Professional Documents
Culture Documents
CULTURELLE
EN EUROPE
TOME 11/1
Scientific Board:
ANGELESCU, Silviu, Universitatea din Bucureti, Departamentul de Studii Culturale, Prof. univ.dr.
BUNACIU, Otniel Ioan, Universitatea din Bucureti, Decan, Prof. univ. dr.
BUSUIOC, Monica, Institutul de Lingvistic Bucureti, Cercettor st. pr.
CHIRCU,Adrian,UniversitateaBabe-BolyaiCluj-Napoca,DepartamentuldeLimbaRomniLingvisticGeneral,Lectoruniv.dr.
CHIVU, Gheorghe, Universitatea din Bucureti, Academia Romn, Prof. univ. dr., Membru al Academiei Romn
CODLEANU, Mioara, Universitatea Ovidius Constana, Conf. univ. dr.
CONSTANTINESCU,Mihaela,UniversitateadinBucureti,DepartamentuldeStudiiCulturale-Director,Prof.univ.dr.
COSTA,Ioana,UniversitateadinBucureti,FacultateadeLimbiStrine,DepartamentuldeLimbiClasice,Prof.univ.,Cercettorst.pr.
COEREANU, Valentin, Centrul Naional de Studii Mihai Eminescu Ipoteti, Dr. Cercettor st. pr.
CRISTESCU, Ioan, Muzeul Naional al Literaturii Romne, Bucureti, Cercettor st. pr.
DANC, Wilhelm, Universitatea din Bucureti, Facultatea de Teologie Catolic, Prof. univ.dr., Decan.
DASCLU, Criu, Academia Romn, Filiala Titu Maiorescu Timioara, Prof. univ.dr., Director.
DINU, Mihai, Universitatea din Bucureti, Facultatea de Litere, Prof. univ. dr.
DULCIU, Dan, Societatea Mihai Eminescu Bucureti, Traductor, Curator.
FLOREA, Silvia, Universitatea Lucian Blaga Sibiu, Departamentul de Limbi Moderne, Conf. univ. dr.
INKOVA, Olga, Universit de Genve,Dpartement de Langues Mditerranennes, Slaves et Orientales, Prof. univ. dr., Directeur.
IOANA, Nicolae, Universitatea Dunrea de Jos Gala, Decan, Prof. univ. dr.
ISPAS, Sabina, Institutul de Etnografie i Folclor Bucureti, Academia Romn, Director, Membru al Academiei Romne.
LOC, Nicolas, Universit Libre de Bruxelles, GRAL-Dr., Cercettor.
MANZOTTI, Emilio, Universit de Genve, Dpartement de Langues Romanes, Prof. univ. dr., Directeur.
MITU, Mihaela, Universitatea din Piteti, Conf. univ. dr.
MOROIANU, Cristian, Universiatatea din Bucureti, Facultatea de Litere, Conf. univ. dr., Prodecan.
NAINEC, Jiri, Universitatea Carol IV Praga, Departamentul Antropologie i Studii Culturale, Prof. univ. dr.
NDRAG, Lavinia, Universitatea Ovidius Constana, Departamentul de Limbi Moderne, Prof. univ. dr., Director.
NICOLAE, Florentina, Universitatea Ovidius Constana, Conf. univ. dr.
PANEA, Nicolae, Universitatea din Craiova, Decan, Prof., univ. dr.
PETRESCU, Victor, Redactor revista Litere, Dr.
RESTOUEIX, Jean-Philippe, Consiliul Europei, Bruxelles, ef scie,TODI, Aida-Universitatea Ovidius Constana, Conf. univ. dr.
TOMESCU, Emilia Domnia, Institutulde LingvisticBucureti,Universitatea PetroliGazedinPloieti,Cercettorst.pr.,Prof. univ.dr.
VASILOIU, Ioana, Muzeul Naional al Literaturii Romne, Bucureti, Cercettor.
WALD,Lucia,UniversitateadinBucureti,FacultateadeLimbiStrine,DepartamentuldeLimbiClasice,Prof.univ.dr.
SOMMAIRE
FONDEMENTS DU DIALOGUE CULTUREL
Fee-Alexandra HAASE
Cosmos, the order of the Universe, and the Spheres of
the World: the tradition of the conceptualization of
globalization in the discourse of philosophy/7
Fabiola KADI
Posie et religion, leurs rapports et leurs particularits dans
la vie de lhomme/33
Silvia FLOREA; Peter J. WELLS; Diana FLOREA
The web is the limit: language, culture and MOOCs/53
Angela STNESCU
Collocation-centred approaches to teaching and learning
English vocabulary/67
Edlira XEGA
The implementation of syllabi for the study of English in
conformity with the Common European Framework of
Reference /73
CONFLUENCES
Adrian CHIRCU
La relation entre les adverbes et les vocabulaires
fondamental et reprsentatif de la langue roumaine/95
5
world, which surrounded the earth, until the scholars in Renaissance started
with their inquiry of the world using the natural sciences and distancing
themselves from the religious answers. But the idea of the areas of the
world around us was still formulated after the paradigm change of the
sciences gave up the ideas of the layers or spheres of the world. In logic the
universe of discourse is a class, which brings a virtually endless number
of arguments, which can be derives from it. Cosmos means according to
the The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (2000) the
universe regarded as an orderly, harmonious whole, an ordered, harmonious
whole, and harmony and order as distinct from chaos. Cosmos in Collins
English Dictionary (2003) means the world or universe considered as an
ordered system, any ordered system, harmony, and order. The word
cosmos is known since 11501200 and derived from Middle English and
Greek ksmos for order, form, arrangement, the world, and
universe. According to Random House Kernerman Webster's College
Dictionary (2010) cosmos means the world or universe regarded as an
orderly, harmonious system, a complete, orderly, harmonious system, an
order and harmony, and any of a genus, Cosmos, of New World composite
plants having open clusters of flowers with red or yellow disks and wide
rays of white, pink, or purple. In contemporary research literature regarding
philosophy the concept sphere is used, which can be traced back to the
earliest Greek philosophy and cosmological writings. Habermas as social
philosopher of pragmatism made the public sphere as the place of
structural transformation in social theory and epistemology famous. The
universe of discourse or domain of discourse is in logic a class
containing all the entities referred to in a discourse or an argument. In
formal logic the argument is defined by this universe of discourse. Every
argument or statement made in that universe applies to all entities of the
universe. Volkmer uses the term global public sphere: The strategy of
9
accurately recognized the novelty of doing so. At least since the advent of
industrial capitalism, however, intellectual discourse has been replete with
allusions to phenomena strikingly akin to those that have garnered the
attention of recent theorists of globalization. The raising interest in
globalization from the perspective of the philosophy of the 20th and 21st
century cannot be seen in another way than the co-incidence of this
buzzword of the economic and trade organizations, which promote
globalization, and the long history of the conceptual usage of terminology
of the semantic field of the cosmos, the universe and the spheres
within them. The earliest philosophers used this terminology, since they
were in the position of being universal scholars, which did not separate the
different fields of their studies.
2. The World in German Philosophy of the 19th Century
Platos Politics can be considered the first philosopher who used for
politics the term sphere of action. Aristotle in his Politics (book 4, section
1300b) writes that a difference among judicial courts rests upon three
determinants, which are constituents, sphere of action, and mode of
appointment. The usage of globalization for the area of culture can be
traced back to Hegels work The Phenomenology of Mind. The in Free
Concrete Mind: Spirit in the section The Spirit in Self-Estrangement (I. b.
Belief and Pure Insight (1); 1. Belief and Pure Insight) Hegel states that
the spiritual condition of self-estrangement exists in the sphere of culture
as a fact. Hegel in Science of Logic also speaks about the spiritual sphere
with an infinitely manifold content that is communicable. Hegel in his
Aesthetics (Lectures on Aesthetics. Volume 2. Part III. The System of the
Individual Arts) wrote as introduction to this part about art, which resides in
the sphere of the universal world-views:
12
13
the diameter and through it the total superficial area of the earth; and
although I am ignorant of the objects which this surface may contain,
I yet have knowledge of its limits and extent.
