolds explained the phenomena by considering the forces acting on the

fluid particle.
When the motion of a fluid particle in a stream is disturbed, its inertia will
tend to carry it on in the new direction, but the viscous forces due to the
surrounding fluid will tend to make it conform to the motion of the rest of
the stream.
The criterion that determines whether flow will be viscous or turbulent is
therefore the ratio of the inertial force to the viscous force acting on the
particle. Hence, for a particular flow,
i.e.
inertial force
viscous force
= constant
P.2-2
By using dimensional analysis, Reynolds derived a criterion to distinguish

between laminar and turbulent flow.
Reynolds Number, Re =
where
As
where
Hence
inertial force
viscous force
v
d
= density of the fluid, kg/m3

= velocity of the flow, m/s
= diameter of the pipe, m
= dynamic viscosity, Ns/m2
vd
= kinematic viscosity, m2/s
Reynolds Number, Re =
vd
It can be seen that Reynolds Number is a dimensionless number

In general, the flow is
laminar
when
transitional
when
turbulent
when
Re - small
Re - intermediate
Re - large
The flow in pipe can be treated as

laminar
when
transitional
when
turbulent
when
Re < 2000
2000 < Re < 4000
Re > 4000
P.2-3
Worked example:
2.1 What is the critical velocity of a water flow through a circular pipe of
diameter 2 cm so that the flow is laminar?
(Dynamic viscosity of water is 1.0*10-3 Ns/m2, density of water =
1000 kg/m3)
Answer
As the Reynolds number is

vd
Re =
1000 * v * 0.02
=
1.0 * 10
3
i.e.
< 2000
2000 * 1.0 * 10 3
m/s
=
1000* 0.02
= 0.1 m/s
Hence the critical velocity is 0.1 m/s.
P.2-4
2.2 Laminar Flow in Pipes
Laminar flow is modeled as fluid particles that flow smoothly along in

layers, gliding past the slightly slower or faster ones on either side.
Although the motion of the molecules of the fluid is random, however, on
the average, the particles are moving in the direction of flow.
When fluid with lower velocity moving to the upper fluid with higher
velocity, the fluid at the lower will be accelerated by the fluid at the upper.
The rate of change of momentum produces a shear force. Similarly, the
upper fluid moving down must be slowed down by the lower fluid.
Combining with the attractive forces between fluid particles, it gives the
well-known Newtonian viscosity law, i.e.
dv
dy
2.2.1 Hagen - Poiseuille Equation

The behaviour of laminar flow (with Re < 2000) in pipe was discovered
independently by:
G.H.L. Hagen
- a German engineer in 1893
J.L.M. Poiseuille
- a French physician in 1840
Consider the flow of a Newtonian fluid in a round pipe that is inclined at
an angle with respect to the horizontal. The flow is assumed to be steady
and laminar.
(2rL)
r
s
pA
(p
dp
L) A
ds
W
Apply the momentum equation in the s direction. Since the flow is steady,
the net change of momentum is zero. Hence
P.2-5
F
Fpressure F weight Fshear 0
or
dp
L ) A W sin ( 2r ) L 0
ds
dz
W AL & sin
ds
r d ( p z )
2
ds
pA ( p
Taking
After re-arranging
Normally, we denote
p z p * - piezometric pressure
Hence for a laminar flow, the shear stress on the cylindrical surface is
given by
For Newtonian fluid,
r dp *
2 ds
dv
dy
By changing the variable, y R r , then
dv
dr
Equating the two equations,
dv
r dp *
dr
2 ds
When integrating the above equation with respect to r with the boundary
condition v = 0 when r = R (i.e. no slip condition), the result is
1 dp * 2
(r R 2 )
4 ds
From above equation, we can see that the velocity distribution is in

parabolic form with maximum velocity at r = 0.
P.2-6
umax
The maximum velocity at centre (r = 0)
1 dp * 2
R
4 ds
vmax -
Putting
p*
dp *
L
ds
R 2 p *
vmax 4 L
The corresponding discharge, Q is

