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Materials Research
Print version ISSN 1516-1439
On-line version ISSN 1980-5373

Mat.Res.vol.18no.4SoCarlosJuly/Aug.2015
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/1516-1439.000314

ARTICLES

Microstructural and Micromechanical Effects of Cold Rollforming on High Strength Dual Phase Steels
Meritxell Ruiz-Andres a , Ana Conde a , Juan de Damborenea a ,
Ignacio Garcia a *
a

Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Metalrgicas CENIM-CSIC, Madrid, Spain

ABSTRACT
In this work correlation between the 1000 MPa dual phase (DP) steel microstructure and the
strain gained after roll-forming process have been studied by both microstructural and
micromechanical analysis. The scanning electron microscope (SEM) inspection in the bent
area reveals changes in the ferrite-martensitic microstructure. The plastic deformation of DP
steels originates defects at the edges of bent sheet make them partly responsible for the
damage caused. In addition, electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) measurements have
been carried out for an in-depth characterization after roll-forming. A high density of
misorientation of the crystal lattice within the ferrite strained grains is observed, mainly
concentrated in the ferrite/martensite grain boundaries. Furthermore, the ultramicrohardness
tests exhibit little dependence between mechanical parameters and the material properties.
Key words: dual phase steel; roll-forming; EBSD; ultramicrohardness; microstructure

1 INTRODUCTION
High strength low alloy (HSLA) steels, specifically dual phase (DP) steels, are widely
used in the automotive industry due to the necessity of improving fuel efficiency1-3, with
its subsequent energy saving and environmental protection4. In addition, these DP steels
have been developed to increase the highly demanding collision safety standards5 in the
vehicle body frame parts like bumper beam, door beam and panel reinforcement.
DP steels are characterized by a microstructure consisting of about 75-85% ferrite phase
with the remainder being a mixture of the martensite and lower amounts of other such
as bainite and retained austenite6,7.
Such a structure leads to different unique properties, as high tensile strength, low yield
strength ratio followed by continuous yielding behavior (no-yield point elongation), high
work-hardening rate at early stages of plastic deformation as well as good ductility 8-10.
Furthermore, the absence of the yield point elongation provides DP steels with a high
crash resistance, good formability and excellent surface finish11.

Roll-forming is a bending process in which a sheet metal is continuously and gradually

formed into a profile with a desired cross-section along the transverse direction by
passing through a series of rolls arranged in tandem12. It can be performed at high
speeds and therefore has been considered, in recent years, very interesting for the
manufacturing of automobile components. However, during roll-forming the
microstructure of the sheet metal can undergo serious damage. The outer surface
remains stretched consequently the inner surface is compressed. Thus, these outer
surfaces, highly deformed, are preferential nucleation sites, growth and coalescence of
voids and/or cracks13,14.
Several studies4,7,15-19 have been conducted on the DP steels behaviour under formability
tests, as bending, stamping or cup drawing. Luo & Wierzbicki15 analysed the failure
behaviour of DP steels during stretch-bending operations and summarized the typical
damage accumulation in this area. Wu-rong et al.8 found that DP steels show competitive
formability after cup drawing tests, despite encountering consistent shear cracks on the
damage surfaces. Wang & Wei16 showed that in stretch-bending tests not only latitudinal
but also longitudinal cracks were propagated along DP steels in a mixed propagation
mode, i.e. along ferrite-martensite interfaces and/or also across martensite grains.
Subsequently, Wang et al.4 discussed that the fracture mode experiences a transition
from shear fracture to necking before fracture. Mishra & Thuillier17 concluded that
bending area of maximum strain is not highly localised, but more uniform.
However, to the authors best knowledge no studies have been reported on the DP steels
evolution in cold roll-forming processes.
In this work, microstructural and micromechanical study have been performed in order
to go deep in the understanding of the behaviour between the microstructure and the
deformation during cold roll-forming processes and provides overall responses to the
automobile manufacturing industry, which is a subject of main concern, from both
industry sector, in ever increasing new designs for car structural components, and also in
academic research.

