Professional Documents
Culture Documents
INTRODUCTION
INSTRUCTED BY:
Mr. W.H.P. Sampath
GROUP MEMBERS:
Abayasiri R.S.T
Abeykoon A.B.M.L.B
Adikari P.R.M
Afnan M.M.M
NAME
: Abeykoon A.B.M.L.B.
INDEX NO
: 140005H
GROUP
: M1.1
Ariyasinghe S.D.L.S
DATE OF PER
: 15/9/2016
Asanka S.P.S
DATE OF SUB
: 27/9/2016
Akalanka W.A.M
Arachchi L.M.S
Strain
when a force is applied to a body, the body deforms. In the general case this deformation is called strain.
Strain means deformation per unit length or fractional change in length and gives it the symbol (). Strain
may be either tensile (positive) or compressive (negative). When written in equation form
=
We see that strain is a ratio and, therefore, dimensionless. Since practical strain values are so small, they
are often expressed in micro strain which is x 10-6 and is expressed by the symbol . Still another
way to express strain is as percent strain, which is x 100. As described to this point, strain is fractional
change in length and is directly measurable. Strain of this type is also often referred to as normal strain.
Shear Strain
Another type of strain, called shear strain is a measure of angular distortion. Shear strain is also directly
measurable, but not as easily as normal strain. Shearing strain, , is defined as the angular change in
radians between two line segments that were orthogonal in the un-deformed state. Since this angle is
very small for most metals, shearing strain is approximated by the tangent of the angle. For the shear
strain () the angle of distortion () in radians is considered as the value
= tan (rad)
It is desirable to measure strain than stress, in the analysis of structural loading system. The strain of a
member can be easily measure through the use of strain gauge. In practical application metal-foilelectrical-resistance strain gauges are frequently used. The change in length in the strain gauge results
in change in electrical resistance which can be measured with the help of a Wheatstone bridge.
OBJECTIVE
To observe the stain of a cantilevered beam under varying load conditions. The observation results will
be used to compare the strain values obtained theoretically.
THEORY
The principle behind the Wheatstone bridge.
A basic Wheatstone bridge circuit contains four resistances, a constant voltage input, and a voltage gage,
as illustrated above.
For a given voltage input Vin, the currents flowing through ABC and ADC depend on the resistances, i.e.
SAMPLE CALCULATIONS
Calculations for Theoretical Values
By the bending equation
=
=
and = E x
=
=
3
12
b = 0.03 m
d = 0.002m
l = 0.313 m
=
0.03 0.0023
= 2 1011 4
12
y = 0.001 m
E = 210 x 109 Nm-2
M = mg X l = m X 9.81 ms-2 X 0.313 m = 3.07053m Nm
=
=
= 73.107m x 10-5
Case 3
m = 40g
= 73.107 x 0.04 x 10-5 = 29.24 x 10-6
Theoretical stress
=Ex
where stress
E Elastic modulus of the material = 210 x 109 N / m2
strain
Case 3
m = 40g
Experimental stress
Case 3
Tensile Stress
APPARATUS:
1. Power Supply Unit
2. Amplifier
3. Cantilevered beam attached strain gauges
4. A bridge box
5. Set of weights
PROCEDURE
1. Amplifier was calibrated as follows,
a. Input was selected from the knob in the amplifier.
b. Power was given to the selected input.
c. Amplification mode was set to lowest value.
d. The L and H values were adjusted using screw drive until the strain is zero for
no load condition.
e. Step c was continued for all the amplification modes from lowest to highest
2. The load was applied at the end of the cantilevered beam (20g per time).
3. The strain reading from the strain measuring unit for both tensile and compression surfaces
of the beam was taken and noted down.
4. Steps from 1-4 was repeated to get the compressive strains also.
5. Length, width and height of the beam were measured and noted down.
RESULTS
Data Table for The Graph of Theoretical and Experimental Tensile Stress Vs. Weight
Weight
(g)
Theoretical
Experimental
20
14.621
15
40
29.242
30
60
43.863
45
80
58.484
55
100
73.105
70
70
R = 0.9915
60
R = 0.9826
50
Theoretical
40
Practical
Linear (Theoretical)
Linear (Practical)
30
20
10
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Data Table for The Graph of Theoretical and Experimental Compressive Stress Vs. Weight
Theoretical
Experimental
0.00
0.00
20
3.07
2.10
40
6.14
4.20
60
9.21
8.40
80
12.28
10.50
90
13.82
12.60
14.00
R = 1
12.00
10.00
R = 0.9826
Theoritical
Practical
8.00
Linear (Theoritical)
Linear (Practical)
6.00
4.00
2.00
0.00
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
DISCUSSION
Deformation of a component due to loading conditions is in evitable. In order not to fail the
component or product, the designer should be able to identify the maximum strain which will that
product/component undergo in the normal loading conditions.
Some complex designs strains cannot be calculated theoretically, so strain measurement is needed
to be carried out to get observe how the strain changes with the loading variations in a particular
component/product. For that a strain gauge is used to measure the strain values.
The other main reason to use a strain gauge is due to the safety. Any product may fail due to
stresses. These gauges usually only measure the local deformations that happen on objects and it is
possible to design them in small sizes so that they can be able to perform a good analysis on the object.
So that makes them useful in studying the fatigue.
A strain gauge is an important instrument because it is useful in numerous industrial activities.
Its applications are obvious in constructions and architecture, large machinery manufacturing,
automobile, aeronautical and naval applications etc.
Strain measurement is important in mechanical testing. A wide variety of techniques exists for
measuring strain in the tensile test.
Strain gauge
extensometer
stress and strain determined by machine crosshead motion
Geometric Moir technique
Optical strain measurement techniques
Holographic
Photo elastic methods
CONCLUSION
In this practical session the strain variation of a cantilever beam under different loadings were examined.
To measure the strain a gauge coupled with a Whitestone bridge was used. From the obtained strain
values practical tensile stress value and practical compressive stress values are calculated. Also
theoretical values for those are calculated. From those values two graphs were drawn. Even though the
graphs for practical values and theoretical values should coincide, there was a slight deviation. That is
due some errors in the machines and also due to the errors that occur while the practical was conducted.
There are different methods to measure the strain. Application of these methods are vary from one to
one. It is very important to select correct method to use in the correct method.