Q
=
=
2rvdr
2r[
1 dp * 2
( R r 2 )]dr
4 ds
R 4 dp *
=8 ds
Again, putting
dp *
p*
ds
L
pd 4
Q =
128L
&
R = d/2
- Hagen-Poiseuille equation
The laminar flow in a round pipe is called Poiseuille flow or HagenPoiseuille flow.
Assumptions are (a) laminar flow, (b) fully developed flow, (c) steady
flow, and (d) Newtonian fluid.
The mean velocity, v =
flow rate, Q
x sec tional area, A
P.2-7
d 2 p
=
32 L
When compare with vmax,
1
vmax
2
By applying Bernoullis equation over a pipe in length L, the head loss can
be expressed as
hf
p*
Hence Hagen-Poiseuille equation can be expressed in terms of head loss, hf

and average velocity,
L v2
h f 64 *
* *
v d d 2 g
Since
Re =
vd
therefore head loss in Hagen-Poiseuille equation

64 L v 2
hf
* *
Re d 2 g
If hf can be expressed as
2
L v
h f f * *
d 2g
where f - friction factor
then the friction factor in laminar flow is
64
Re
P.2-8
Note:
In UK publications, such as Fluid Mechanics by Douglas et al, hf is often

written as
2
L v
hf 4 f * *
d 2g
16
f
hence
Re
P.2-9
Worked examples:
2.2 For a laminar flow,

d = 250 mm,
P1 - P2 = 20 kN/m2
L = 200 m,
= 10-3 Ns/m2
Determine the flow rate, Q in m3/s.
Answer
From Hagen-Poiseuille equation,

Q
d 4 ( P1 P2 )
128 L
* (0.25) 4 * (20 * 103 )
m3/s
=
3
128 * 10 * 200
= 9.59 m3/s
P.2-10
2.3 Oil of viscosity 0.101 Ns/m2 and specific gravity of 0.85 flows
through 3000 m of 300 mm-dia. pipe at the rate of 0.0444 m3/s. What
is the lost in head in the pipe?
Answer
Since
Now,
then
Hence
d 4 ( P1 P2 )
Q=
128L
Q = 0.0444 m3/s, = 0.101 Ns/m2,
L = 3000 m,
d = 0.3 m
4
(0.3) ( P1 P2 )
0.0444
128 * 0.101 * 3000
P1 - P2
0.0444 *128 * 0.101 * 3000

* (0.3) 4
= 67.67 kN/m2
= lost in pressure
Lost in head =
=
P1 P2
g
67.67 * 1000
m of oil
850 * 9.81
= 8.12 m of oil
P.2-11
2.3 Turbulent Flow in Pipes
Turbulent flow (with Re > 4000) is a flow regime in which the movement
of the fluid particles is chaotic, eddying and unsteady, with significant
movement of particles in directions transverse to the flow direction.
Similar to the laminar flow, when fluid with lower velocity moving to area
with high velocity, it will gain in the momentum. However, in turbulent
flow, another important factor is the presence of eddies. The sizes range
from very small to fairy large. These eddies greatly promotes the mixing
with the fluid.
Therefore, turbulent flow produces high levels of mixing and has a velocity
profile that is more uniform or flatter than the corresponding laminar
velocity profile.
2.3.1
Darcy - Weisbach Formula
The frictional loss of a pipe could be expressed as

2
L v
h f f * *
d 2g
where f is friction factor
The above equation can be applied in both laminar (refer Section 2.2.2)
and turbulent flows. It was first developed empirically by Henri Darcy
(1803 1858), while the equation was given in its present from by Julius
Weisbach (1806 1871) and is known as Darcy - Weisbach formula.
It is found that friction factor depends on
density of the fluid,

velocity of the flow, v
diameter of the pipe, d
viscosity of the fluid,
wall roughness,
wall roughness
i.e. f = f(, v, d, , )
P.2-12
By dimensional analysis,
f
vd
,
d
= f
= f ( Reynolds number, relative roughness)

where
Reynolds number =
relative roughness =
vd
and
Once the Reynolds number and relative roughness have been determined,
the corresponding value of the friction factor can be obtained analytically
or graphically.
All materials are rough when viewed with sufficient magnification,
although glass and plastic are assumed to be smooth. Typical values of
surface roughness
New pipe surface
Glass, brass, copper and lead
Wrought iron, steel
Cast iron
Concrete
2.3.2
Roughness, (mm)
smooth
0.046
0.26
0.3 (smooth surface)
3.0 (rough surface)
Friction Factor
Experimental data that relate the friction factor to the Reynolds number
have been obtained for fully developed pipe flow over a wide range of wall
roughness. The results of these data are presented in the Figure in next
page which is commonly known as Moody diagram, named after Lewis F.
Moody (1880 1953).
P.2-13
P.2-14
There are several features of the Moody diagram that should be noted.
(i) For a given wall roughness, measured by the relative roughness
there is a sufficiently large value of Re above which the friction factor

