Chapter 5

IMPACT OF TEHRI DAM ON

AQUATIC ENVIRONMENT OF FISH HABITATS
Aquatic environments are sensitive to environmental stresses. Extremes of
temperature, discharge with related changes in depth or velocity, turbidity, with
effects on light penetration and deposition of materials, low or high dissolved oxygen
concentration and movements of unstable substrate, all contribute to the
environmental stresses of life in freshwater (Hellawell, 1986). Dam construction and
the dam itself have variable impacts- social, economical, geographical and impacts on
water quality, climate, flora and fauna (Horwath et al., 1998).
Aquatic biodiversity has been recognized as one of the most potential and
essential characteristics of life for proper functioning of aquatic ecosystem and as a
means for coping with natural and anthropogenic environmental changes. As a
consequence of the environmental degradation of the lotic environment, the most
vulnerable element of aquatic life is fish life. Humans have been involved and
interacting with aquatic biodiversity for many thousands of years and it is often
difficult to separate the effects of human impact from changes, which have taken place
due to natural processes. However, over the last 200 years and particularly the last few
decades, various new and intense and particularly the last few decades, various new
and intense pressures have been applied to freshwaters and many biotic species have
declined in range and in numbers (Maitland, 1995).
Dams are ubiquitous structures on many flowing waters that alter flow and
temperature regimes, hydraulics, the stability and availability of substrata, channel

morphology, and the riparian vegetation, and as a consequence, the structure of benthic
and fish communities (Ward and Stanford, 1983; Blinn and Cole, 1990; Stromberg and
Patten, 1990; Cazaunon and Giudicelli, 1999; Radar and Belish, 1999; Welcomme,
2001; Jacob et al., 2003; Uehlinger et al., 2003). Hydrodynamic responses to stream
regulation are primarily a function of alterations in the sediment load and the flow
regime and their interactions (Petts, 1980). Stream regulation, the anthropogenic
control of discharge of running waters, has profoundly influenced virtually all the
worlds major river systems (Ward and Stanford, 1979). Considerable literature on the
environmental modifications as a consequence of damming rivers is available (Neel,
1963; Srinivasan, 1963; Leopold et al., 1964; Ackerman et al., 1973; Rao and Palta,
1973; Dolan et al., 1974; Ridley and Steel, 1975; Ward, 1976, 1982; Baxter, 1977;
Buma and Day, 1977; Ward and Stanford, 1979; Mittal, 1981; Raju et al., 1981;
Leentvaar, 1985; Singit et al., 1988; Sehgal, 1978; Simon, 1979; Petts, 1980; Sharma,
1991; Moog, 1993; Camargo and Voelz, 1998; Cazaubon and Giudicelli, 1999; Radar
and Belish, 1999; Thomaz et al., 1999; Pringle et al., 2000; Sugunan, 2000; Wright et
al., 2000; Rolauffs et al., 2001; Vinson, 2001; Welcomme, 2001; Klemm et al., 2002;
Mishra et al., 2002; Jakob et al., 2003; Uehlinger et al., 2003; Pollard and Reed, 2004;
Chakrabarty and Das, 2005; Thomson et al., 2005; Bellingor et al., 2006 and Fumiko
et al., 2006). A considerable work has been done previously on the impact of Tehri
Dam construction on lotic environment of Bhagirathi during 1979-1987 (Sharma, 1981
and 1991). But since then no work has been done for the study of further changes
going on in the aquatic environment of fish habitats.
It is quite evident that the fish productivity of any aquatic ecosystem is
influenced by its physico-chemical and biological characteristics. The biota of high
altitude lotic environment is very sensitive to any change in the characteristics of
water. Therefore, for determining any depression in the biotic potential of high
altitude fluvial system, it is a prime requisite for having knowledge on the
environmental stress manifested in the form of an adverse change in the limnological
parameters imposed by human interference. Therefore, it was felt necessary to
undertake an assessment of ecological impact on aquatic environment of fish habitats
of Bhagirathi River.

OBSERVATIONS
The immediate consequence of the construction of a dam, whatever its size in
an aquatic ecosystem, is the modification of the hydrological regime, creating thus a
lentic environment and change the water flow and water quality downstream the dam.
Thus, the artificial lake upstream and drastically altered riverine environment
downstream, both these are unfavourable for the aquatic organisms including fish
communities inhabiting the natural ecosystem.
An assessment of transformation in riverine morphology and degradation of
fish habitats of Bhagirathi River caused due to Tehri Dam construction activities was
made for the entire period of construction. However, a regular monitoring was made
for two annual cycles (September 2004 - August 2006).
A. Geomorphic Transformations in Bhagirathi River
Variety in habitat is a consequence of the physical form of the river. Channels
show curvature, vary in their cross-sectional profile, alternate between riffles, pools
and other channel categories, exhibit much horizontal and vertical variation in current
velocity and contain a variety of bottom substrates, which often vary from place to
place in accord with channel and velocity. Its no wonder the fisheries biologists assess
habitat variability as a measure of stream health (Cushing and Allan, 2001).
One of most remarkable features of running water is its tendency to curve and
tracing a sinuous path. Riffles, regions of shallow, faster water; and pools, regions of
slower, deeper water, are characteristics of virtually all rivers. Substrate and channel
curvature play a role in the alteration of riffles and pools. In relatively straight, gravelbed river, a riffle-pool sequence tends to repeat at intervals of roughly 5-7 channel
widths. In very steep, boulder filled channels, steep pools are separated by riffles,
cascades, or small water falls. In streams containing substrate in variety of sizes, finer
substrate usually is found in the pools because slower currents there favour deposition
of suspended materials. Coarse substrate usually characterizes riffles, where steeper
gradient and faster current erode and transport finer particles, leaving behind the
larger cobbles and small boulders (Cushing and Allan, 2001).

Due to the construction activities, a large scale morphometric transformation

of fish habitats at the impacted site S2 (below the dam site) and near the actual site of
the dam has taken place. The primary anthropogenic activities responsible for this
transformation are the construction of approach roads, digging of tunnels,
construction of coffer dam, stripping of dam abutements, construction of approach
adits to power house, construction of main dam, digging of underground power house,
etc. As a consequence of these dam construction activities, a large stretch of
metarhithronic zone of Bhagirathi has been transformed into tench and dammed pools
of sluggish current of water from rapids, cascades part of high water current of riffles.
The other section has been converted into narrow turbulent and turbid riffles from
wide and clear water pools as a result of large scale of disturbances of sand, gravel
and stones. Morphometric transformations in the pool and riffle forms of Bhagirathi
River caused due to Tehri Dam construction have been presented in Fig. 5.1.