2 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
The chemical composition of the commercial high strength dual phase DP1000 used is
given in Table 1. The 1.5mm thick DP1000 sheet was roll-forming in hat-section
geometry profile by Autotech Engineering (AIE, Gestamp R&D). The roll-forming
direction was parallel to the rolling direction of the sheet and performed at a feed rate of
50 m/min. Hat-section was formed by 6-stages, in which the arrangements of the roll
bend angles were varied over 15 30 45 60 75 90.
Table 1 Chemical composition of DP1000 dual phase steel (wt.%).

DP1000

Mn

Si

Mo

Cr

Nb

Ni

Fe

0.067

2.29

0.38

0.25

0.020

0.037

0.025

<0.02

Balanced

Specimens were taken from a DP1000 sheet after being processed revealing the LT-ST
plane (Figure 1).

Figure 1 DP1000 specimen (a) Hat-section profile; (b) Scheme main directions.
The specimens analysed are presented in Figure 2. One of specimens was taken from an
area free from any strain - blank specimen-. Three specimens were taken from the bent
area characterized by three distinctive regions: the outer edge, the middle zone and the
inner edge.

Figure 2 Details of DP1000 specimen (a) selected areas to analysis; (b) representative studied
regions in the bent area.
Metallographic specimens were prepared according to standard procedures. They were
mounted in an epoxy resin, ground down through successive grades of SiC paper to
2000 grade, degreased with alkaline cleaner and rinsed in tap water followed by
deionized water and finally polished with diamond paste of 3 and 1 m.
For scanning electron microscopy (SEM) inspections, the specimens were etched with 2%
Nital solution for 15 s, given that Nital preferentially etches ferrite and outlines their
grain boundaries leaving martensite undissolved.
In order to calculate the volume fraction of ferrite and martensite phases, metallographic
analysis were conducted by using an image software analysis. Using a commercial
imaging software (Analysisdocu) the martensite and ferrite phases were automatically

distinguished by adjusting the contrast and colour, so martensite grains turn black, while
ferrite grains turn white.
Finally, for Electron Back Scatter Diffraction (EBSD) analysis, the specimens were
mounted in epoxy resin, grounded in SiC and polished with diamond paste of 3 and 1 m
as it was above described. After this stage the specimens were automatically polished
with colloidal silica for 30 s. Then, the specimens were rinsed in distilled water, soaked in
ethanol and dried in direct warm air. Immediately after, the specimens were etched with
2% Nital solution for 15 s.
SEM images and EBSD scans were carried out in a field emission gun scanning electron
microscopy (FEG-SEM) J8M6500F JEOL equipped with energy-dispersive spectroscopy
(EDS) facilities. A statistically relevant area of 322 x 257 m was scanned using step size
of 0.1 m. The EBSD raw data were post-processed in detail by making use of the HKL
Analysis Software. Grain boundaries were characterized by a misorientation larger than
5 between among neighbouring measurements points.
Several parameters on the basis of EBSD, such as the image quality (IQ), the inverse
pole figure (IPF) and the kernel average misorientation (KAM) maps are powerful tools in
order to characterize the material. However, the similarity between the crystalline
structure of the microconstituents in dual-phase steels -ferrite (bcc) and martensite (bct,
with a low tretagonality)- limits the software in order to distinguish between both
phases, specifically when ferrite is highly strained20. In this work, it has been indexed
ferrite as the main phase. Consequently, the Kikuchi diffraction patterns that differ from
the ferrite crystalline structure (bcc) will be considered not indexed, given as a dark
point and related to strained ferrite, martensite phase or grain boundaries.
Hardness measurements were performed by a NanoTest 550 Micro Materials Ltd
nanoindenter, using a Berkovich diamond tip. Tests were carried out at two indentation
depths of 500 nm and 5000 nm. The local hardness and elastic modulus results were
estimated from the loading and unloading curves using the standard Oliver-Pharr
methodology21.