is constant, thereby defining the completely turbulent regime.
(ii) For the smaller relative roughness
values it is observed that, as Re
decreases, the friction factor increases in the transition zone and

eventually becomes the same as that of the smooth pipe.
(iii) For Re < 2000, the friction factor of laminar flow is shown as a
straight line at left hand side.
(iv) The critical zone couples the turbulent flow to the laminar flow and
may represent an oscillatory flow that alternately exists between
turbulent and laminar flow.
(v) The values in this diagram are for new pipes.
A number of empirical equations represent the Moody diagram.

For laminar flow,
f
64
Re
This is the straight portion of the diagram when Re < 2000.

For transition zone,
d
1
2.51
2.0 * log10
f
3.7 Re f
This is known as Colebrook-White formula.
P.2-15
For completely turbulent zone

1
d
2.0 * log10
f
3. 7
For smooth pipe flow

Re f
1
2.0 * log10
f
2.51
By using the Colebrook-White formula, P. K. Swamee and A. K. Jain

(1976) developed an explicit equation for friction factor, namely
f
0.25
5.74

log
10 3.7 d Re 0.9
This equation is explicit in f and predicts the friction factor that differs by
less than 3% from those on the Moody diagram for 4000 < Re < 108 and
10-5 <
< 2*10-2.
S. E. Haaland (1983) also proposed an expression of friction factor

1
d 1.11 6.9
1.8 * log10 (
)
Re
f
3 .7
This equation also has the advantage of being explicit in f, from which it
differs by less than 1.5% for 4000 Re 108.
P.2-16
Worked examples:
2.4 Determine the head loss for flow of 140 L/s of oil, = 0.00001 m2/s,
through 400 m of a 200 mm diameter cast iron pipe.
Answer
Given
Q = 140 L/s = 0.14 m3/s

d = 200 mm = 0.2 m
= 0.00001 m2/s = 10-5 m2/s
L = 400 m
= 0.26 mm (cast iron)
v
Re =
014
.
Q
=
m/s = 4.456 m/s
d 2 4
* 0.2 2 4
vd
0.2 * 4.456
105
2.6 *10 4
=
0 .2
= 8.912*104
= 0.0013
From the Moody diagram,

f(89120, 0.0013) = f = 0.0238
i.e.
hf
400 4.456 2
= 0.0238*
*
0.2 2 * 9.81
= 48.17 m of oil
m of oil
P.2-17
2.5 Solving the previous example by using Colebrook-White formula.

Answer
2.51
1
d
= 2.0 log
3.7 Re f
f
As
where
= 0.0013; Re = 89120
d
0.0013
2.51
1
= 2.0 log
89120 f
f
3.7
20816 * 10 5
1
-4
+ 2.0*log(3.514*10 +
) =0
f
f
i.e.
or
Since this is a non-linear equation, it has to be solved by trial & error

or iterations.
Hence
= 0.023365
hf
400 4.4562
m of oil
= 0.023365*
*
0.2 2 * 9.81
= 47.29 m of oil
P.2-18
2.4 Minor Losses
In section 2.3, the head loss in long, straight sections of pipe can be
calculated by use of the friction factor obtained from Moody diagram or
the Colebrook White equation. This is called frictional loss or major
loss.
Most pipe systems consist of considerably more than straight pipes. These
pipe fittings add to the overall head loss of the system. These losses are
called minor losses.
In some cases, the minor losses may be greater than the friction loss.
Since the flow pattern in fittings and valves is quite complex, the theory is
very week. The losses are commonly measured experimentally and
correlated with the pipe flow patterns.
2.4.1
Different Types of Minor Losses
Minor losses are losses due to the inclusion of pipe fittings in a pipeline.
Some examples are
entrance or exit of a pipe
expansions or contractions of a pipe
bends, elbow and tees
valves of open or partially closed
gradual expansions or contractions
Minor losses is given by
hL
v2
= K*
2g
where
K is a constant
P.2-19
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
2.4.1
Component
Elbows
Regular 90, flanged
Regular 90, threaded
Long radius 90, flanged
Long radius 90, threaded
Long radius 45, flanged
Regular 45, threaded
180 return bends
180 return bends, flanged
180 return bends, threaded
Tees
Line flow, flanged
Line flow, threaded
Branch flow, flanged
Branch flow, threaded
Valves
Globe, fully open
Gate, fully open
Ball valve, fully open
Others
Entrance loss
Exit loss
0.3
1.5
0.2
0.7
0.2
0.4
0.2
1.5
0.2
0.9
1.0
2.0
10
0.15
0.05
0.5
1.0
Modified Bernoullis Equation
The original Bernoullis equation should be extended to include the friction