Natural morphology of pools and riffles forms was altered drastically at many
places at the impacted site (S2). Due to the alteration in the substrate composition and
river curvature, the width of the river reduced and the flow increased at many points
at S2. The sequence of pool-riffle was changed. The riffles, rapids and cascades were
converted into dammed pools at some places. However, the wide white water pools
were converted into turbid and narrow pools at other places. These dam construction
activities have also resulted in the inundation of spawning and feeding grounds of
fish, choking of breeding grounds, blocking of migration channels of coldwater fish
and destruction of favourable habitats for aquatic benthic insects. Thus, a distinct
change in the composition of substrate was observed in the ecotransformed site (S2).
Few changes have also been observed in the course of river upstream between Dobata
(2 km upstream the dam) and the Tehri Dam. The river channel has also been changed
morphometrically from its natural course. The river has widened due to the digging
and leveling of the ground in close vicinity of the dam. The natural bottom substrata
have been replaced mainly by silt and small pebbles as the big boulders and cobbles
were extracted from this area for crushing into fine sand. Pools became dominant here
than the riffles. However, no change was observed at the reference site (S1) as it was
free from the impact of Tehri Dam construction activities. A major change in the river
morphology was resulted due to the closure of tunnels on October 29, 2005. The

entire area of fluvial system of Bhagirathi was converted into a huge lentic water body
(Fig. 5.2). A drastic change was also resulted downstream to Tehri Dam. The river
between Tehri and Deoprayag was reduced to small stream for two months after the
closure of tunnels (Fig. 5.3).
B. Degradation of Aquatic Environment
The physico-chemical profile of the lotic environment of Bhagirathi at the
reference site (S1) and impacted site (S2) has been portrayed over two-year period
(September 2004 - August 2006) in Table 5.1.The seasonal variations in the physicochemical parameters of aquatic environment at both the sampling sites (S1 and S2) has
been presented in the Tables 5.2 - 5.3.
a. Change in Physico-environmental Variables:
The atmospheric temperature recorded at both the sampling sites was almost
similar (S1: 21.8 5.2 0C and S2: 21.9 5.2 0C) with the maximum value (28.0 0.7
0

C) during monsoon season at S2 and minimum value (15.9 1.4 0C) during winter

season at S1. Water temperature recorded at both the sites with the higher value (15.6
2.8 0C) at S2 than S1 (15.0 3.1 0C). The water temperature was maximum (17.8
2.1 0C) during summer at S2 and minimum (11.3 0.5 0C) during winter at S1. A
slight change in the water temperature at S2 was noticed. It may be due to mixing of
muck in the water and removal of riparian vegetation. The water temperature of
Bhagirathi gradually increases from January to April and thereafter, shows a declining
trend upto the month of August, because of the melting of snow at the higher
elevations from where the river originates (Sharma, 1984 e).
Water current of Bhagirathi is turbulent and mainly of shooting type. A slight
difference was noticed in the water current caused by dam construction activities. It
was recorded higher (2.37 1.31 m sec-1) at S2 than S1 (2.04 0.88 m sec-1). The
maximum value (4.20 0.21 m sec-1) of water current was recorded in monsoon
months (July-August) and minimum (0.97 0.41 m sec-1) in winter months
(NovemberFebruary) at S2.

A minor change in the hydromedian depth was also recorded. The maximum
value (2.37 0.38 m) of HMD was observed during monsoon and minimum value
(0.55 0.19 m) during winter.
A considerable difference was observed in the turbidity at S2 due to dam
construction. It was recorded 160.61 239.09 NTU at S2 and 138.13 244.75 NTU at
S1. Seasonal data of turbidity revealed that the maximum turbidity (663.25 215.31
NTU) was recorded in monsoon and minimum (7.13 4.15 NTU) in winter.
Transparency was also influenced by the dam construction activities. It reduced from
0.35 0.29 m (S1) to 0.21 0.17 m (S2). Seasonally, the transparency was maximum
(0.62 0.15 m) during winter and minimum (0.01 0.01 m) during monsoon.
Conductivity is a measure of the total amount of ions present in a body of
water and is a useful approximation to chemical richness, was also influenced by the
anthropogenic perturbations (dam construction activities) at S2 (0.16 0.06 S cm-1).
It was (0.13 0.01 S cm-1) in a natural environment at S1. Seasonal data of
conductivity revealed that the maximum conductivity (0.16 0.05 S cm-1) was
recorded during summer (March-June) and minimum (0.05 0.03 S cm-1) during
winter (November-February).
A considerable change in total dissolved solids (TDS) was observed at S2
(45.14 30.13 mg l-1) than S1 (34.0 33.39 mg l-1). The maximum TDS (100.0
18.38 mg l-1) was observed during the monsoon season and minimum (8.25 3.71
mg l-1) during winter.
b. Change in Chemico-environmental Variables:
A significant change in the dissolved oxygen as a consequence of dam
construction activities was recorded at S2 (9.79 0.50 mg l-1) than the reference site
(10.55 0.84 mg l-1). The dissolved oxygen was recorded highest (11.17 0.72
mg l-1) during winter and lowest (9.23 0.13 mg l-1) during monsoon. In Bhagirathi
River, the higher concentration of dissolved oxygen was observed in the colder
months (November-February), followed by a sharp decline in the monsoon months
(July-August). Free Carbon dioxide showed the inverse relationship with the