The archetypical usage of the spherical concept of financial
globalization we find in the work of Marx. Marx used in his economic
manuscripts of the Capital (Vol. I. Chapter Six) the expression sphere of
circulation. In the Capital (Volume II; Chapter 1) The Circuit of Money
Capital Marx deals with the changes in form (or metamorphoses) of capital
in the sphere of circulation. Scheuermann (2013) in the article
Globalization of the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy wrote on Marx
contribution to globalization: Another German migr, the socialist
theorist Karl Marx, in 1848 formulated the first theoretical explanation of
the sense of territorial compression that so fascinated his contemporaries. In
Marx's account, the imperatives of capitalist production inevitably drove the
bourgeoisie to nestle everywhere, settle everywhere, and establish
connections everywhere. Marx described that new technologies provided
the necessary infrastructure for a cosmopolitan future socialist civilization,
while simultaneously functioning in the present as indispensable
organizational tools for a working class destined to undertake a revolution
no less oblivious to traditional territorial divisions than the system of
capitalist exploitation it hoped to dismantle. Prior the Marx historical
materialism, concepts like Weltgeist (world spirit) and Weltseele
(world soul) emerged in the second half of the 19 th century in the German
philosophy. Hegel and Schopenhauer use the concept world in this
context. The world as an idea and the will of the human was the opus
magnum of Schopenhauer and is an important work for the relationship
between the mind and the reality of the human. Schopenhauer in The World
As Will And Idea in First Book. The World As Idea. First Aspect. The Idea
Subordinated To The Principle Of Sufficient Reason: The Object Of
14
Experience And Science formulated that the world is the idea of the mind,
when saying:
1. The world is my idea:this is a truth which holds good
for everything that lives and knows, though man alone can bring it
into reflective and abstract consciousness. If he really does this, he
has attained to philosophical wisdom. It then becomes clear and
certain to him that what he knows is not a sun and an earth, but only
an eye that sees a sun, a hand that feels an earth; that the world
which surrounds him is there only as idea, i.e., only in relation to
something else, the consciousness, which is himself.
The statement The world is idea Schopenhauer traces back as a
truth involved in the skeptical reflections from which Descartes started,
which Berkeley distinctly enunciated, and Kant's missed to respect as a
principle. This truth Schopenhauer traced back to the wise men of India
as appearing indeed as the fundamental tenet of the Vednta philosophy
ascribed to Vyasa. Schopenhauer wrote:
For as the world is in one aspect entirely idea, so in another it is
entirely will. A reality which is neither of these two, but an object in
itself (into which the thing in itself has unfortunately dwindled in the
hands of Kant), is the phantom of a dream, and its acceptance is an
ignis fatuus in philosophy.
Schopenhauer wrote about concepts:
9. Concepts form a distinct class of ideas, existing only in the
mind of man, and entirely different from the ideas of perception which
15
and auditor. At one time it may be the physical universe of sense (1) [Note
(Commens): This refers to the previous item in the DPP], at another it may
be the imaginary "world" of some play or novel, at another a range of
possibilities. The term was introduced by De Morgan in 1846 (Cambridge
Philosophical Transactions, viii, 380) but De Morgan never showed that he
fully comprehended it. It does not seem to be absolutely necessary in all
cases that there should be an index proper outside the symbolic terms of the
proposition to show what it is that is referred to; but in general there is such
an index in the environment common to speaker and auditor. This De
Morgan has not remarked; but what he has remarked has likewise its
importance, namely, that for the purposes of logic it makes no difference
whether the universe be wide or narrow. The idea of a limited logical
universe was adopted by Boole and has been employed by all subsequent
exact logicians. There is besides a universe of marks or characters,
whenever marks are considered substantively, that is, as abstractions, as
they commonly are in ordinary speech, even though the forms of language
do not show it. Thus only, there comes to be a material difference between
an affirmative and a negative proposition. For it will then alone be one
thing to say that an object wants some character common to all men and
another to say that it possesses every character common to all non-men.
Only instead of giving three qualities it gives four, for the assertion may be
that an object wants some character common to all non-men; a point made
by ancient writers. In 1882 O. C. Mitchell extended the theory of the logical
universe by the introduction of the idea of 'dimension'." ('Universe (2)',
DPP 2 / CP 2.536, 1902) In Minute Logic (1902; 2013) Pierce explains with
the example of the class of people introduced to the Eleusian mysteries that
every one of them, but no people of another class, experienced the feeling
of awe and participates in this universe of discourse:
20
facts and thereby transcend the facts are losing their authentic linguistic
representation. Without these mediations, language tends to express and
promote the immediate identification of reason and fact, truth and
established truth, essence and existence, the thing and its function.
Marcuse depicts a state of power, when functionalization of language
helps to repel non-conformist elements from the structure and movement
of speech.
In this behavioral universe, words and concepts tend to coincide, or
rather the concept tends to be absorbed by the word. The former has
no other content than that designated by the word in the publicized
and standardized usage, and the word is expected to have no other
response than the publicized and standardized behaviour (reaction).
The word becomes clich and, as clich, governs the speech or the
writing; the communication thus precludes genuine development of
meaning. To be sure, any language contains innumerable terms which
do not require development of their meaning, such as the terms
designating the objects and implements of daily life, visible nature,
vital needs and wants. These terms are generally understood so that their
mere appearance produces a response (linguistic or operational)
adequate to the pragmatic context in which they are spoken.
Marcuse described here the impact of a functionalized language,
which as an absolute power destroys the values of the discourse. As
assemblage of clich the language is dead and formal serving as the
framework of a totalitarian discourse. This state Marcuse marks as the end
of the universe of discourse.
22
23
critical point Habermas mentioned: Thus, to the present day there remains
a gulf at the European level between the citizens opinion- and willformation, on the one hand, and the policies actually adopted to solve the
pressing problems, on the other. According to Habermas ironically that
what unite the European citizens today are the Eurosceptical mindsets that
have become more pronounced in all of the member countries during the
crisis, albeit in each country for different and rather polarizing reasons. As
solution Habermas presents here the concepts of Sittlichkeit (morality)
and solidarity.
Sloterdijk developed an account of globalization with the historical
and philosophical consequences of the earth considered to be as a globe and
globalization as the last phase in a process staring first with the
circumnavigation of the earth. In the last phase of globalization the world
system as a capitalist system determines the conditions of life. The original
book in German was published in 2005 with the title Im Weltinnenraum des
Kapitals (2005) as a philosophical theory of globalization. Sloterdijk
presents a philosophy of space in the Sphren-trilogy of terrestrial
globalization. (2005: 14) The globe is a philosophical concept (Globus,
Kugel, sphaira) resulting from terrestrial globalization (2005: 37)
Terrestrial globalization is the process of material expansion, which
Sloterdijk calls world history in a philosophical sense (2005: 28). After
the terrestrial globalization a cosmic-Uranian or morphological
globalization followed, which began with the Greek culture and after this
stage a electronic globalization. The Weltinnenraum (world interior) of
this sphere and age is the result from the contraction of the world by money
(capital). Sloterdijk wrote the trilogy Spheres, which was published
1998, 1999, and 2004. Spheres are for Sloterdijk spaces of
coexistence. Sloterdijk argued that the current concept of globalization
lacks a historical perspective.
25
planet, it loses its properties as a city, and, of course with them, those
properties that would allow it to be distinguished from a country. Nancy
(2007: 33) writes that the West has come to encompass the word, and in
this movement it disappears as what was supposed to orient the course of
this world. For all that, up until now, one cannot say that any other
configuration of the world or any other philosophy of the universal and of
reason have challenged that course. Nancy (2007: 33) writes that the
world has lost its capacity to form a world (faire monde): it seems only to
have gained that capacity of proliferating, to the extent of its means, the
un-world (immonde), which, until now, and whatever one may think of
retrospective illusions, has never in history impacted the totality of the orb
to such an extent. In the end, everything takes place as if the world affected
and permeated itself with a death drive that soon would have nothing else to
destroy than the world itself. Nancy distinguishes globalisation
(globalization) and mondialisation (world-forming). Nancy provides a
philosophical reflection of the phenomenon of globalization. Nancy takes
the linguistic sophistical approach, which attaches to the word specific
meanings. On the contrary, the approach of Sloterdijk is a historical
analysis and interpretation of the history of humanity under the aspect of
globalization. While Sloterdijk extends the concept globalization in the
historical dimension as a process and thus contributed to historical
understanding of this concept, Nancy analyses this concept. Sloterdik sets
up a discourse, where he interprets things as items of globalization. The
criticism of this procedure would be the accusation of historical
revisionism. But what Sloterdijk here does, it the setting of absolute terms,
which derive like the terms of globalization from a constructed and
inorganic background. These terms are a framework set up to imitate the
discourse; these terms are conceptual and not historical. In the case of
Sloterdijkss terms, the terms are bound to a discourse, which is supporting
27
2013.<http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0094-033X%28197423%290
%3A3%3C49%3ATPSAEA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-Z>.