3 RESULTS
3.1 SEM characterization
Figure 3 clearly shows that the microstructure of DP1000 steel is comprised by harden
island-shaped martensite inclusions randomly distributed (bright contrast) and a soft
ferrite matrix (dark contrast). Figure 3a reveals the microstructure corresponding to the
blank specimen. This DP1000 specimen analysed is characterized by a 26.5 vol.% of
martensite phase. Ferrite grains size range from 1.2 m to 5 m, approximately.

Figure 3 SEM images of DP1000 specimens etched with 2% Nital at 3000x (a) blank area; (b) outer
bent edge; (c) middle bent zone; (d) inner bent edge.
The SEM images gathered in Figure 3b-dcorrespond to the microstructure in the bent
area; outer edge, middle zone and inner edge, respectively. The microstructure
corresponding to the outer edge in the bent area, Figure 3b, shows elongated ferrite
grains, with the long axis parallel to the bending direction. The length of these ferrite
grains vary from 3m to 10 m, approximately. Conversely, the martensitic islands
appear not to be deformed, but it is noteworthy the presence of some voids (A). These
voids appear preferentially localized around the martensite particles as result of the
stress concentration and deformation mismatch22,23. Other voids initiation (B) appears in
the ferrite/martensite grain boundary and are considered a normal separation of both
phases22.
Moving throughout the bent area, towards the inner edge, the appearance of the ferrite
grains is less elongated and the presence of voids disappears. The microstructure
corresponding to the middle region of the bent area (Figure 3c) is comprised by ferrite
grains apparently not deformed, keeping similar microstructure as in the blank specimen
(Figure 3a). Finally, at the compressed inner edge of the bent specimen, Figure 3d, the
ferrite grains vary their size and morphology into smaller and more equiaxed grains. In
this region voids are not distinguished.
3.2 EBSD measurements
EBSD enables an exhaustive study related to the crystallographic orientations based on
the Kikuchi diffraction patterns from the surface of the specimens24-26. Besides lattice
rotation and lattice strain at the surface of very small volumes of material can be
measured11, 27.
Figure 4 depicts representative EBSD image quality maps (IQ) corresponding to the
studied areas, where ferrite has been indexed as the main phase. The IQ maps describe
the grain structure of the different phases24. Due to overlapping diffraction signals,
coming from two grains at a grain boundary, the contrast in the Kikuchi pattern faint or
is even inexistent. As a consequence, a low value in the IQ map leads to a dark grain
boundary or as a noticeable dark grain, constituting the martensite phase or highly
strained ferrite20.

Figure 4 IQ maps of DP1000 specimens in (a) blank area; (b) outer bent edge; (c) middle bent zone;
(d) inner bent edge.

These maps reveal the very low quality of the EBSD patterns as black regions. Figure 4bd present a noticeable difference in dark regions regarding the IQ map in the blank
specimen (Figure 4a). These dark areas suggest extremely strained ferrite phase as a
result of a high level of residual stresses due to the bending process. Also, martensite
islands could appear as black.
Furthermore IQ maps have been successfully used to determine the volume fraction of
the microstructural constituents of several alloys, such as AHSS steels and aluminium
alloys24. In the present work, the volume fraction of the phases varies depending on the
region analysed, that is, blank specimen or bent regions.
Figure 5 show the volume fraction calculated as a function of these areas. The volume
fraction for high IQ values, related to the ferrite phase, is higher than the volume
fraction for the so-called low IQ values, related to grain boundaries, strained ferrite and
martensite. It is noteworthy that the average volume fraction of the low IQ values,
related to the non-indexed areas (grain boundaries, martensite and deformed ferrite)
slightly increases regarding the blank specimens. This is consequence of the increase of
the strained ferrite at the extremely deformed regions (outer and inner edges). A volume
fraction of the low IQ values about 25% has been found in the outer and inner bent
areas, while in the blank specimen the volume fraction is about 16%. In the middle area
is observed a similar low IQ value to the blank specimen coincidently with the neutral
line which separates the areas submitted to tensile and compressive strains in the outer
and inner areas respectively.

Figure 5 Volume fraction of phases measured as of IQ maps of DP1000.