loss and minor losses.
i.e. total energy at 1 = total energy at 2 + energy loss on the way
2
2
v
f L v pipe
p
v
v
+ 1 + z1 = 2 + 2 + z 2 + i i
+ K i pipe
di 2g
2g
2g
2g
p1
P.2-20
Worked examples:
2.6 Find the discharge through the pipe in the figure below. The minor
loss coefficient for entrance is 0.5. The pipe diameter is 15 mm and
the pipe roughness produces a friction factor of 0.025.
1
15m
2
150m
Answer
Applying Bernoullis equation between pt.1 and 2

p1
fL v2
v
v1
p
v
+K 2
+ z1 = 2 + 2 + z 2 +
d 2g
2g
2g
2g
2
fL v2
)*
= (1 + K +
2g
d
2
15
v
= (1+0.5+0.025*150/0.015) * 2
2g
2
v
= 251.5 2
2g
or v2
Hence
= 1.082 m/s
= A2*v2
= 1.082**0.0152/4 m3/s
= 0.1912 L/s
P.2-21
2.7 Find the discharge through the pipe in the figure below for H = 20 m.
The minor loss coefficients for entrance, elbows and globe valve are
0.5, 0.8 (each) and 10 respectively. The kinematic viscosity of water is
1.02*10-6 m2/s.
globe
valve
40m
elbows
dia. = 150mm
20m
= 0.0003
30m
40m
Answer
2
v
fL v
v
p
v
+ 1 + z1 = 2 + 2 + z 2 + i i 2 + K i 2
2g
di 2 g
2g
2g
p1
Using
f v2
fL v
Li
i i 2 =
d 2g
di 2 g
2
f
v22
(30 20 40)
=
015
. 2 * 9.81
= 30.58 f v22
2
v
K i 2
2g
v
= 2 K i
2g
2
v2
(0.5 2 * 0.8 10)
=
2 * 9.81
= 0.617 v22
As
P1-P2 = 0, v1 = 0, z1-z2 = 20 m,
2
i.e.
20
v
v
fL v
= 2 + i i 2 + K i 2
2g
2g
di 2 g
2
= (0.051+30.58f + 0.617)v22
= (0.668+30.58f) v22
or
v2
20
0.668 30.58 f
P.2-22
Since
f
0.030
0.0230
0.0235
Re = 1.47*105 v2 ; /D = 0.002
v2 (m/s)
3.551
3.818
3.797
Re
5.2*105
5.6*105
5.6*105
fcal.
0.0230
0.0235
0.0235 (ok)
v2
= 3.797 m/s
Since
= A2*v2
= *0.152/4 * 3.797 m3/s
= 0.067 m3/s
P.2-23
2.5 Pipe Systems
In many pipe systems, there is more than one pipe involved.

The governing mechanisms for the flow in multiple pipe systems are the
same as for the single pipe system discussed previously.
In general, the equation of head loss can be expressed as
hf = k*Q2
2
L v
From Darcy equation, h f f * *

d
g
2

4
Q
v 2Q
By putting
A d
L 8 2 8 fL 2
h
f
*
* 2 4 Q 2 5 Q
Hence
f
d g d
g d
2.5.1
Resistance Coefficients for Pipelines in Series
Pipes are in series if they are connected end to end so the fluid flow in a
continuous line is a constant.
Pipe 1
Pipe 2
Pipe n
By continuity of flow, Q is same for each pipe.