HEGEL, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich, 2013, Phenomenology of Mind.
Marxists Archive. October 1, 2013. <http://www.marxists.org/
reference/archive/hegel/works/ph/phc2b1b.htm>.
INGLIS, John, 2013, Spheres of Philosophical Inquiry and the
Historiography of Medieval Philosophy. - Leiden: Brill, 1998.
KANT, Immanual, 2013, Critique of Pure Reason. Marxists Internet
Archive. October 23, 2013. <http://www.marxists.org/reference
/subject/ethics/kant/reason/ch04.htm>.
LIDDELL, Henry GEORGE; Scott, Robert, 1940, A Greek-English
Lexicon. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Perseus Project. Tufts University.
June
23,
2013.
<http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper
/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dsfai%3
Dra%5E&highlight=ball>.
MARCUSE, Herbert, 2013, One-Dimensional Man. Herbert Marcuse
Archive.
Marxists
Archive.
October
23,
2013.
<http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/marcuse/works/onedimensional-man/ch04.htm>.
NANCY, Jean Luc, 2007, The Creation of the World or Globalization.
Albany: State University of New York Press.
ROBERTSON, Simon, 2009, Spheres of Reason. New Essays in the
Philosophy of Normativity. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
SCHEUERMAN, William, 2013, Globalization. Stanford Encyclopedia
of Philosophy. Stanford University. October 22, 2013.
<http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/globalization/>.
SCHNEEWIND, J. B., 2002, Globalization and the History of
Philosophy. Journal of the History of Ideas 66.2 (2002): 169-178.
31
32
1. Lomniprsence de la posie
La littrature est en volution constante. Son statut change jour
aprs jour sous linfluence de diffrents facteurs. De nos jours, la littrature
et surtout la posie, sont menaces par le cinma, la radio, la tlvision,
linformatique etc. On constate une diminution du nombre de lecteurs de
posie, peu sont ceux en effet qui veulent entrer dans le monde mystrieux
de la parole potique. Dans son capharnam sonore, notre socit rejette la
posie comme elle quitte la spiritualit.
Peu nombreux sont ceux qui la gotent comme si elle navait plus
rien nous dire. Et pourtant, beaucoup duvres potiques sont publies.
Dans son livre Anthologie de la posie mystique contemporaine, Jean-Luc
Maxence cite le pote suisse, Gustave Roud: Croyez-moi, la posie est un
33
prsent merveilleux qui nous est offert tous, grands et petits, mais
beaucoup ne sen rendent pas compte. Et pourtant, il importe, voyez-vous,
que chacun sente ds son plus jeune ge que ce trsor lui appartient ou
quil peut devenir sien. Car sans la posie nous ne pouvons dcouvrir ni
connatre vraiment le monde o nous nous sommes veills la vie. Cest
grce elle que nous allons dmerveillement en merveillement: elle nous
ouvre les yeux et le cur. 1
La posie a toujours t prsente toutes les poques de lhumanit.
De la naissance jusqu la mort, lhomme des socits traditionnelles a
toujours t accompagn par des hymnes, des chants, des prires, la plupart
desquels sont de vrais pomes. Ce genre ft le domaine de prdilection de
lhumanit dans les moments heureux et tristes, dans les pleurs et les jeux.
On dit souvent que la posie est ne dans ses formes orales et crites
comme une manire de mmoriser les vnements de la vie humaine.
Daprs Georges Jean, elle est la mmoire des peuples qui nont pas
lcriture .2
La posie parle de lexprience humaine, des individus, ou des
groupes sociaux. Et pourtant, il semble quaujourdhui elle se rduit un
simple sujet scolaire dans lequel, la rime est plus importante que le contenu
de la posie elle-mme.
Est-ce que la posie a quelque chose nous dire aujourdhui qui
peut tre essentiel?
Lexprience de la posie est avant tout une aventure spirituelle, que ce soit
dans le bonheur ou le malheur, dans labsence ou labondance, elle est
toujours lie lme humaine.
En chaque homme, il y a un pote, et surtout chez les enfants, mme
si avec le passage du temps, on oublie lmerveillement de lge enfantin
1
2
34
qui est un des lments essentiels dans la vie dun homme. Lenfant
contemple avec curiosit tout ce qui lentoure et cest ce qui laide
avancer dans la vie, apprendre des choses nouvelles.
En quittant le large monde de notre enfance, non seulement on
sest gar de la terre des feries, mais on est entr sans vergogne pour se
balader dans un dsert aride, strile de ltonnement et de la
comprhension, en prtendant quon a pouss lhorizon de nos limites et on
na rien vu. La recherche est comprhensible et lloignement est lgitime;
mais le voyage a t celui dun imprudent. 3 dclare lcrivain et
lapologiste chrtien Ravi Zacharias. Lhomme, et surtout le pote, a besoin
de sexprimer ouvertement, davoir une perception plus claire de ce qui
lentoure, cest ce qui laide spanouir.
Par la posie, le pote touche une trs grande varit de sentiments
(lamour, lamiti, la famille, la religion, lamour pour la patrie). Ce genre
littraire nest pas une simple expression artistique; il prend la forme dune
consolation devant les preuves les plus dures de la vie: dception, perte,
absence, mort, deuil, etc. Lie intrinsquement la ralit humaine, au
lyrisme individuel et collectif, la posie est une jouissance, comme la
musique, sadressant la sensibilit, la partie irrelle de notre vie. La
posie largit notre part de rve, de libert, dnergie cratrice de notre
existence en tant quhumains. Daprs Yves Bonnefoy, lcriture devient
le matriau dune rflexion dont lintention est de clarifier ce que nous
sommes, de dlivrer le Je profond des modes dtre du moi... 4. Bonnefoy
lance lide de la profondeur de la posie en la considrant comme une
recherche. Rimbaud prtendait apporter un changement dans sa vie
travers lcriture potique. Pour Mallarm, le monde ressemble plus un
3
35
36
G. Pompidou, 1961, p. 9.
37
38
http://sergecar.perso.neuf.fr/cours/art6.htm.
http://sergecar.perso.neuf.fr/cours/art6.htm.
13
M. Eliade, 1965, p. 14.
12
39
14
http://silonrecoltecequelonseme.blogspot.com/2012/05/.
40
41
afin dcouter le pote comme un rveur sacr qui parle lme humaine et
lui enseigne le message de Dieu aprs lavoir reu.
Peuples! coutez le pote !
coutez le rveur sacr !
Dans votre nuit, sans lui complte,
Lui seul a le front clair.
Des temps futurs perant les ombres,
[] Homme, il est doux comme une femme.
Dieu parle voix basse son me
Comme aux forts et comme aux flots.16
Le pote est un mage, un voyant, un prophte. Il peut entrer dans un
autre monde et mme sil se trouve dans un monde matriel, il garde le
souvenir du ciel. Le pote crateur devient limage de Dieu Crateur
travers sa spiritualit et le pouvoir crateur de son me. Il imite Dieu et
comme Dieu est source du sacr, le pote devient aussi source de posie. Il
participe luvre de Dieu, dans le poiein (cration) universel. Agrippa
dAubign commence son livre Les Tragiques, par un appel solennel quil
fait Dieu (comme Homre fait appel la Muse au dbut dIliade et
dOdysse), avec ces mots: Donne force ma voix, efficace mes vers.17
Le rapport entre Dieu et le pote est vraiment surprenant. Le pote
imite Dieu dans sa cration. Mais, Dieu est le pote des potes qui jette un
doux regard vers sa crature. Il apparat dans la Bible comme un Dieu
artiste, comme le crateur des tres uniques. Luvre artistique la plus
originale ds le commencement est ce regard potique de Dieu vers ltre
humain. Le pote aussi, il cre, il donne vie, il invente quelque chose
16
17
V. Hugo, 2013, p. 8.
A. DAubign, Les Tragiques, Livre VII.
42
travers son art... ce quil fait, il le fait comme tant choisi par Dieu pour
continuer sa cration. Le pote est conscient du mal qui existe dans le
monde et mme sil ne peut pas lexpliquer, il peut crer pour ainsi donner
une rponse au mal travers son regard crateur, il peut accomplir une
uvre damour en crant du beau. Beaucoup de potes ont dcouvert un
lien entre lart et la foi, ils ont cru que crer, est un don sacr et ils ont mis
leurs plumes au service de la cration du beau.