Misorientation profiles, associated to selected ferrite grains in blank specimens (1, 2) and
bent specimens (3, 4), are depicted in Figures 6e-h. These histograms reveal the
misorientation distribution within each grain. For instance, Figure 6e and f gather the

analysis performed in the areas labelled as 1 and 2 in the blank specimen. These
histograms show significant changes of the misorientation distribution. While in Figure
6e, no differences in the orientation of the lattice are perceived, in Figure 6f there is an
abrupt increase of the misorientation suggesting the proximity to low IQ values that in
this case, blank specimen, should correspond to the proximity of a martensite phase.

Figure 6 IPF maps of DP1000 specimens in (a) blank area; (b) outer bent edge; (c) middle bent zone;
(d) inner bent edge; (e)-(h) misorientation profiles of the selected grains taken from the same areas.
The histograms corresponding to selected grains within the bent area are shown
in Figure 6g and h. In particular these histograms are associated to specific grains in the
outer edge (3) and inner edge (4), respectively. Such values could be consequence
either of the presence of martensite next to these grains or highly strained ferrite grains.
Figure 7 depicts the representative EBSD KAM maps, corresponding to the areas above
studied. The misorientation between a data point and its neighbours is analysed by the
KAM maps. Furthermore, these maps indicate the dislocation density28 and the strain
distribution on individual measurement points29. In this work KAM scans were measured
calculating each point by considering up to its 3rd neighbours and without taking into
account any misorientation higher than 5, since this value was chosen to elucidate
between grain boundaries and internal misorientation.

Figure 7 KAM maps of DP1000 specimens in (a) blank area; (b) outer bent edge; (c) middle bent
zone; (d) inner bent edge.
The illustrated colour typed code determines the degree of local crystalline
misorientation within each grain. Blue colour corresponds to the grains without any
misorientation, while red colour would corresponds to the maximum. As it can be seen
in Figure 7a, the blank specimen shows low misorientation. This specimen is
characterized by low KAM values -green colour- visible at the ferrite-martensite
interfaces. However, it is clearly observed that the KAM distribution shifts to higher
values as the plastic deformation proceeds.
Figure 7b-d reveal an evident increase of the local crystalline misorientation, higher
areas coloured in green. In these figures, it is seen that the plastic deformation occurs in
the outer and inner edges regarding the blank specimen, varying substantially within the
ferrite grain as result of the deformation. In particular, note that the ferrite with the
highest level of misorientation -green to red colour- tends to concentrate at the
ferrite/martensite grain boundaries.
3.3 Ultramicrohardness
Figure 8 shows an optical micrograph depicting representative ultramicrohardness
indentations displayed in the DP1000 steel. Higher magnifications of several selected
indentations, corresponding to two different indentation depths of 500 nm and 5000 nm,
are shown in Figure 9a and b, respectively. These SEM images show that the higher the
indentation depth, the larger the Berkovich indentation. In addition, it is clearly observed
that each indentation encompass both ferrite and martensite phases.

Figure 8 Light-optical microscope visualization of a representative Berkovich indentation in DP1000.

Figure 9 SEM images of Berkovich indentations in DP1000 at indentation depths (a) 500 nm; (b)
5000 nm. Representative P-h curve at (c) 5000 nm.
Figure 9c presents a typical load versus displacement curve at the indentation depths of
5000 nm, respectively. The curve exhibits a parabolic behaviour in the loading section
and a power-law behavior in the unloading one21. The elastic recovery exhibited during
the unloading section is small, as expected in metal alloys30-32.
Figure 10 shows the hardness obtained for the DP1000 blank and bent specimens at the
two analysed indentation depths of 500 nm and 5000 nm. This depicts that the values
obtained at lower indentation depth are slightly higher. This response is classically
observed for the known indentation size effect33. Particularly, in dual-phase steels these
size effects usually result from the strain gradient induced by several sources related to
the microstructure -natural hardening of ferrite and reinforcement by martensite-, the
applied deformation field and /or the specimen size34. As shown in the literature34,
nanohardness measurements in dual-phase steels (e.g. with 26% content of martensite)
show different intrinsic hardness values, i.e. 2.96 0.47 GPa for ferrite, and 6.99 5.75
GPa for martensite. Therefore, current results obtained at an indentation depth of 500
nm show an average hardness value dominated by the martensite phase. This might be
a direct consequence of the relationship between the indentation size and the martensite
grain size.