dissolved oxygen. Free CO2 was maximum (3.52 0.16 mg l-1) during wet months
and minimum (1.63 0.40 mg l-1) during the colder months.
A minor change in the annual means of hydrogen ion concentration (pH) was
recorded at the impacted site (7.63 0.17) than the reference site (7.51 0.18).
Hardness and alkalinity also followed the pH values. The higher value of hardness
was recorded at S2 (64.92 17.28 mg l-1) than S1 (59.88 16.16 mg l-1). Alkalinity
was recorded with the higher value (53.67 6.03 mg l-1) at S2 than S1 (49.67 6.08
mg l-1).
Chlorides were recorded higher at S2 (3.18 0.70 mg l-1) than S1 (2.61 0.56
mg l-1) with the maximum value (4.24 0.05 mg l-1) during monsoon and minimum
(2.24 0.25 mg l-1) during winter.
The concentrations of nitrates and phosphates were also influenced by the dam
construction activities. These concentrations slightly increased at the impacted site
(0.48 0.25 mg l-1 ; 0.43 0.45 mg l-1) than the reference site (0.41 0.24 mg l-1 ; 0.25
0.34 mg l-1).
c. Depression in Biological Variables:
Impact on the biological variables of the fluvial system of Bhagirathi at the
impacted site (S2) in relation to reference site (S1) has been presented in the Table 5.4.
The biotic components of fish habitat of the Bhagirathi River are contributed
by periphyton-phytoplankton, zooplankton and macroinvertebrates. The density of
periphyton-phytoplankton, zooplankton and macroinvertebrates was recorded 530.54
285.80 units l-1 ; 50.50 7.78 units l-1 and 895.83 623.70 units m-2 respectively at
the reference site (S1). The density of these biological components - periphytonphytoplankton, zooplankton and macroinvertebrates were reduced drastically to 255.0
126.38 units l-1 ; 35.0 4.24 units l-1 and 172.92 171.45 units m-2 respectively at
the impacted site (S2) as a consequence of several civil construction activities.
The periphyton generally found attached to rocks, submerged wood and
floating or submerged vegetation and were abundant in the fast current of shallow
riffles. The phytoplankton were found in the slower current of deeper pools. Both

these components contribute the primary trophic level and were mainly represented
by

Bacillariophyceae,

Chlorophyceae

and

Myxophyceae.

The

periphyton-

phytoplankton were contributed by Bacillariophyceae (366.79 183.88 units l-1),

Chlorophyceae (110.92 66.85 units l-1) and Myxophyceae (52.83 35.07 units l-1)
in the natural habitat (S1). The primary producers were influenced significantly in
terms of reduction in the density of Bacillariophyceae (195.50 88.17 units l-1),
Chlorophyceae (41.0 25.56 units l-1) and Myxophyceae (18.50 12.64 units l-1) at
the impacted site (S2) due to dam construction activities.
The seasonal variations in density of periphyton-phytoplankton at both the
sites have been depicted in the Table 5.5 - 5.6. It was recorded maximum (S1: 743.38
220.61 units l-1 ; S2: 357.25 98.30 units l-1) during the winter months (NovemberFebruary) and minimum (S1: 152.0 97.58 units l-1; S2: 94.0 28.28 units l-1) during
monsoon months (July-August).
Comparative annual mean of periphyton-phytoplankton recorded over a twoyear period from September 2004 - August 2006 at both the sampling sites has been
presented in Table 5.7. A considerable difference in the annual mean density of
periphyton-phytoplankton was assessed at the impacted site (Fig. 5.4).
A comparative qualitative seasonal distribution and abundance of periphytonphytoplankton has been portrayed in the Table 5.12. A total of 40 periphytonphytoplanktonic taxa belonging to Bacillariophyceae (25), Chlorophyceae (11) and
Myxophyceae (4) were recorded during the period of investigation. As a consequence
of dam construction activities, few taxa were eliminated and others were unaffected in
the stressed environment at S2.
The measurement of species at a particular site is example of alpha diversity.
The alpha diversity for periphyton-phytoplankton was recorded maximum (40) almost
throughout the year except monsoon season at the reference site and minimum (13) at
the impacted site during monsoon (Table 5.10). Beta diversity is a comparison of
diversity between sites or communities usually measured as the amount of species and
changes between the ecosystems. Beta diversity was calculated 1.231 for primary
producers (Table 5.11).

The zooplankton and macroinvertebrates represent the second trophic level in

the Bhagirathi ecosystem. The metarhithronic zone (study area) of the high altitude
fluvial system of Bhagirathi provides a rich habitat in riffles for benthic organisms, as
stones, gravels and boulders offer favourable substratum for these organisms.
However, stray specimens of zooplankton were present in the stretch of study area of
Bhagirathi.
Zooplankton present in the Bhagirathi River were mainly represented by
Cladocera, Protozoa, Copepoda and Rotifera. A minor difference was observed in the
density of zooplankton at the impacted site (35.0 4.24 units l-1) than the density of
zooplankton recorded in the natural environment (50.50 7.78 units l-1).
The Cladocera reduced from 11.50 3.54 units l-1 to 4.50 2.12 units l-1 ;
Protozoa reduced from 21.0 1.41 units l-1 to 18.50 0.71 units l-1 ; Copepoda from
8.0 0.0 units l-1 to 6.50 0.71 units l-1 and Rotifera from 10.0 2.83 units l-1 to 5.50
0.71 units l-1.
The seasonal variations of zooplankton in the Bhagirathi River have been
presented in the Tables 5.5 - 5.6. Maximum density (S1: 29.0 4.14 units l-1 ; S2: 20.0
2.63 units l-1) was recorded during winter season and minimum (S1: 2.50 0.35
units l-1; S2: 0.50 0.35 units l-1) during monsoon season.
Comparative annual mean in zooplankton in the natural environment (S1) and
impacted site (S2) have been portrayed in the Table 5.8 and Fig 5.5.
The qualitative distribution and abundance of zooplankton at both the
sampling sites have been presented in the Table 5.12. A total of 9 genera belonging to
Cladocera (2), Protozoa (2), Copepoda (2) and Rotifera (3) were recorded.
The alpha diversity for zooplankton was recorded maximum (9) during winter
and summer at the reference site and minimum (1) at the impacted site during
monsoon (Table 5.10). Beta diversity was calculated 1.058 for them (Table 5.11).
The other component contributing towards the secondary trophic level of
Bhagirathi is the macroinvertebrates and they were contributed by the immature stage
(larvae, nymphs) of aquatic insects and Mollusca. The larvae and nymphs were