5. La posie - un pont entre lart et la foi
Est-ce quil vaut la peine dtudier le religieux dans la posie? Ce
nest pas la premire fois quon traite ce sujet, mais nous voulons mettre en
vidence limportance de ltude du religieux, car il nous donne la
possibilit de mieux comprendre la littrature et le monde en gnral. La
religion apporte une vision sur lternit travers laquelle elle explique le
monde. On dit souvent que les religions donnent la forme aux civilisations,
elles colorent les socits. Le religieux est souvent utilis pour mettre en
vidence une identit, il est une constante trs importante de lidentit
nationale de diffrents pays.
Le religieux et le mythologique grco-romain, sont une partie
essentielle du patrimoine culturel europen, une source dinspiration
permanente. Cest un langage spcial, plus proche du langage de lart et
surtout de la posie du langage symbolique. On nest pas trs audacieux si
on avoue que la plupart des littratures nationales ont leurs dbuts dans les
croyances religieuses.
La foi est un lment qui accompagne lhomme pendant toute son
histoire avec une influence dans tous les domaines de sa vie.
Le rapport qui existe entre lart et la foi a t discut pendant toute
lhistoire humaine.18 La foi ouvre un mystre, elle influe sur lhomme et lui
18
E. Mounier, 1968, p. 8.
43
19
Ibidem.
R. Lasnier, 1941.
21
J.-L. Joubert, 2003, p. 8.
22
J.-L. Joubert, 2003, p. 33.
20
44
45
regard qui dpasse tout autre regard, o on peut voir avec les yeux du cur
linfluence de lamour qui existait ds la cration. Le pote continue
luvre de la Cration, il nous prsente le divin et le mystre du Ciel. Il
ressemble ainsi aux saints qui continuent luvre de la Croix.
Dans les crits religieux, on peut souvent trouver des uvres de
grande beaut, mais dans cette tude on ne va pas tudier les crits
religieux, mais la posie littraire dans laquelle on trouve des traces du
religieux. Francis Jammes dclare: Je conclus donc ce qu'un mystique
religieux, un vrai mystique, n'est pas ncessairement un pote. Mais la
rciproque n'est point exacte, et j'affirmerai hardiment que, dans tout vrai
pote, dans tout pote exprimant une pense et un sentiment purs, il y a un
mystique. 24
On ne peut agrer lide que tous religieux soient potes, par
contre on peut appuyer lide que la dimension divine accompagne tous
les potes.
Pourtant, le rapport entre lart et la foi est souvent vu comme
contradictoire. Pendant lhistoire humaine, il passe travers diffrentes
tapes. Les littratures des pays chrtiens qui ont embrass les premiers
lEvangile, regardaient la culture paenne et son expression littraire comme
illgales et interdites. La plupart des croyants voyaient les potes comme
une barrire pour lavancement spirituel de lhomme. Les chrtiens des
premiers sicles, expriment ouvertement leur opposition contre les potes
qui sont considrs comme porteurs de paganisme, des traditions
polythistes, de la dgradation morale, chantres des passions humaines et
mme souvent des propagateurs de limmoralit, qui se soumettent aux
rves et limagination. Des philosophes du temps de Saint Augustin, au IIime jusquau IV-ime sicle expriment des critiques contre les potes.
24
46
Pourtant cela ne les a pas empchs de connatre une partie des uvres de
la posie latine et dapprcier cette posie pour ses valeurs esthtiques. 25
Le changement positif dans le rapport des potes et des religieux est
li deux facteurs principaux: dune part, on a une tolrance du
christianisme et une ouverture envers la culture profane, dautre part, les
potes non-chrtiens ont un penchant pour la posie liturgique chrtienne. Il
y a une mutuelle sympathie. Ds lan 111, dans une lettre de Pline le Jeune,
on raconte que les chrtiens de Bitinie sunissaient jour fixe pour
chanter un hymne dialogu quils adressent au Christ comme un dieu ,
pour dclarer la divinit du Christ: on voit apparatre les traits
caractristiques de la posie ancienne chrtienne. Les vers que le pote
Hilaire de Poitiers avait crits comme pigraphe dans son recueil potique
au milieu du IV-ime sicle, tmoignent de cette ouverture de la posie
chrtienne envers les potes:
Heureux le pote la harpe, David, qui le premier
Annonce au monde par des hymnes le Christ tout entier. 26
David est apprci et honor par Hilaire de Poitiers comme le
premier pote du Christ. Du rapprochement des formes antiques et la
louange du Christ, nat une nouvelle posie latine dans laquelle on sent
linfluence de lunivers religieux. Lexpression potique de la foi chrtienne
na pas dtrn la posie antique, mais elle a renouvel les valeurs
religieuses et les formes anciennes travers cette posie. 27
25
Jacques Fontaine, Esthtique et foi d'aprs la posie latine chrtienne des premiers sicles. In: Comptes
rendus des sances de l'Acadmie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, 137e anne, N. 4, 1993, pp. 881-888.
http:/www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/crai_0065-0536_1993_num_137_4_15274.
26
Ibidem.
27
http:/www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/crai_0065-0536_1993_num_137_4_15274.
47
http://www.dieumaintenant.com/conversionclaudel.html.
49
priode dhsitation, Claudel comprend que le mur lev entre lart et la foi
doit scrouler. Il crit:
Les gens irrflchis prtendent que les enseignements de la
religion, morale et dogme, sont un appauvrissement, une
contrarit pour l'artiste []. Loin d'tre un appauvrissement,
l'adjonction la chose visible de la chose invisible fait plus que
de l'enrichir, elle lui donne un sens, elle la complte .29
Il croit que le pote sinspire de la divinit, dune puissance qui
vient den Haut et il exprime cette conviction dans ses vers:
Et moi, dit le pote, pour attraper les images et les ides,
Il me suffit de cet appt de papier blanc,
Les dieux ny passeront point sans y laisser leurs traces
Comme les oiseaux sur la neige.30
6. Conclusion:
La posie contient du sacr. Ces deux lments ont toujours eu des
relations trs troites, mme si parfois il semble difficile daccepter ce fait.
Les uvres des potes chrtiens des premiers sicles, travers linspiration
et la forme sont un hommage offert Dieu et une partie insparable de la
source inpuisable de la posie europenne. Lhomme a toujours senti le
besoin du spirituel, de ce qui est en dessus de lui et le pote exprime les
aspirations de ltre humain. Oublier la posie dans laquelle on traite le
religieux, serait une perte considrable pour lhistoire de la littrature en
gnral. Prtendre la sparation absolue de la posie avec la religion cest
ignorer la contribution des grands potes appartenant au patrimoine
mondial dont une grande partie ont crit des uvres merveilleuses inspires
de la foi et de leur monde spirituel trs riche. Nous pensons quil faut
redcouvrir la beaut de ces uvres au lieu de les laisser dans loubli par
29
30
Ibidem.
P. Claudel, 1925, Feuilles de saints, p. 113.
50
52
Conole, 2013.
53
expand their online offerings and make more effective use of technologies,
universities have tackled new competitive niches and business models. In
this context, with an increasing demand for higher student numbers and
greater diversity, the issues pertaining to universities stated aims of
developing students skills in finding and using information effectively
have gradually shifted towards developing learners 21st century digital
literacy skills2 so as to equip them for an increasingly complex and
changing societal context. MOOCs represent, in this respect, an example of
how technologies can disrupt the status quo of education, forewarning all
stakeholders of further changes to come. They also represent a cry for
taking online education (hence MOOCs) more seriously and making more
serious, informed and pedagogically effective design decisions 3.