The total loss of the system is given as
hf
= h1 + h2 + h3 ++ hn
= k1*Q2 + k2*Q2 + k3*Q2 + + kn*Q2
= (k1 + k2 + k3 + + kn)*Q2
P.2-24
The effective resistance coefficient is

keff = k1 + k2 + k3 + + kn
i.e. the total head loss is the summation of the individual pipe.
Hence for n pipes connected in series,
Q = Q1 = Q2 = Q3 == Qn
hT = hL1 + hL2 + hL3 + + hLn
2.5.2
Resistance Coefficients for Pipelines in Parallel
For pipes connected in parallel, the fluid can flow from one to the other by
a number of alternative routines.
Pipe 1
Pipe 2
Pipe n
The head loss for individual pipe is the same as the total head loss when
applying Bernoullis equation across each pipe.
The total flow rate is the summation of the individual pipe.
Since
hf
or
Qi
= ki*Qi2
hf
=
ki
Total Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 + + Qn
hf
h
h
h
+ f + f ++ f
=
k1
k2
k3
kn
=(
1
1
1
1
+
+
++
) hf
kn
k1
k2
k3
P.2-25
Hence
1
k eff
hf
k eff
1
1
1
1
+
+
++
kn
k1
k2
k3
Hence for n pipes connected in parallel,

Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 +Qn
hT = hL1 = hL2 = hL3 = = hLn
P.2-26
Worked examples:
2.8 Two reservoirs are connected by a pipeline which is 150 mm in

diameter for the first 6 m and 225 mm in diameter for the remaining
15 m. The water surface in the upper reservoir is 6 m above that in
the lower. By neglecting any minor losses, calculate the rate of flow
in m3/s. Friction coefficient f is 0.04 for both pipes.
Answer
The velocities v1 and v2 are related by the continuity equation.

i.e.
A1v1
= A2v2
v1
A
= v2 2
A1
d
= v2 2
d1
225
=
v2 = 2.25 v2
150
Friction in the 150 mm pipe
2
f 1 L1 v 1
0.04 * 6 v12
=
=
hf1
0.15 2g
d 1 2g
2
v12
v22
2 v2
= 1.6
= 1.6*2.25 *
= 8.1
2g
2g
2g
Similarly, friction in the 225 mm pipe
2
f2L2 v2
0.04 * 15 v 2 2
hf2
=
=
0.225 2g
d 2 2g
v22
= 2.67
2g
v22
Hence, total head loss = hf1 + hf2
= 10.77
2g
Applying Bernoullis equation between the two top water surfaces,
p1 = p2
= 0 (Patm)
v1 = v2
= 0 (water surfaces)
z1 = 6 m; z2 = 0
2
2
p1 v1
p2 v2
+
+ z1 =
+
+ z 2 +hL
2g
2g
P.2-27
or
z1 z2
6
or
Hence
v2
Q
= hL
v22
= 10.77
2g
6 * 2 * 9.81
=
= 3.31 m/s
10.77
= A2v2
* 0.2252
=
* 3.31 m3/s
4
= 0.132 m3/s
P.2-28
2.9 Two reservoirs have a difference of level of 6 m and are connected by

two pipes laid in parallel. The first pipe is 600 mm diameter of 3000
m long and the second one is 300 mm diameter of 2000 m long. By
neglecting all the minor losses, calculate the total discharge if f = 0.04
for both pipes.
Answer
2
For parallel pipes,
hf
fL v
= 1 1 1
d 1 2g
f L v
= 2 2 2
d 2 2g
Apply Bernoullis equation to the points on the free surfaces and from
the result of the previous worked example,
level difference = head loss
2
2
f 1 L1 v 1
f2L2 v2
=
H =
d 1 2g
d 2 2g
6
Therefore,
Hence
0.04 * 3000 v 12
0.04 * 2000 v 2 2
=
=
0.6
2 * 9.81
0.3
2 * 9.81
v1
v2
= 0.767 m/s
= 0.664 m/s
Q1 = A1v1
Q2 = A2v2
* 0.6 2
=
* 0.767 = 0.217 m3/s
4
* 0.32
=
* 0.664 = 0.047 m3/s
4
Total discharge, Q = Q1 + Q2
= 0.217 + 0.047 m3/s
= 0.264 m3/s
P.2-29
2.5.3
Branched pipes
reservoir 1
pipe1, k1
reservoir 2
Q1
h1
Q3
reservoir 3
h3
J Q2
pipe2, k2
h2
pipe 3, k3
Assume h1 > h2 > h3 and the 3 pipes intersect at junction J.