Figure 10 Variations in DP1000 specimens of hardness measured at indentation depths of 500 nm

and 5000 nm.
On the other hand, it is observed that the hardness values corresponding to the bent
specimens are slightly higher than the blank specimen, regardless the indentation depth,
suggesting a work-hardening after the roll-forming process. Furthermore, it can be
noticed that the hardness measured in the bent area also depends on the specific region
evaluated. The values corresponding to specimens with severe deformation -outer and
inner edges- appear slightly higher than in the middle region.

4 DISCUSSION
The deformation behaviour of dual phase steels is considered to be quite complex.
However, despite the lack of understanding of the interactions between the present
constituents and their influence on mechanical properties some generalization has been
made in the literature6. In general, localized plastic strain is resulting from the
incompatible deformation between the soft ferritic matrix and the harder martensite
phase8,35, which have dissimilar properties. This plastic deformation process is initially
related to the dislocation density in the ferrite phase36. In the low strain range -during
the first stages deformation- the work-hardening rate is considerably high as a
consequence of rapid dislocation multiplication and the back stresses resulting from the
strain incompatibility37.
Then, when the ferrite phase reaches its maximum strained capacity (in the high strain
range), ferrite matrix transfers strain across the ferrite-martensite interface, leading to
the onset of a plastic deformation in the martensite grains6,36. Subsequently, the workhardening rate of the dual phase steel diminishes37.
Ashby38 stated that the compatible deformation of a soft matrix which contains hard
particles requires the generation of plasticity gradients, such as statistically stored
(SSDs) and geometrically necessary dislocations (GNDs), within the more deformable
phase. The SSDs are created by simple work hardening of ferrite39, while the GNDs
emerge from the necessity to maintain both ferrite and martensite in contact during
plastic deformation40. This theory has been widely used to explain dislocation movements
and deformation of dual-phase steels38,41,42.
Speich & Miller43 ascertained this statement in dual-phase steels. Also, the original
Bergstrm dislocation theory44, but adjusted for dual-phase steels45, is employed in order
to justify the plastic deformation process in these steels. However, according to this
theory, the deformation is considered to be entirely supported by the ferrite phase,
conversely to several authors6,36 who consider plastic deformation in martensite.
In this work, SEM images (Figure 3) confirm that the ultrafine grained DP1000 steel
deformation mainly takes place in the ferrite phase. As a result, an elongated ferritic
microstructure is observed in the outer edges from the bent area and compressed ferrite
grains in the inner edges.
Moreover the presence of several voids in the specimen after the roll-forming process is
also worth to note, specifically in the outer edges (Figure 3b). It is well known that the

initiation of voids occurs at ferrite/ferrite grain boundaries, martensite/martensite grain

boundaries and in ferrite/martensite ones22.
In addition, it is known that the distribution of voids nucleation sites is dependent on the
microstructure but their growth and coalescence is controlled by local stress state 13. In
this sense, the localization of the voids formed in the outer edge and their shape suggest
that they initiate and grow parallel to the bending direction.
The IQ maps report significant differences of the evolution of the microstructure during
the deformation process. They indicate the degree of distortion of the crystal lattices in
the diffraction patterns46, revealing the location of the grain boundaries and the
martensite phase. Therefore, the low IQ values in the bent area -outer and inner edgessuggest a severe deformation in ferrite due to the plastic stresses appeared
predominantly within the ferritic matrix and in the vicinity of the ferrite/martensite
boundaries.
On the other hand, as it is shown in the misorientation profiles (Figure 6e-h), high values
of misorientation degree are concentrated within the ferrite grains which are surrounded
by martensite. In particular, the maximum degree of this variation is found close to the
ferrite/martensite boundaries.
Qualitatively, the previously results in IQ maps are in good agreement with the results
displayed in the KAM maps. The misorientation differs to a great extent as the plastic
deformation increases. In general, the blank specimens reveal a weak misorientation
within the grains. Whilst in the bent area the plastic strain is mainly localized next to
ferrite/martensite boundaries.
In this work, hardness measurements indicate that the plastic deformation resulting
from the roll-forming process applied on the specimens have small effects in the surface
hardness. That suggests dependence among the mechanical parameters (depth,
hardness) and the material properties, such as the work-hardening resulting from the
plastic flow deformation.