Looking into the relatively short history of MOOCs, one notices
their rapid emergence as a disruptive education technology, embracing
multiple denominations: educational technology, learning technology,
networked learning, technology-enhanced learning4, and more recently,
Open Educational Resources5. Siemens et al. created the first MOOC in
2008, called Connectivism and Connective Knowledge, a course that
aimed to foster the availability of social and participatory media, heavily
relying on the interaction with a distributed network of peers. There was no
right way throughout the course, the emphasis being on personalised
learning via a personal learning environment. These represented the first
generation of MOOCs and were known as cMOOCs. Soon, variants of this
course quickly started to proliferate, beginning 2011, and a second
generation of MOOCs emerged, known as xMOOCs. These were primarily
based on interactive media, such as lectures, videos and text, with the
2
Jenkins, 2009.
Conole, 2013.
4
Conole and Oliver, 2007.
5
Glennie, Harley et al. 2012.
3
54
Daniel, 2012.
Cormier, 2010.
8
Downes, 2011.
7
55
56
Nisbett, 2003.
Altbach, 2014.
16
Ibid.
15
57
Huggan, 1997:22.
Altbach, 2014.
58
59
Roald, 1999.
Allwood & Schroeder, 2000.
60
communities, to take only these two cases for the case in point, knowing
that communication processes are different in their cultures. It is known for
example, that Asian speakers use sentences in which the main point is
postponed until enough background information is known for making
correct connections and inferences, whereas English speakers typically
open discourse with the main topic followed by supportive information.
This culturally embedded discourse disparity often results in English
speakers familiarity with the usage of a topic sentence to open discourse or
anticipate critical information being presented at the start of a conversation
whereas Asian speakers wait until later in discourse for important
information to be made available26. How is then course content assimilated?
How can learning behaviour be the same? Furthermore, at yet another level,
developments in linguistics (semantics in particular) have isolated
intractable phenomena, such as: presuppositions, and other contextdependent implications that require pragmatic solutions 27.
The most often quoted example "Some ten cent pieces are rejected
by this vending machine", shows that "some" may mean either "some and
not all" or "some and perhaps all", and it further indicates that a semantic
theory can give us only a certain proportion of a general account of
language understanding. The gap that remains to be bridged between a
semantic theory and a complete theory of linguistic communication must
account for the hints, implicit purposes, assumptions, social attitudes, etc.
that are effectively communicated by the use of language,28
including the world experience brought to the situation of
discourse by the interlocutors29.
26
61
62
32
Ibid.
63
CONOLE, G, and OLIVER, M., 2007, Contemporary Perspectives in ELearning Research: Themes, Methods and Impact on Practice,
London: Routledge Falmer.
CONOLE, G., 2013, MOOCs as Disruptive Technologies: Strategies for
Enhancing the Learner Experience and Quality of MOOCs, in RED,
Revista de Educacin a Distancia. Nmero 39, 15 de diciembre de 2013.
DANIEL, J., 2012, Making Sense of MOOCs: Musings in a Maze of
Myth, Paradox and Possibility, in Journal of Interactive Media in
Education, 3.
FLOREA, S., 2013, The Academic Setting: Aspects of Pragmatic
Competence and Transfer in Inter-Cultural Communication, in
Transilvania, Nr. 11-12, Sibiu, p.129-132.
GLENNIE, J., K. HARLEY, et Al., 2012, Open Educational Resources and
Change in Higher Education: Reflections from Practice, Vancouver,
Commonwealth of Learning/UNESCO.
HENDERSON, L., 1996, Instructional Design of Interactive Multimedia:
A Cultural Critique, in Educational Technology Research and
Development, 44(4), 85-104.
HUGGAN, G., 1997, The Neocolonialism of Postcolonialism: A
Cautionary Note, in Links & Letters 4, 1997 19-24.
JASZCZOLT, Katarzyna M., 2006, Defaults in Semantics and
Pragmatics, in Semantics: An International Handbook of Natural
Language Meaning, ed. K. von Heusinger, P. Portner & C.
Maienborn. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
JENKINS, H., 2009, Confronting the Challenges of Participatory Culture:
Media Education for the 21st Century, Mit Pr.
MASON, R., 2007, Internationalizing Education, in M.G. Moore
(Ed.), Handbook of Distance Education (2nd ed., pp. 583-591),
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
65
66
COLLOCATION-CENTRED APPROACHES TO
TEACHING AND LEARNING ENGLISH
VOCABULARY
Angela STNESCU, PhD
Valahia University of Trgovite
angelastanescu@yahoo.com
Abstract:
The present article is based on the assumption that vocabulary acquisition and
proficiency in English or any other language, for that matter is largely conditioned by
acquiring a sound knowledge of collocation patterns, as well as adequate collocation
practice activities. From beginner to proficiency level, collocation should constitute the
primary focus of any vocabulary development programme. The author presents a range of
collocation-centred teaching techniques and learning strategies, meant at raising awareness
of word association or and at building sound collocation habits, which constitute the basis
of lexical proficiency and appropriacy.
Key-words:
Vocabulary, collocation, patterns, appropriacy, practice activities
Introduction
Foreign students ability to speak and write English both accurately
and fluently is related to a large extent to their mastery of vocabulary,
especially of collocation. Most language mistakes arise from the wrong
association between words, i.e. collocation, which is one of the most
difficult areas of language learning at all levels.
While native speakers collocate naturally and automatically, nonnative speakers have to learn and practice word association systematically
before they are able to sense what sounds right and what does not. What
they need is awareness-raising exercises, which set them thinking about
correct collocations when they do reading or listening activities or when
they look up words in the dictionary, intensive classroom practice and
67
items. Thus students should be trained to pay attention to the most frequent
collocation patterns:
Subject noun + verb: The earth revolves round the sun.
Verb + object noun: take a photo, light a fire, strike a match
Adjective + noun: light sleeper, heavy smoker, heavy traffic,
utter disappointment
Adjective/past participle + preposition: fond of, keen on,
interested in, delighted at, concerned about
Adverb
+
past
participle
(used
attributively):
smartly/badly/fashionably dressed, fully understood, hard-earned, deeply hurt
Adverb + verb: sincerely hope, honestly believe, fully
understand, absolutely love
Verb + adverb: enjoy thoroughly, cry bitterly, eat heartily, work hard
Verb + preposition: insist on, object to, approve of, sympathise with
Reading for collocation
As reading represents the main form of exposure to collocation,
texts used in classroom reading activities can also be exploited for
collocation learning or reinforcement, as a follow-up exercise. Students will
be asked to scan the text and take out any new collocations corresponding
to the patterns presented above. Thus, reading specifically for collocation
can be an extremely productive vocabulary development technique. In
addition, students should also be encouraged to pay attention to collocations
and even pause to write them down when reading outside the classroom.
b)
Matching items
The two halves of different collocation patterns are put in two
separate columns, in jumbled order. Students have to match the
corresponding items. E.g.:
1
1. broaden
a. a screw
2
2. soften
b. your hair
3
3. straighten
c. your mind
4
4. tighten
d. the blow
69
A DISH
mild
light
weak
c)
Collocation gap-fill
The exercise consists of a set of gapped sentences focused on
different collocation patterns.
E.g.: She ............ a thick layer of jam on her toast. / I think we are
all ....... agreement.
d)
Collocation error correction
Students have to correct collocation errors in sentences where the
key element requiring a different collocation is underlined:
E.g.: The crime was done last night. / The result was an extreme
disappointment.
e)
Sentence building (from given outline and key word)
The students are required to build a sentence round a given word,
most commonly a noun, by supplying subject, verb, adjective, preposition
and object where applicable. The key words used as cues can be nouns
which are part of verb phrase collocation model cases.
E.g.:
SUBJECT VERB ADJECTIVE
NOUN
INVESTIGATION
RESEARCH
INQUIRY
70
PREPOSITION OBJECT
f)
Matching idioms and definitions
Idioms represent fixed collocation patterns formed round a key verb
or noun. Teaching and learning idioms can be organised round topic based
vocabulary clothes idioms, parts of the body idioms, etc. The students are
given a set of sentences containing idioms and a list of definitions to be matched.
E.g.: Youre going to fail the exam if you dont pull your socks up.