As h1 is the highest head, the flow in pipe 1 must be toward J.
As h3 is the lowest head, Q3 is flowing from J to the reservoir 3.
The flow Q2s direction is unknown because it depends on the head at
junction J.
If hJ be the head at junction J. There are two possible cases
h1 > hJ > h2,
(i)
or
(ii)
h2 > hJ > h3
For case (i), h1 > hJ > h2, Q2 is from J to reservoir 2.

Q1 - Q2 - Q3
h1 hJ
hJ - h2
hJ - h3
=0
= k1*Q12
= k2*Q22
= k3*Q32
For case (ii), h2 > hJ > h3, Q2 is from reservoir 2 to J.

Q 1 + Q2 - Q3
h1 hJ
h2 hJ
hJ - h3
=0
= k1*Q12
= k2*Q22
= k3*Q32
P.2-30
Both sets of equations have 4 unknowns Q1, Q2, Q3 and hJ. We have to
determine which case controls the problem.
It is determined by assuming hJ = h2, i.e. no flow from J to reservoir 2.
Therefore
and
Q1 =
h1 h 2
k1
Q3 =
h2 h3
k3
If Q1 > Q3, Q2 is from J to reservoir 2 - case (i).

If Q1 < Q3, Q2 is from reservoir 2 to J - case (ii).
P.2-31
Worked example:
2.10 Three reservoirs are connected as the figure below. Determine the
flow, Q1, Q2 and Q3 with k1 = 3.058, k2 = 8.860 and k3 = 0.403 s2/m5
and hf = ki*Qi2.
reservoir 1
reservoir 2
Q1
J Q2
200m
Q3
180m
reservoir 3
140m
Answer
Step 1
Pipe
1
2
3
Step 2 - calculate Q1 and Q3

h1 h 2
Q1 =
=
k1
Q3 =
ki (s2/m5)
3.058
8.860
0.403
hi (m)
200
180
140
h2 h3
k3
Q1 < Q3
200 180
3.058
= 2.557 m3/s
180 140
= 9.963 m3/s
0.403
case (ii)
i.e. h2 > h > h3
P.2-32
Step 3 - set up the equations
For case (ii), we have

200 - h = 3.058Q12
200 h
Q1 =
3.058
or
m3/s
180 - h = 8.860Q22
180 h
Q2 =
8.860
or
m3/s
h - 140 = 0.403Q32
h 140
Q3 =
0.403
or
Since
therefore
Q1 + Q2 - Q3 = 0
200 h
180 h
+
3.058
8.860
m3/s
h 140
0.403
=0
Step 4 - solve for h (180 < h < 140) by iterations

h (m)
180
160
150
153
152.9
152.95
Q1 + Q2 + Q3 (m3/s)
2.557 + 0 9.963
3.617 + 1.502 7.045
4.044 + 1.840 - 4.981
3.920 + 1.746 - 5.680
3.925 + 1.749 - 5.658
3.922 + 1.747 - 5.669
Error
-7.406
-1.926
+0.903
-0.014
+0.016
+0.000
Therefore, the head h at the junction is 152.95 m and

Q1 = 3.922 m3/s (towards J)
Q2 = 1.747 m3/s (towards J)
Q3 = 5.669 m3/s (towards reservoir C)
P.2-33
REFERENCE
Pipe Networks by Hardy-Cross Method

water
in
water
out
loop 1
loop 2
loop 4
loop 5
loop 3
loop 6
The supply of water system to a city is a complicated network of pipelines.

The commonly used technique is the Hardy-Cross method.
The two assumptions made by Hardy-Cross method are:
The algebraic sum of head loss around each loop must be zero.
1
4
+ve
h14 + h43 - h23 - h21 = 0
The net flow out of each junction must be equal to zero.