belonged to the orders of Ephemeroptera (mayflies), Trichoptera (caddis flies),

Coleoptera (beetles), Diptera (two winged flies), Hemiptera (bugs), Plecoptera
(stoneflies) and Odonata (dragonflies). The statistical means ( X ) and standard
deviation (S.D.) for all the macroinvertebrates were recorded at S1 and S2 over a twoyear period are given the Table 5.4.
A sharp decline in the density of macroinvertebrates was recorded at S2
(172.92 171.45 units m-2) from the natural environment (895.83 623.70 units m-2).
The quantitative contribution of all benthic components was influenced
considerably by the dam construction activities at S2. The Ephemeroptera reduced to
96.67 71.82 units m-2 at S2 from 465.63 331.85 units m-2 at S1, whereas, the
Trichoptera reduced to 23.13 28.79 units m-2 at S2 from 146.88 96.49 units m-2 at
S1. The members of Diptera reduced from 148.96 85.64 units m-2 to 41.25 44.29
units m-2 ; Coleoptera from 62.50 31.79 units m-2 to 2.50 9.73 units m-2 ; Hemiptera
from 34.38 28.78 units m-2 to 2.92 1.86 units m-2 ; Plecoptera from 20.83 17.37
units m-2 to 2.50 3.61 units m-2 and Odonata from 7.29 15.57 units m-2 to 1.04
3.61 units m-2. Mollusca also showed the declining trend at S2 (2.92 7.53 units m-2)
than S1 (9.38 16.28 units m-2).
The seasonal variations of macroinvertebrates at S1 and S2 were presented in
the Tables 5.5 - 5.6. A considerable high density of macroinvertebrates (S1: 347.18
157.71 units m-2 ; S2: 62.08 31.08 units m-2) has recorded during winter season and
low density (S1: 61.63 13.06 units m-2; S2: 4.69 0.0 units m-2) during monsoon
season.
Comparative annual mean of all the components of macroinvertebrates have
been depicted in Table 5.9 and Fig. 5.6 for studying the depression in their biotic
potential.
The qualitative distribution and abundance of benthic organisms influenced by
Tehri Dam construction activities has been presented in the Table 5.12. A total of 27
macroinvertebrate genera belonging to Ephemeroptera (9), Trichoptera (3), Diptera
(4), Coleoptera (5), Hemiptera (2), Plecoptera (2), Odonata (1) and Mollusca (1) were
recorded during the period of investigation.

The alpha diversity for macroinvertebrates was recorded maximum (27)

during winter and summer at the reference site and minimum (3) at the impacted site
during

monsoon

(Table

5.10).

Beta

diversity

was

also

calculated

for

macroinvertebrates (1.350) and is presented in the Table 5.11.

DISCUSSION
The response of high altitude lotic environment to Tehri Dam construction
activities investigated over a two-year period has shown a drastic change in the
physico-chemical

variables,

substrate

composition

and

geomorphometric

transformation at the impacted site (S2). As a consequence of alteration of all these

physical and chemical environmental variables, the biotic components were also
affected in the quality and quantity of periphyton-phytoplankton at the primary
trophic level and zooplankton and macroinvertebrates at the secondary trophic level.
Some of the aquatic organisms act as indicator for assessing the health of the
ecosystem. Thus, the bioindicators are the organisms whose presence, absence or
condition provides information about environmental quality. Every organism has
particular environmental requirements for it to be healthy and reproduce successfully.
The presence or absence of healthy population of organisms within their habitats is a
sign of particular environmental characteristics. In streams and rivers, water quality
monitors often look for benthic macroinvertebrates to get an idea of water quality.
Many species of mayfly nymphs, caddisfly larvae, water pennies and stonefly larvae
can survive only in the swift, cool, well oxygenated water. Their presence at a
sampling site is generally a sign of good water quality. Bellingor et al., (2006)
observed greater species richness in the undisturbed systems, and stated that minor
disturbance in environmental factors reduced the species richness or diversity in any
aquatic ecosystem.
Several reports and works are available on the environmental impact of dam on
fluvial system but most of them were focused on impoundment structures only. Thus,
there is no report available for comparison on the environmental degradation and
biotic responses during construction of Tehri Dam. However, some reports are well
documented on environmental stress and perturbations caused by some engineering

works and other anthropogenic perturbations (Mills et al., 1966; Canton and Ward,
1978; Nilsson, 1978; Cline et al., 1982, Leentvaar, 1985 and Sharma, 1991).
Cline et al., (1982) reported the distinct deleterious effects of highway
construction on the macroinvertebrates and epilithic algae of a high mountain stream
in Northern Colorado. According to them suspended solids and the proportion of fine
sediment in the substrate increased at impacted sites. At impacted sites algal species
diversity and the organic content of the epilithon were reduced. The macroinvertebrate
community was altered by construction activities. Reduction in density, abundance and
diversity were apparent and the taxonomic composition was modified. Leentvaar
(1985) reported an account of chemistry and biological data of the Sinu river system in
Western Columbia and the consequence of inundation of tropical rain forest by Alto
Sinu hydroelectric project. A sharp reduction in the density of diatoms, blue-green
algae and nymphs of aquatic macroinvertebrates was noticed. Mills et al., (1966) made
an attempt on the distinct changes in the physico-chemical environment and the biota
inhabiting it as a consequence of anthropogenic perturbations. The effects of the
construction of a motorway in Essex, U.K. on the lotic environment of a stream
receiving impact were studied by Extence (1978). He noticed a drastic change in the
suspended solids and substrate composition and a deleterious effect of the modified
environment on stoneflies, mayflies and cased caddisflies inhabiting the stream.
The temperature being an important factor in aquatic environments regulates
the composition of biotic profile as well as other characteristics of water. It also exerts
profound direct or indirect influence on metabolic and physiological behaviour of
aquatic ecosystem (Welch, 1952), which reflects in the dynamics of living organisms.
Alterations in the water velocity, temperature and dissolved oxygen are
usually found downstream from the main dam site (Ward and Stanford, 1979; Petts,
1984; Craig and Kemper, 1987; Gore and Kemper, 1987; Moog, 1993; Camargo and
Voelz, 1998 and Camargo et al., 2004). A significant alteration in the water velocity,
temperature and dissolved oxygen was also found downstream at the impacted site
(S2) of Tehri Dam under the present study. The same results were also observed by
Rolauffs et al. (2001) while studying the invertebrate composition and productivity of
Beaver Dam in Germany. The concentration of phosphates and nitrates was also
observed high at the impacted site than the reference site. According to Fumiko et al.,