(make an effort)
g)
Matching pairs
The exercise is focused on symmetrical collocations of the type:
noun AND noun, adjective AND adjective, past participle AND past
participle. The students are given the elements to be paired up in separate
lists of jumbled items. E.g.: sick, head, bits, body, dead, bed, odds AND
breakfast, tired, soul, buried, pieces, ends, shoulders
h)
Collocation grids
This is basically another matching exercise configured as a table
containing a column of items with roughly similar meanings but different
collocations and a row of items they can collocate with. The students have
to decide on the associative possibilities of each item by marking the
intersection point between items as a positive collocation match (Rudska et
al., in Gairns and Redman 1992, 38).
woman man child dog bird flower weather view village
beautiful
+
+
+ +
+
+
+
+
lovely
+
+
+
+
+
+
pretty
+
+
+
+
+
+
charming
+
+
+
+
attractive
+
+
+
good-looking
+
+
+
handsome
+
+
71
i)
Find someone who
The activity begins with a matching exercise, with two separate lists
of items to be matched so as to obtain adjective + noun collocations, e.g.
light sleeper, heavy smoker, close friend.
After checking the correct combinations, the students move round
the class to find someone who: is a light sleeper, have a heavy smoker in
their family, has a close friend of a different nationality, has had a serious
illness, etc.
j)
Questionnaires (make vs. do)
The questionnaire should consist of an answer sheet with questions
on problematic collocations, such as make or do combinations. The main
question is In your house, who does/makes things? The question prompts
in the survey chart will include items such as the shopping/the beds/the
cooking/most of the decisions/the ironing/the most money/a mess and the
answer
prompts
can
be
a
man/a
woman/either/you/your
mother/father/brother/sister/wife. Similar questionnaires can be devised in
order to revise relevant vocabulary and collocations on such topics as
personality traits, holidays and travel, leisure activities (Gairns and
Redman, 168).
Bibliography:
DIGBY and MYERS, 1991, Making Sense of Vocabulary, Cassel.
GAIRNS, Ruth; REDMAN, Stuart, 1992, Working with Words: A guide to
teaching and learning vocabulary. Cambridge University Press.
MORGAN, RINVOLUCRI, MARIO, 1986, Vocabulary. Oxford University Press.
REDMAN, Stuart. A Way with Words. Cambridge University Press, 1991
UNDERHILL, Adrian,1980, Use Your Dictionary. Oxford University Press.
WALLACE, Michael J., 1989, Teaching Vocabulary. English Language
Book Society (ELBS), Heinemann Educational Books,
WATCYN-JONES, Peter, 1979, Test Your Vocabulary (Vol. 1- 4). Penguin.
72
1. Introduction
As English becomes more widely used as a language for
international communication, representations of English teaching and
learning evince a greater diversity of viewpoints. 1
In dealing with the syllabi for English, each teacher interprets and
accommodates them to their personality, experience and preconceptions,
thus creating a teaching style or plan of action which the teacher seeks to
implement in the classroom. Teachers claim that their intention is to
promote an open, responsive, learner-centered and democratic classroom
1
73
74
75
10
Weeks
36
36
34
Markee, 1997.
Carless, 2001.
12
Albanian Investment, Development Agency, 2010; p. 15.
11
76
Total
108
108
136
77
Programet e kurrikuls brtham t gjimnazit (klasa X- XII), Gjuhe angleze, 2010, p. 12.
Teachers guide to CEF, p. 7.
78
79
18
19
80
learners need to carry out in order to satisfy those needs, as well as the
language competences and strategies they need to develop in order to do so.20
In drawing up curricular guidelines or formulating syllabi,
authorities concentrate on the specification of the learning objectives. In
doing so, they may specify only higher-level objectives in terms of tasks,
themes, competences, etc. They are not obliged, though they may wish to
do so, to specify in detail the vocabulary, grammar and functional range
which will enable learners to perform the tasks and approach the topics
prescribed. They may also wish to lay down guidelines or make suggestions
as to the classroom methods to be employed and the stages through which
learners are expected to progress.21
Teachers are generally called upon to observe any official
guidelines, use textbooks and course materials (which they may or may not
be in a position to analyse, evaluate, select and supplement), devise and
administer tests and prepare learners for qualification examinations. They
have to make minute-to-minute decisions about classroom activities, which
they can outline beforehand, but must adjust flexibly in the light of learner
responses. They are expected to monitor the learners progress and find
ways of recognising, analysing and overcoming their learning problems, as
well as of developing their individual learning abilities 22
In this context the promotion of respect for the diversity of
languages in school is significant. It is also a matter of helping learners:
to construct their linguistic and cultural identity through
integrating into it a diversified
experience of otherness;
to develop their ability to learn through this same diversified
experience of relating
20
81
82
25
83
deals directly with the opinion of the subjects in the study, being carried out
through the common language, without technical tools. 26
The questionnaires clearly define facts or opinions that have been
identified by qualitative methods.27 There data given come from the
Albanian teachers of English interviewed in secondary schools. Generally
the questionnaire contains closed Yes/No questions, based on percentages or
the gradual rating of the teachers opinions, as well as 3-4 open questions.
The questionnaire consists of questions aimed at offering
conclusions about the teachers opinions on: the conformity of the syllabus
with the age of the learners; the extent of cultural content; whether the
syllabus objectives are reflected in the textbooks; how the CEFR objectives
are reflected in the English syllabus compiled by the Institute of Curricula
and Training; on whether the objectives of the English class can be met in
large classes; whether the assessment is done according to the standards set
by CEFR; the extent to which these are followed in the syllabus.
7. Data interpretation
Language awareness is essential for understanding; knowing about a
language, for a teacher, is more important than knowing a language. 28
More, specifically, as seen in the percentages obtained from the
analysis of the questionnaire questions, the following is to be noted.
The questions are grouped into Yes/No, percentages, questions
assessing the language skills and objectives, the monitoring and
implementation of the syllabus. The questionnaire consisted of 22 questions.
The results are presented in graphs, by comparing the replies of
teachers from different schools.
26
84
Graph 1
29
85
Graph 2
The highest percentages of the teachers interviewed believe that the
learners age is taken into the consideration when the syllabi are compiled.
86
The highest percentage of the teachers and 85.7% of the urban area
teachers are of the opinion that the objectives are displayed in the textbooks.
There is also a high percentage of urban and rural area teachers who
admit that the objectives of the CEFR are displayed in the syllabus.
According to 100% of rural area teachers and 71.5 % of urban area
teachers, the objectives cannot be reached in the case of large classes. It
seems difficult for them to fully achieve the lesson objectives. All the rural
area high school teachers assess their students on the basis of the CEFR
criteria for assessment and follow the types of assessment set by CEFR30
whereas this is true about more than a half of urban area high school teachers.
All the teachers present the lesson objectives to the learners (Graph 3).
Graph 3
Graph 4 shows that the highest percentage of teachers in both urban
and rural areas specify the learning objectives of every class; 42.8% of
30
87
urban area high school teachers set them at the beginning of each module,
compared to 33.3% of rural areas teachers. A very small number of urban
area teachers take into consideration the learners opinions about the lesson.
Generally the syllabus is strictly followed most of the teachers.
Graph 4b
b. Comparing the results of teachers in public and non-public
Secondary Schools in urban areas: 23 teachers from public high
schools and 15 teachers from non-public Albanian schools (38 total)
This concerns the degree of teacher satisfaction with the syllabus and
the perceptions regarding the correlation of the syllabus with the learners
level. It is very interesting to see from the data presented in graph 5 that the
teachers in public high schools are quite satisfied with the syllabus, in a
slightly higher percentage than the teachers in non public high schools.
85.7% of high school teachers believe that the syllabus is well-suited to the
learners level, while 14.2% think otherwise. By contrast, only 33.3 % of
non-public high school teachers are of the opinion that the syllabus is highly
suited to the learners level in the classes where they teach (Graph 5).
88
Graph 5
Graph 6 shows that 71.5% of public high school teachers consider
that the cultural content covers 40% of the syllabus, whereas 66.6% of nonpublic high school teachers think it covers 80% of the syllabus, even if they
work with the same textbook. 80% of public high school teachers believe
that the learners age is taken into consideration.
As for the CEFR objectives, 28.5% of public high school teachers
think they are reflected in the textbooks in a proportion of 40%, while
42.8% of them consider this to be of 80%. A high percentage of non-public
high school teachers express this view.
A relatively high percentage of these teachers support the view that
the syllabi of ICT are in agreement with CEFR in a proportion of 80%,
while 28.5% of non-public high school teachers believe this conformity to
be 100%. Regarding the syllabus implementation by the teachers, the
highest percentage, of 80%, is achieved in public high schools, compared to
the 42. 8% realised by non public high school teachers (Graph 6).