6
7
2
4
3
Q17 + Q47 - Q76 - Q75 - Q72 - Q73 = 0
P.2-34
Method of Analysis
Assume hi = ki*Qi2
The sign convention is clockwise positive for the discharge and
head loss.
Initially a flow rate, Q is assumed. A correction for discharge, Q
is then evaluated and the new flow rate is Q + Q.
the head loss for each member can be approximated as
hi = ki*(Qi + Q)2
= ki*[Qi2 + 2QiQ + (Q)2]
ki*Qi2 + 2 ki*Qi*Q
Summation around the loop

hi= [ki*Qi2 + 2ki*Qi* Q]
=0
i.e. hi + 2Q*(hi / Qi) = 0
hence
Q =
(by assumption 1)
1 h i
2 (hi )
Qi
hi is the sum of head loss around a loop which can be +ve or -ve.
(hi / Qi) is the sum of the ratio (head loss/flow) for each member of the
loop. The ratio is a magnitude and therefore is +ve only.
Q is the correction flow for a loop. Each pipe within the loop will have
this correction. Any pipe belonging to 2 or more loops, the correction for
that particular pipe will contribute from every loop.
P.2-35
Class Exercise 2.1:
A steady push on the piston causes a flow rate of 0.4 cm3/s through the
needle. The fluid has S.G. = 0.9 and = 0.002 Ns/m2. By considering the
head loss at the needle only, determine the force F required to maintain the
flow.
[F = 0.012 kN]
D= 1cm
D=0.25mm
1.5cm
3cm
P.2-36
Class Exercise 2.2:
Oil, with density = 900 kg/m3 and = 1*10-5 m2/s, flows at 0.2 m3/s
through a 20-cm diameter pipe 500 m long cast-iron pipe. The roughness
of iron is 0.26 mm. Determine the head loss in the pipe. [hf = 117.352 m]
P.2-37
Class Exercise 2.3:
Water flows at a velocity of 1 m/s in a 150 mm new ductile iron pipe.

Estimate the head loss over 500 m using Darcy-Weisbach equation. ( =
0.26 mm and = 10-3 Ns/m2 ).
[hf = 4.049 m]
P.2-38
Class Exercise 2.4:
The distance between two sections A and B of a 300 mm diameter pipe is

300 m. The elevations of A and B are 90 m and 75 m and the pressures are
280 kPa and 350 kPa respectively. Find the direction of flow of water and
calculate the head loss due to friction and the value of the friction factor for
the pipe if the flow is 142 L/s.
[A to B, h = 7.87 m, f = 0.0386]
P.2-39
Class Exercise 2.5:
Three pipes A, B & C are interconnected and discharge water from a

reservoir as shown below. With the provided pipe characteristics,
determine the flow rate in each pipe. Neglect all the minor loss.
Pipe Diameter, Length,
f
mm
m
A
150
600
0.02
B
100
500
0.032
C
200
1250 0.024
[QA = 0.0752 m3/s, QB = 0.0236 m3/s, Qc = 0.0988 m3/s]
P.2-40
Class Exercise 2.6:
For the three branch piping system shown below, we have the following
data.
20m
Pipe
1
2
3
D, L, m
f
mm
100 500 0.025
150 750 0.020
130 1000 0.018
K
3
2
7
12m
Pipe 2
Pipe 3
5m
Pipe 1
J
Determine the flow rate of each pipe and piezometric head H at the
junction, J.
[H=14.732 m]
P.2-41
Assignment: Steady Pipe Flow
1.
Glycerine of viscosity 0.9 Ns/m2 and density 1260 kg/m3 is pumped

along a horizontal pipe 6.5 m long of diameter d = 0.01 m at a flow
rate of Q = 1.8 L/min. Determine the flow Reynolds number and
verify whether the flow is laminar or turbulent. Calculate the pressure
loss in the pipe due to frictional effects.
2.
If oil ( = 4*10-5 m2/s, S.G. = 0.9) flows from the upper to the lower
reservoir at a rate of 0.028 m3/s in the 15-cm smooth pipe, determine
the elevation of the oil surface in the upper reservoir. (K for entrance,
exit and bend are 0.5, 1 and 0.19 respectively)
130mPD
60m
7m
3.
130m
Two reservoirs having a difference of surface level of 24 m are

connected by two parallel pipes each 1600 m long and of diameters
450 mm and 300 mm. To repair a length of 120 m of the 450 mm
diameter pipe midway between the reservoirs, the total flow is
diverted over this length to the 300 mm pipe. Calculate the
percentage reduction in discharge resulting from the diversion.
Consider only the friction losses and take f = 0.04.
300mm
24m
1600m
450mm
300mm
120m
24m
300mm
450mm
450mm
300mm
END
P.2-42

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