(2006), high concentration of phosphates and nitrogen compounds generally indicate

the poor water quality. Dams impede the flux of water, sediments, biota and nutrients
and can strongly alter the structure and dynamics of upstream and downstream aquatic
and riparian habitats and biota (Ward and Stanford, 1979; Petts, 1984 and Poff et al.,
1997).
Habitat characteristics including current velocity, temperature and substrate
regulate the occurrence and distribution of organisms in streams (Hynes, 1970a).
Hardness, conductivity and chloride contents always displayed correlation (Bartram
and Ballance, 1996 and Mishra et al., 2002). One of the difficulties in using aquatic
invertebrates for biomonitoring is that they may be affected by factors other than water
quality such as substrate or position along a longitudinal gradient (Rosenberg and
Resh, 1993; Clements, 1994 and Clements and Kiffney, 1995).
Transportation of fine sediments that fill interstitial spaces and also the
occurrence of unstable substrate associated with discharge variability, were also likely
contributors to the reduction of species diversity (Cobb et al., 1992). Deposition of
fine sediments generally has negative impacts on benthic communities (Waters, 1995;
Wood and Armitage, 1997 and Thomson et al., 2005) and sediments deliberately or
accidentally released from reservoirs can cause pronounced reduction in benthic
densities and diversity (Gray and ward, 1982; Marchant, 1989 and Doeg and Koehn,
1994). Cobble habitat without silt generally supports higher taxonomic diversity than
do silted areas (Brown and Brussock, 1991; Wohl et al., 1995 and Pollard and Reed,
2004; Chakrabarty and Das, 2005), making this an important factor determining
invertebrate distribution. Cortes et al. (1995) also observed the reduction in species
richness in the lower section of the Poio. Inorganic bed substrates are frequently
dominated by fine material which is considered unsuitable for many aquatic insect
species (Quinn and Hickley, 1990 and Jowett et al., 1991), but macrophytes and wood
can provide potentially stable substrates for invertebrate colonization (Borchardt, 1993
and Humphries, 1996). The presence of fine material appears to be a major factor
correlated with invertebrate distribution (Minshall, 1984 and Statzner and Higler,
1986). Mayfly, stonefly and caddisfly larvae were most adversely affected, because
these aquatic insects usually exhibit a relatively great sensitivity to freshwater
pollution (Hellawell, 1986; Metcalfe, 1989; Rosenberg and Resh, 1993; Camargo,

1994; Wright et al., 2000 and Klemm et al., 2002). Chutter (1969) reported a
deleterious effect of sand and silt deposition on macroinvertebrates of South African
streams. Substantive alterations in the substrate composition and transportation of fine
sediments filling the interstitial spaces have been noticed at the impacted site (S2) due
to Tehri Dam construction under the present study.
Nilsson (1978) made an attempt to use floristic analysis to monitor the
vegetational changes along a stretch of the Swedish river, Umealven, following setting
up of hydroelectric works. Changes in silting, water flow and water level amplitude
were noted. The changes have brought alterations in the abundance and distribution of
some species, few have disappeared or immigrated.

The diversity of periphyton in any fluvial system acts as an indicator of

climate and environmental conditions due to the fact that plants are among one of the
most adaptive floristic components. Description of periphyton assemblages has
become an important part of most water quality assessment for defining aquatic
environment. Periphytic algae attached to the rock surface are the most successful
primary producers to exploit stream as habitat (Biggs, 1996). Factors controlling
periphyton growth include light, temperature, water current, substrate, the scouring
effect of floods shear/stress (turbulence) nutrient mass transfer; water chemistry and
invertebrate grazing all these factors have potential effects on periphytonic population
(Whitton, 1975; Hynes, 1970a and Biggs, 1996). Temperature, water velocity and
nature of substratum play a significant role in delineating the biological communities.
The structure of substratum is one of the main factors controlling the composition of
periphytonic community. The physical complex substrate types (leaves, gravel or
cobbles, macrophytes, moss and wood) generally support more diversity than simple
substratum such as sand and wood (Angradi, 1996). The bottom substrate
composition at S1 (reference site) ranged from small pebbles to big boulders.
Periphyton-phytoplankton were rich in biodiversity and quantity (530.54 285.80
units l-1) in natural fish habitats of Bhagirathi, however, the annual density of
periphyton-phytoplankton reduced significantly at the impacted site (255.0 126.38
units l-1). The impacted site was profusely silted which affected the diversity and
density of periphyton-phytoplankton. Inadequate availability of suitable substrate
retards the growth of periphyton-phytoplankton (Sugunan, 2000). Among the aquatic

communities, diatoms (Bacillariophyceae) are of great ecological significance,

because they comprise major portion of primary producer in an aquatic ecosystem
(Zalewski et al., 1997). Any variation in their community structure gets reflected in
corresponding changes in higher components of the food chain (Badoni et al., 1997).
Ellis (1936) stated that silt in rivers acts as an opaque screen to all wavelengths
of light, not allowing the phytoplankton to carry out photosynthesis. Cushing (1964)
reported that mechanical destruction of plankton occurs by the grinding action of water
heavily laden with silt. It has also been shown that sedimentation may be a
contributing factor to decrease in phytoplankton numbers. Scott (1958) has related the
distribution of several species to current speed. According to them phytoplankton
abundance and species richness appeared to be influenced by high turbidity, current
velocity, fluctuating water levels and age of the water.
A myriad of factors including temperature, flow, turbidity, fluctuating water
levels, substrate, aquatic and riparian vegetation, dissolved substances, food and biotic
interactions determine the composition and abundance of stream biota (Macan, 1961,
1974; Hynes, 1970 a, b; Angradi, 1996; Biggs, 1996; Badoni et al., 1997; Camargo
and Voelz, 1998; Cazaunon and Giudicelli, 1999; Sugunan, 2000; Wright et al., 2000;
Klemm et al., 2002; Mishra et al., 2002; Uehlinger et al., 2003; Pollard and Reed,
2004 and Thomson et al., 2005). These major controlling factors are of course, often
interrelated. For example, current influences substrate and substrate influences the
composition and abundance of aquatic plants, all of which directly or indirectly affect
zoobenthic organisms, ultimately affecting fish in the lotic environment. Dissolved
oxygen in the river water ensures the survival of aquatic organisms. Total dissolved
solids are instrumental for the higher turbidity of water, which in turn prevents
penetration of light through water and affects the photosynthesis of phytoplankton and
thereby reduce the biological productivity (Odum, 1971).
The above explanation and review of reports available at national and
international level on the anthropogenic perturbations and their impact on physicochemical and biological environment of lotic environments are sufficient to present
explanation of the deterioration of physico-chemical environment of fish habitats of
Bhagirathi River as a consequence of construction activities of Tehri Dam, and its
deleterious effects on the biotic components.

Table 5.1. Environmental degradation in the physico-chemical variables of Bhagirathi recorded

over a two-year period (September 2004 -August 2006)
Reference Site (S 1 )

Impacted Site (S 2)

Environmental Variables
X

S.D.

S.D.