89
Graph 6
As it is shown above, a considerable percentage of high school
teachers in both groups believe that the learners age is taken into
consideration in designing the syllabi. A high percentage of teachers in
both high schools are of the opinion that the CEFR objectives are
reflected in the textbooks.
66.6% of non-public high school teachers of large classes consider
that the objectives are achieved, in comparison with only 28.5% of public
high school teachers. Most of the teachers in public high schools find it
difficult to achieve their objectives in the context of large classes. The
teachers present the learning objectives to the learners and they generally
set them at the beginning of each class period.
In terms of evaluation, 100% of non-public high school teachers
practice assessment methods based on the CEFR, compared with 42.8% of
teachers in public high schools (Graph 7).
90
Graph 7
100% of non-public high school teachers set objectives at the
beginning of every class and of each chapter, compared with a high
percentage of public high school teachers, who set them for every
teaching class.
In both public and private high schools, the largest percentage of
teachers would prefer to follow the program but not to strictly adhere to
it (Graph 8).
Graph 8b
91
8. Conclusions
Bell (1983) claims that teachers are, in the main, consumers of other
people's syllabuses. In other words, their role is to implement the plans of
applied linguists, government agencies, and so on. However, some teachers
feel relatively free to design the syllabi on which their teaching programmes
are based.31
Most Albanian teachers, in urban and rural, or public and non-public
high schools follow to a certain extent the syllabi designed by ICT and the
Ministry of Education and Sciences, though not always very strictly.
This study has assessed the ability of Albanian teachers to make
judgements which can affect decision-making concerning syllabus design.
The main results of the statistics above are summarized below and
reflect the present situation and opinions of high school teachers on the
syllabi used in the Albanian context.
As regards teachers in urban and rural Secondary Education, the
syllabus conformity with the learners level is higher according to rural area
teachers. A high percentage of these teachers believe that the age level is
well-considered. The CEFR objectives in the syllabus are represented in
proportion of 80% in the opinion of a greater percentage of urban area
teachers. The syllabus is conformity with the CEFR for 100% of the urban
area teachers and for 80% of the rural area teachers. The syllabus is 80%
covered by a great percentage of urban area teachers and 100% by the
greatest percentage of rural area teachers. Age suitability is figures in the
same percentage in the views of both groups of teachers. Both groups share
the idea that the syllabus objectives are presented in the textbooks they
work with. Teachers in the rural area find it difficult to meet the objectives
with large classes, compared with a considerable percentage of urban area
31
92
93
94
CONFLUENCES
LA RELATION ENTRE LES ADVERBES ET LES
VOCABULAIRES FONDAMENTAL ET
REPRSENTATIF DE LA LANGUE ROUMAINE
Adrian CHIRCU
Universitatea Babe-Bolyai din Cluj-Napoca
adichircu@hotmail.com
Abstract:
The Relationship between Adverbs and the Representative and fundamental
Romanian Language Vocabulary
In his study, the author intends to present the position occupied by adverbs, within
the Romanian fundamental and representative vocabulary framework, as parts of speech
that offer, at the utterance level, important information that makes reference, among others,
to time, place and space.
As often observed, adverbs not only facilitate communication, but also carry a
deictic function. To a great extent, this approach is synchronic and uses data offered by two
research papers that present a statistical analysis (Al. Graur, 1954 and M. Sala, 1988) of the
current Romanian language vocabulary, based on well-determined criteria.
Key words:
Adverb, vocabulary, current Romanian language, frequency, use, synchrony, utterance.
A. Chircu, 2008.
Al. Graur, 1954.
3
M. Sala, 1988.
4
Idem, ibidem, p. 12.
5
ce sujet, voir Al. Graur, 1965, pp. 31-48.
2
96
97
Les
auteurs
de
louvrage
dcrivant
les
vocabulaires
Dicionarul explicativ al limbii romne , auquel ils ont appliqu les critres
antrieurement mentionns, mais que nous dtaillons infra:
- pour le critre de la richesse smantique, ont t retenus les mots
qui connaissent au moins cinq sens propres ou figurs (S), en respectant les
informations fournies par ce dictionnaire;
- pour le critre du pouvoir de drivation, ont t retenus les mots
qui possdent au moins trois formes drives, obtenues par suffixation ou
par drivation rgressive (D);
- quant au critre de lusage, celui-ci tient compte de lindice
dusage tabli (13,56) en fonction de Frequency Dictionary of Rumanian
Words10 (U).
8
M. Sala, 1988.
Sigl DEX, 1975. Afin dobserver laugmentation du nombre dadverbes, nous avons
aussi consult la deuxime dition, qui date de 2009.
10
Alphonse Juilland et alii, 1965.
9
98
3.1. Ces critres de slection envisags pour le choix des mots qui
font partie de ce vocabulaire ont t diffremment utiliss en fonction du
degr de la standardisation (langues normaliss ou non normalises):
romn, italian, francez, spaniol (uzaj, bogie semantic i putere de
derivare)[], adaptate la limbile catalan, portughez (frecven, bogie
semantic i putere de derivare). Pentru celelalte trei limbi (sard,
retoroman, occitan) [], am putut aplica numai dou criterii (bogia
semantic i puterea de derivare). 11
3.1.1. Linventaire ralis a permis de constater que les adverbes
qui font partie du vocabulaire reprsentatif de la langue roumaine (qui
compte 2581 mots) sont au nombre de 149. Nanmoins, quelques-uns
dentre eux (69) peuvent avoir dautres valeurs morphologiques
(prposition, conjonction, adjectif, nom, interjection, etc.), ce qui peut
augmenter ou diminuer leur nombre, en fonction de la dmarche danalyse
envisage.
3.1.2. Une fois la liste tablie, celle-ci nous a amen constater
que, du point de vue USD, les adverbes qui font partie de ce groupe sont au
nombre de 12 (bun bon, curat vraiment, effectivement, justement, drept
droitement, directement, sincrement, greu difficilement, gros gros, en
grande quantit, lung longuement, puin peu, repede rapidement, vite,
scurt bref, brivement, tare fort, fortement, urt mauvais, uor
facilement, lgrement).12 Aucun dentre eux na une valeur absolument
11
99
13
100
naturellement), tous les autres ont une origine latine ou sont forms, dans
la plupart des cas, dlments dorigine latine.
3.1.10. Parfois, il est difficile de trouver une tymologie exacte.
Cest pour cela que les dictionnaires nous fournissent deux ou mme trois
langues pour expliquer la provenance du mot: probabil < fr. probable, lat.
sav. probabilis; contra < fr. contre, lat. sav., it. contra; relativ < fr. relatif,
lat. sav. relativus, it. relativo (voir supra all. relativ), aspect relev par les
multiples tymons avancs dans les articles des dictionnaires.
Il sagit parfois de ce que les linguistes appellent emprunt par
14
filire , cest--dire un mot qui est entr dans une langue donne par
lintermdiaire dune autre langue, et non par emprunt direct. En mme
temps, cette situation atteste la provenance multiple des adverbes, due
gnralement aux diverses influences des langues modernes occidentales
(franais, italien allemand) que le roumain a subies, auxquelles sajoute le
latin savant.
4. Cette analyse ponctuelle a permis de relever la place des
adverbes dans le cadre de deux types de vocabulaires envisags. Nous
avons constat que les diffrences dinventaire sont significatives, ce qui
sexplique par les critres choisis. Lidentit des units adverbiales hrites,
dveloppes ou empruntes, prsentes dans les deux listes dresses,
tmoigne de la spcificit de la classe adverbiale roumaine qui, par rapport
aux autres langues romanes, est plus ouverte aux emprunts, situation qui
sexplique par les influences supportes par le roumain. 15
14
15
102
103
PTRU, I., 1974, mprumuturi prin filier, in: Studii de limba romn,
Cluj-Napoca: Editura Dacia, p. 246-259.
ROSETTI, A., 2002, Histoire de la langue roumaine, des origines au XVIIe
sicle. dition de Dana-Mihaela Zamfir, Cluj-Napoca: ditions Clusium.
SALA, Marius (coord.), 1988, Vocabularul reprezentativ al limbilor
romanice, Bucureti: Editura tiinific i Enciclopedic.
SALA, Marius, 1999, Du latin au roumain. Traduction de Claude Dignoire,
Paris-Bucarest: LHarmattan & Univers Enciclopedic.