5 CONCLUSIONS
In the present work the microstructure and micromechanical analysis of ultrafine grained
DP1000 steel have been performed for two different representative areas of a constant
hat-section profile obtained by means of continuous roll-forming process with a high feed
rate with the aim of providing responses to the behaviour of this high strength low alloy
steel for the automotive industry.
Meanwhile in not deformed specimens the microstructure of the DP steel reveals weak
misorientation within the ferrite grains, the microstructure corresponding to the bent
area exhibits variations depending on the particular analysed region. The specimens
from the edges of the bent specimen -outer and inner- exhibit a severe plastic
deformation mainly localized within the ferritic matrix and in the vicinity of the
ferrite/martensite grain boundaries. As a result, high misorientation is noticed,
suggesting a large density of dislocation in these deformed zones. Stretched ferrite
grains are found in the outer edges whereas compressed ferrite grains are observed in

the inner edge. The presence of several voids in the outer edge also indicates evident
damage resulting from the plastic deformation undergone in the roll forming process.
The hardness measurements appear to indicate that the plastic deformation possess
certain effects on the DP steel surface hardness.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge the funding by Ministerio de Economa y
Competitividad under project Innpacto IPT-020000-2010-020 and project CONSOLIDERINGENIO 2010 CSD 2008-0023 FUNCOAT.

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Received: June 18, 2015; Revised: June 29, 2015
*

e-mail: igarcia@cenim.csic.es
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Optimization of bending sequence in roll forming using neural network and genetic
algorithm

Authors
Authors and affiliations
Hong-Seok ParkEmail author
Tran-Viet Anh

1.

1.
Article
First Online:
01 September 2011

DOI: 10.1007/s12206-011-0533-6
Cite this article as:
Park, H. & Anh, T. J Mech Sci Technol (2011) 25: 2127. doi:10.1007/s12206011-0533-6

2Citations

417 Views

Abstract
In the roll forming process, the bending sequence plays a major role in the product quality.
The optimal bending sequence results in the smallest number of passes and the flawless
process. This paper presents a new optimization procedure of bending sequence in a roll
forming process. The multilayer perceptron is used to build the neural network (NN), which
models the variation of longitudinal strain in process while the genetic algorithm (GA) is
employed to optimize the bending sequence. The data used for training the network is
automatically obtained by the integration between CAD and CAE. The values of peak
longitudinal strains are maximized while the number of passes is reduced to the smallest and
the constraint conditions being set on the maximal longitudinal strain to avoid buckling. The
overbending at final pass after spring back is also considered in this paper. Two roll forming
processes are optimized in order to prove applicability and efficiency of the optimization
procedure. This method maintains the longitudinal strain less than the buckling limit, whereas
reducing the number of passes to the smallest. Thus, the advantages of the proposed method
show the high applicability in designing and optimizing the bending sequence in the roll
forming process.
Keywords

Roll formingBending sequenceArtificial neural networkGenetic algorithm

This paper was recommended for publication in revised form by Associate
Editor In-Ha Sung

Park Hong Seok received his M.S. degree in 1987 from RWTH Aachen,
Germany, and Ph.D. in 1992 from the University of Hannover, Germany. He
is currently a Professor at the School of Mechanical and Automotive
Engineering, University of Ulsan, Korea. His current interests concern
collaborative design for concurrent engineering, application area of
CAD/CAM, and knowledge management systems.
Tran Viet Anh received his B.Sc. degree in 2009 from Ho Chi Minh
University of Technology, VietNam, and M.S. in 2011, from the University of
Ulsan, Korea. His research interests concern fracture mechanics, composite
material, neural network, genetic algorithm and other evolutionary
algorithms.
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