21.8

5.2

21.9

5.2

15.0

3.1

15.6

2.8

Water current (m sec )

2.04

0.88

2.37

1.31

HMD (m)

1.21

0.72

1.16

0.70

138.13

244.75

160.61

239.09

0.35

0.29

0.21

0.17

Conductivity ( S cm )

0.13

0.01

0.16

0.06

TDS (mg l -1)

34.0

33.39

45.14

30.13

10.55

0.84

9.79

0.50

Free CO2 (mg l )

1.90

0.42

2.79

0.60

pH

7.51

0.18

7.63

0.17

Hardness (mg l -1)

59.88

16.16

64.92

17.28

Alkalinity (mg l -1)

49.67

6.08

53.67

6.03

2.61

0.56

3.18

0.70

0.41

0.24

0.48

0.25

0.25

0.34

0.43

0.45

Air temperature ( C)
0

Water temperature ( C)
-1

Turbidity (NTU)
Transparency (m)
-1

Dissolved Oxygen (mgl -1)

-1

-1

Chlorides (mg l )
-1

Nitrates (mg 1 )
-1

Phosphates (mg l )

Table 5.2. Seasonal variations in the physico-chemical environmental variables recorded in

the natural environment (S 1) of Bhagirathi recorded over a two-year period
(September 2004 - August 2006)
Environmental
Variables
Air temperature (0C)

Autumn
(Sep-Oct)
23.7 3.5

Winter
(Nov-Feb)
15.9 1.4

Summer
(March-Jun)
23.7 3.8

Monsoon
(Jul-Aug)
27.9 0.5

Water temperature (0C)

15.4 1.2

11.3 0.5

17.5 2.0

16.9 0.3

Water current (m sec )

2.44 0.29

1.64 0.72

1.66 0.89

3.22 0.10

HMD (m)

1.53 0.13

0.65 0.19

1.02 0.52

2.37 0.38

Turbidity (NTU)

12.25 8.13

7.13 4.15

84.50 82.24

633.25 189.15

0.40 0.39

0.62 0.15

0.20 0.11

0.04 0.03

0.14 0.03

0.13 0.05

0.15 0.04

0.05 0.03

20.50 2.12

8.25 3.71

33.25 21.75

87.00 2.83

10.24 0.36

11.17 0.72

10.54 0.79

9.66 0.23

Free CO2 (mg l )

2.09 0.16

1.63 0.40

1.79 0.25

2.50 0.01

pH

7.50 0.04

7.33 0.10

7.56 0.10

7.79 0.06

63.25 20.15

72.0 7.0

57.25 4.62

37.50 3.54

45.75 8.84

52.50 2.86

51.63 4.48

44.00 5.66

2.88 0.28

2.24 0.25

2.38 0.12

3.54 0.22

0.46 0.04

0.18 0.14

0.41 0.16

0.79 0.04

0.09 0.12

0.10 0.09

0.33 0.49

0.56 0.30

-1

Transparency (m)
-1

Conductivity ( S cm )
-1

TDS (mg l )
-1

Dissolved Oxygen (mgl )

-1

-1

Hardness (mg l )
-1

Alkalinity (mg l )
-1

Chlorides (mg l )
-1

Nitrates (mg 1 )
-1

Phosphates (mg l )

Table 5.3. Seasonal variations in the physico-chemical environmental variables recorded at

the impacted site (S2) of Bhagirathi recorded over a two-year period (September
2004 - August 2006)
Environmental
Variables
Air temperature (0C)

Autumn
(Sep-Oct)
23.9 3.3

Winter
(Nov-Feb)
16.2 1.2

Summer
(March-Jun)
23.7 3.8

Monsoon
(Jul-Aug)
28.0 0.7

Water temperature (0C)

15.5 1.1

12.1 1.1

17.8 2.1

17.1 0.2

Water current (m sec )

2.56 0.44

0.97 0.41

2.53 1.05

4.20 0.21

HMD (m)

1.62 0.26

0.55 0.19

0.97 0.42

2.19 0.28

53.25 23.69

41.21 32.52

96.38 89.15

663.25 215.31

0.13 0.01

0.14 0.08

0.18 0.12

0.01 0.01

0.14 0.04

0.15 0.03

0.16 0.05

0.07 0.02

37.50 3.54

25.42 2.79

38.50 20.29

100.0 18.38

9.50 0.32

10.18 0.52

9.90 0.36

9.23 0.13

Free CO2 (mg l )

2.97 0.31

2.35 0.41

2.73 0.57

3.52 0.16

pH

7.73 0.11

7.45 0.08

7.62 0.08

7.84 0.01

71.00 16.97

75.25 12.42

61.25 7.64

45.75 1.77

53.75 5.30

55.17 4.18

56.25 5.66

45.50 4.24

3.24 0.30

2.66 0.49

3.08 0.40

4.24 0.05

0.40 0.32

0.27 0.09

0.51 0.08

0.85 0.08

0.20 0.08

0.18 0.09

0.54 0.61

0.84 0.11

-1

Turbidity (NTU)
Transparency (m)
-1

Conductivity ( S cm )
-1

TDS (mg l )
-1

Dissolved Oxygen (mgl )

-1

-1

Hardness (mg l )
-1

Alkalinity (mg l )
-1

Chlorides (mg l )
-1

Nitrates (mg 1 )
-1

Phosphates (mg l )

Table 5.4. Comparative biological profi le of fish habitats of Bhagirathi at reference site (S 1 )
and impacted site (S 2)

Environmental
Variables

Reference Site (S 1)
X

Periphyton-phytoplankton (units l -1)

Bacillariophyceae
366.79
Chlorophyceae
110.92
Myxophyceae
52.83
Total
530.54
Zooplankton (units l -1 )
Cladocera
11.50
Protozoa
21.0
Copepoda
8.0
Rotifera
10.0
Total
50.50
Macroinvertebrates (units m -2)
Ephemeroptera
465.63
Trichoptera
146.88
Diptera
148.96
Coleoptera
62.50
Hemiptera
34.38
Plecoptera
20.83
Odonata
7.29
Mollusca
9.38
Total
895.83

Impacted Site (S 2 )

S.D.

S.D.

183.88
66.85
35.07
285.80

195.50
41.0
18.50
255.0

88.17
25.56
12.64
126.38

3.54
1.41
0.0
2.83
7.78

4.50
18.50
6.50
5.50
35.0

2.12
0.71
0.71
0.71
4.24

331.85
96.49
85.64
31.79
28.78
17.37
15.57
16.28
623.70

96.67
23.13
41.25
2.50
2.92
2.50
1.04
2.92
172.92

71.82
28.79
44.49
9.73
1.86
3.61
3.61
7.53
171.45

Table 5.5. Seasonal variations in density of biological components (fish food) of Bhagirathi
at reference site (S 1)
Environmental
Variables

Autumn
(Sep-Oct)

Winter
(Nov-Feb)

Summer
(March-Jun)

Monsoon
(Jul-Aug)

278.50 38.89

517.13 131.64

391.50 146.76

105.0 55.15

Chlorophyceae

49.50 0.71

154.75 64.75

136.75 41.83

33.0 32.53

Myxophyceae

19.0 9.90

71.50 24.22

70.50 30.38

14.0 9.90

347.0 49.50

743.38 220.61

598.75 214.97

152.0 97.58

Zooplankton (units l )
Cladocera
2.0 0.71

7.0 0.70

2.50 0.77

0.0 0.0

Protozoa

2.0 0.71

11.0 1.22

6.00 0.50

2.0 0.0

Copepoda

0.50 0.35

4.50 1.46

2.50 0.54

0.50 0.35

0.0 0.0

6.50 0.77

3.50 0.54

0.0 0.0

4.50 1.77

29.0 4.14

14.50 2.34

2.50 0.35

Periphyton-phytoplankton (units l-1 )

Bacillariophyceae

Total

-1

Rotifera
Total

-2

Macroinvertebrates (units m )
Ephemeroptera

50.0 16.70

95.70 44.98

45.31 20.12

6.94 0.98

Trichoptera

31.25 8.84

88.19 34.97

36.46 13.36

18.75 5.89

Diptera

32.81 2.21

76.82 31.31

39.06 16.63

20.31 4.42

Coleoptera

30.0 3.54

18.75 9.95

22.50 17.44

12.50 1.77

Hemiptera

37.50 0.0

26.56 18.41

20.31 25.65

0.0 0.0

Plecoptera

12.50 0.0

17.19 11.84

7.81 0.0

3.13 0.0

Odonata

25.0 0.0

8.33 0.0

12.50 0.0

0.0 0.0

Mollusca

0.0 0.0

15.63 6.25

12.50 11.97

0.0 0.0

219.06 31.28

347.18 157.71

196.46 105.16

61.63 13.06

Total

Table 5.6. Seasonal variations in the density of biological components (fish food) of
Bhagirathi at the impacted site (S2)
Environmental

Winter
(Nov-Feb)

Summer
(March-Jun)

Monsoon
(Jul-Aug)

131.50 26.16

268.25 70.09

213.0 62.52

79.0 22.63

Chlorophyceae

21.0 9.90

65.0 18.27

43.0 16.73

9.0 2.83

Myxophyceae

7.0 4.24

24.0 9.94

25.0 11.09

6.0 2.83

357.25 98.30

281.0 90.35

94.0 28.28

Variables

Autumn
(Sep-Oct)

Periphyton-phytoplankton (units l-1 )

Bacillariophyceae

Total
159.50 40.31
Zooplankton (units l-1)
Cladocera

0.0 0.0

3.0 0.29

1.50 0.54

0.0 0.0

Protozoa

1.0 0.71

10.0 1.11

7.0 0.91

0.50 0.35

Copepod

0.50 0.35

3.0 0.73

3.0 0.73

0.0 0.0

Rotifera

0.0 0.0

4.0 0.50

1.50 0.54

0.0 0.0

1.50 1.06

20.0 2.63

13.0 2.71

0.50 0.35

Total

Macroinvertebrates (units m-2)

Ephemeroptera

12.22 3.93

18.01 9.43

8.47 5.14

1.25 0.0

Trichoptera

14.17 2.95

28.13 5.49

6.67 7.61

0.0 0.0

Diptera

18.75 11.05

10.31 5.19

11.15 6.56

3.44 0.0

Coleoptera

0.0 0.0

0.0 0.0

1.25 0.0

0.0 0.0

Hemiptera

0.0 0.0

0.0 0.0

0.0 0.0

0.0 0.0

Plecoptera

3.13 0.0

1.25 1.44

0.0 0.0

0.0 0.0

Odonata

0.0 0.0

0.0 2.13

0.0 0.0

0.0 0.0

Mollusca

0.0 0.0

4.38 5.91

0.0 0.0

0.0 0.0

48.26 17.92

62.08 31.08

27.53 19.32

4.69 0.0

Total

Table 5.7. Annual mean of density of periphyton -phytoplankton recorded at reference site (S 1) and impacted site (S 2)
over a period of two-year (September 2004 -August 2006)
Year

Site

Bacillariophyceae

Chlorophyceae

Myxophyceae

Total

S1

380.08 174.56

110.83 71.61

53.5 34.58

544.42 281.01

S2

353.50 193.20

111.0 62.01

52.17 35.29

516.67 290.58

S1

199.17 84.58

41.50 27.65

17.0 13.97

257.67 126.21

S2

191.83 91.76

40.50 23.48

20.0 11.31

252.33 126.56

2004-05

2005-06

Table 5.8. Annual mean of density of zooplankton recorded at reference site (S 1) and impacted site (S 2 ) over a period of
two-year (September 2004 -August 2006)
Year

Site

Cladocera

Protozoa

Copepoda

Rotifera

Total

S1

14.0 1.03

22.0 1.11

8.0 0.78

8.0 0.78

52.0 3.81

S2

6.0 0.52

18.0 1.31

7.0 0.67

6.0 0.67

37.0 3.18

S1

9.0 0.75

20.0 1.07

8.0 0.98

12.0 0.95

49.0 3.77

S2

3.0 0.45

19.0 1.16

6.0 0.67

5.0 0.51

33.0 2.81

2004-05

2005-06

Table 5.9. Annual mean of density of macroinvertebrates recorded at reference site (S 1) and impacted site (S2 ) over a period of two-year
(September 2004-August 2006)
Year

Site

Ephemeroptera

Trichopte
ra

Diptera

Coleoptera

Hemiptera

Plecoptera

Odonata

Mollusca

Total

S1

479.17
378.37

135.42
77.36

154.17
100.47

60.42
34.47

37.50
27.18

25.0
18.46

4.17
14.43

6.25
15.54

902.08
666.29

S2

110.42
72.66

16.67
18.63

33.33
34.27

0.0
0.0

5.0
9.77

3.33
8.07

2.08
7.22

2.92
7.53

173.75
158.15

S1

452.08
285.33

158.33
115.62

143.75
70.81

64.58
29.11

31.25
30.39

16.67
16.28

10.42
16.71

12.50
16.85

889.58
581.11

S2

82.92
60.73

29.58
28.00

49.17
39.82

5.0
14.46

0.83
2.89

1.67
3.89

0.0
0.0

2.92
7.53

172.09
157.31

2004-05

2005-06

Table 5.10. Seasonal variations in alpha diversity of primary and secondary trophic levels of
Bhagirathi River at both the sampling sites
Autumn
(Sep-Oct)

Winter
(Nov-Feb)

Summer
(March-Jun)

Monsoon
(Jul-Aug)

S1

40

40

40

32

S2

16

22

25

13

28

31

32.5

22.5

S1

S2

4.5

8.5

7.5

2.5

S1

22

27

27

12

S2

10

13

10

16

20

18.5

7.5

2004-06
Periphyton-phytoplankton

Zooplankton

Macroinvertebrates

Table 5.11. Beta diversity at the primary and secondary trophic levels of Bhagirathi River at both
the sampling sites
Year 2004-06

Total no. of species

encountered

Average no. of
species

Beta diversity

32.5

1.231

8.5

1.058

20.0

1.350

Periphytonphytoplankton
S1
S2

40
25

Zooplankton
S1

S2

Macroinvertebrates
S1

27

S2

13

Table 5.12. Comparative seasonal qualitative distribution and abundance of various

biotic taxa in the natural environment (S1 ) and impacted site (S2)
Taxon
A. Periphyton-Phytoplankton
A.1 Bacillariophyceae
Tabellaria fenestris
Diatoma vulgaris
Diatomella balfouriama
Meridion circulare
Fragilaria inflata
Synedra ulna
S. utermohli
Denticula
Tetracyclus rupestris
Nitzchia
Navicula radiosa
Cocconeis placentula
Cymbella cistula
Gomphonema
Gomphoneis herculeanum
Cyclotella
Stauroneis phoenicenteron
Ceratoneis arcus
Pinnularia
Acnanthes
Amphora ovalis
Caloneis amphisbaena
Gyrosigma kutzingee
Hantzschia
Opephora
A. 2 Chlorophyceae
Closterium leibleinii
Cosmarium granatum
Desmidium
Ulothrix zonata
Microspora
Zygnema
Stigeoclonium
Cladophora
Oedogonium
Hydrodictyon reticulatum
Chlorococcum humicola
A.3 Myxophyceae
Coccochloris stagnina
Anabaena
Phormidium
Oscillatoria tenuis

Autumn
(Sep-Oct)
S1
S2

Winter
(Nov-Feb)
S1
S2

Summer
(March-Jun)
S1
S2

Monsoon
(Jul-Aug)
S1
S2

++
++
+
+
++
+
+
+
+
++
+
+
++
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
++
+
+
+
+

++
+
++
+
++
+
++
+
+
+
+
+

+++
+++
++
+
+++
+
+
++
+
+++
++
+
+++
++
++
++
++
+
++
++
++
+
++
++
++

+++
++
+
+++
+
+++
++
+++
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+

++
+++
+
+
+++
+
+
++
+
+++
+
+
+++
+
+
+
+
+
+
++
+
+
+
+
+

++
++
+
++
+
++
+
++
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+

+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+

+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
-

+
++
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+

+
+
+
-

++
++
++
+
+
++
++
++
++
++
++

+
+
+
+
+
-

+
+
++
+
+
++
++
+
+
++
+

+
+
+
+
+
-

+
+
+
+
+
+
+

+
+
+
-

+
+
+

+
++
++

++
+
++

+
+
+

+
+
+

++

++

34

Table 5.12 continued..

B. Zooplankton
B.1 Cladocera
Daphnia
Ceriodaphnia
B.2 Protozoa
Vorticella
Zoothamnium
B.3 Copepoda
Cyclops
Diaptomus
B.4 Rotifera
Trichocera
Asplanchna
Keratella
C. Macroinvertebrates
C.1 Ephemeroptera
Heptagenia
Leptophlebia
Caenis
Cloeon
Baetis
Centroptilum
Ephemerella
Ecdynurus
Siphlonuridae
C.2 Trichoptera
Hydropsyche
Rhyacophila
Glossosoma

++

++

++

+
++

+
+

+++
++

++
++

++
+

++
+

+
+

+
-

++

++

++

++

++
+

+
+

+
+

++

++

+++

++

+++

++

+
++
+
++
+
+
+
-

+
+
++
+
-

+++
+++
++
+++
++
++
+
++

++
+
++
+
++
+
-

++
++
+
++
+
++
+
+

+
++
+
-

+
+
+
-

+
-

++

++

+++

++

+++

++

++

++

++

+++

++

+++

++

+
-

+
-

++
+
+

+
-

++
+
+

+
+
-

+
-

+
+
+
++
+

++
++
+
+
+

++
++
++
+
+

+
-

+
+
+
-

++

++

C.3 Diptera
Tendipes
Tabanus
Antocha sp.
Psychoda
C.4 Coleoptera
Ochthebius
Dineutus sp.
Amphizoa lecontei
Agabinus glabrellus
Peltodytes
C.5 Hemiptera
Corexia
Hesperocorixa
C.6 Plecoptera
Brachyptera
Acroneuria
C.7 Odonata

35

Hagenius
+
C.8 Mollusca
Lymnaea
+++ Abundant; ++ Common; + Rare; - Absent

++

++

36

500

S1
S2

-1

Density (ind l )

400
300
200
100
0

eae
hyc

l
c il
Ba

op
ari

eae
hyc
p
o
lor
Ch

ph
yxo

ae
yce

Fig. 5.4. Depression in the density of periphyton -phytoplankton

caused by Tehri Dam construction
180

S1

160

S2

-1

Density (ind l )

140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Cladocera

Protozoa

Copepoda

Rotifera

Fig. 5.5. Depression in the density of zooplankton caused by Tehri

Dam construction
600

S1
S2

-2

Density (ind m )

500
400
300
200
100
0
a
a
a
ta
ra
ra
ra
ca
te r
te r
ter
pte
pte c opte dona ollus
rop i chop
Dip ole o
mi
O
e
e
e
l
M
H
P
C
Tr
he m
Ep

Fig. 5.6. Depression in the density of ma croinvertebrates caused

by Tehri Dam construction

37

Fig. 5.1. Fundamental pool and riffle forms prevalent in mountain fluvial system of Garhwal
Himalayas

38

Fig. 5.2. Morphometric transformation of Bhagirathi fluvial system into a huge lenti c
water body after impoundment

Fig. 5.3. Severe environmental degradation of fluvial system of Bhagirathi after

impoundment