104
Cf. Gr. Alamanas, It. Alamano, Bg. Alamanoi a. s. o., I. Iordan, 1983, s.v.
B. P. Hasdeu, EMR, s.v. Aliman. This is also a relatively frequent procedure attested in
studies of historical semantics. Even in Romanian mythology or only in the more recent
epic folklore, negative characters are called Jidovi, Lifte (Poles), Muscali (Moscow
people). The character Tartacot, of the series of deformities seems to be realted to
Tartacan Tartar.
2
106
It is the case of the term Babe, cf. EMR, s.v., or the case of the word copil, for which see
the book by Ion Coteanu and Marius Sala, 1987, Etimologia i limba romn. ProblemePrincipii, Bucureti: Editura Academiei.
4
We have used the etymological indications offered by DLR, MDE, EMR and DEX.
5
Cf. Iorgu Iordan, op. cit.; George Giuglea, 1983, Cuvinte romneti i romanice...,
Edition by Florena Sdeanu, Bucureti: Editura tiinific i Enciclopedic; Ion Ptru,
1984, Nume de persoane i nume de locuri romneti, Bucureti: Editura tiinific i
Enciclopedic .a.
107
To explain a certain etymon by arguments of a dialectal order, I have used, among others,
Matilda Caragiu-Marioeanu, 1975, Compendiu de dialectologie romn (nord- i suddunrean), Bucureti: Editura tiinific i Enciclopedic.
108
of the 17th century, in the writings of D. Cantemir, very few later than that
and most of them in the collections realised in the second half of the 19 th
century, albeit on the basis of somewhat earlier documentary fragments. On
the other hand, the linguistic covering in which the ancient mythological
nuclei was passed on to us was adapted to the forms of the epoch in which
they were collected and archived in written/recorded versions, in
conformity with the laws of diachronic linguistics. Thus, for ancient deities
from the solar series, Gebeleizis, Zalmoxis or the goddess Bendis, only the
names were conserved in ancient historical documents, while the narrative
structure of the Romanian fairytales which took over the characters adapted
them to modern times, as Soare (Sun), Lun (Moon), Sfntul Soare (Holy
Sun), Sfnta Lun (Holy Moon). The totemism in the lycanthropic series is
rendered by Lupul (The Wolf) symbol of courage; the symbolism of the
circular sanctuary of Sarmizegetusa has been preserved in its old state
solely as archaeological evidence, while the mythical characters become De
cu Sear (Nightfall Man), Zoril (Dawn-Man), etc., and the lesser deities,
such as the naiads or the later civilizing heroes are Znele (Fairies), FeiFrumoii (Princes Charming), etc.
In the oldest Romanian fairytale preserved, Povestea lumii de
demult (The Tale of the World of Yore), the foundational characters of
Romanian cosmogony are Muntele (the Mountain), Vnturile (the Winds)
Vrful cel mai de Sus (the Highest Peak) and others. But these are terms of
Latin origin, even more, in their evolved, Romanian-adapted variant, which
means that we cannot establish a direct relation between the ancientness of
the Geto-Dacian cosmogonic myth, i.e. pre-Latin, and the Romanian
mythonyms of Latin origin. The chronological difference between them is
of at least a millennium, but the disparate attestations even indicate a
chronological distance of one thousand five hundred two thousand years.
As for the methodological aspects, with special regard to this
perspective on the analysis of mythonyms, I have used, for general
110
Th. Hristea, 1972, Probleme de etimologie. Studii. Articole. Note, Bucureti: Editura
tiinific. For the study by I. Coteanu and M. Sala, cf. supra, note 3.
111
The most convincing criteria were established by Cicerone Poghirc, in the chapter
Influena autohton (The autochthonous influence) in Istoria limbii romne (ILR), vol.
II, Bucureti: Editura Academiei, 1969, pp. 313-365.
112
113
Cf. Al. Rosetti, 1969, p. 272. For the history of the word, cf. also S. Pucariu, Limba
romn, I, p. 172; Gr. Brncu, SCL, XVII, 1966, p. 213; M. Sala, SCL, VI, 1955, p. 140;
C. Poghirc, 1969, p. 345.
14
Cf. I. Iordan, 1983, s.v.
15
L. ineanu, op. cit., p. 640.
16
Apud I. Irodan, loc. cit.
114
In fact, not even in the case of mythonyms from the Geto-Dacian substratum, it is not
these that selected a certain domain, but, quite the opposite, the fact that from the
substratum words we only know those designating names of plants (thanks to the glosses
of late Greek Antiquity) animals, hydronyms, oronyms etc., makes us identify a few
mythonyms among them. Incidentally, the respective thematic areas are prone to
mythological personification, but this mechanism affects the lexis of any other language.
115
In the staging of the history of the Romanian language, I used as a point of reference the
proposals of the collective of ILR, 1969, vol. I-II, cf. I, pp. 9-10, and II, pp. 15-18. Cf. also
Al. Rosetti, 1979, I, and Fl. Dimitrescu (coord.), 1978, Istoria limbii romne, Bucureti:
Editura Didactic i Pedagogic.
19
Cf. I. Fischer, 1975, Latina dunrean. Introducere n istoria limbii romne, Bucureti:
Editura tiinific i Enciclopedic. It treats of the Latin element of the 4th 5th centuries
North and South of the Danube.
116
which are not always easy to identify. In our classification, we have ignored
these diachronic subdivisions, because we have not intended a study on the
history of language.
We have adopted, as stated above, the etymological solutions
offered by the lexicographic instruments in current use and have extended
our area of research only in the case of some words, considered
semantically unusual and hard to decipher:
Agerul Pmntului* (The Agile/Sprite of the Earth), Aflatul, Alb
mprat (Emperor White), Alba mprteasa (Empress White) Apa Rea,
(Bad Water), Argintar Galbeni Buni (Silversmith Good Ducats), Arip
Frumoas (Fair Wing), Aude Bine, (Hear Well), Aude Ru (Hear Badly),
Aura mprat (Emperor), Austru (Southern Wind), Barbu, Barb Cot (Elllong Beard), Bou (Blanel) (Ox, White Ox), Bourean (Young Ox), Brum
(Hoar-frost), Bucica (Tiny Tot), Cldur (Heat), Chipru, Ciperi,
Constantin, De ctre Ziu (Break of Day), De ctre Sear, De cu Sear
(Falling Night), Doamna (Chiralina*) (Lady), Doamna Florilor (Lady of
the Flowers), Dumnezeu (God), Fata (din Dafin*) (The Maid [of the
Laurel]), Fata Nevzut, Neauzit, din Cer Czut (The
Unseen/Unheard/Sky-fallen Maid), Fata Rumpe Haine* (Tatter-Clothes
Maid), Fata Nenscut de Om Nevzut (Unborn Maid Unseen by Man),
Faurul Pmntului (The Blacksmith of the Earth), Ft Frumos cu Prul de
Aur (Golden-Haired Fair Youth/Prince Charming), Ft Frumos din Lacrim
(Tear-Born Fair Youth/Prince Charming), Ftul (Babei) ([The Hags] Lad),
Fiul Iepei (The Mares Son), Fiul Oii (The Sheeps Son), Fiul Vacii (The
Cows Son), Floarea (Codrilor) (Flower [of the Woods]), Floarea Florilor
(Flower of the Flowers/Flower Queen), Floarea (Flower), Florea nfloritul
(Blossomy Florea), Florian, Florica, Floria, Foametea (Famine), Frntul
(The Crooked), Freac Pietre (Rub Stones), Frigul (Cold), Frigurosul
(Chilly), Frumoasa Lumii (Fairest of the World), Frumoasele (Fair Maids),
Frunz de Mghiran (Leaf of Marjoram), Galben de Soare (Sunny
Golden), Gerul (Frost), Gruor de Aur (Golden Little Wheat), Greuceanu,
117
Fortunately for us, in the case of mythonyms, suffix derivation proved less productive,
so the disassembling of the basis of a form complicated by derivational mechanisms (often
also combined with compounding and conversion) was less fastidious here.
119
120
classical Latin stock, since agilis (Acc. agilem) normally evolved towards
ager (with the predictable modifications the loss of the Latin termination,
the rhotacization of intervocalic -l-, etc.), while the second belongs to the
late vulgar stock, as pavimentum has a special significance in Latin (earth
layer, alternatively beaten earth), while in Romanian it acquired the
meaning of terra, a word it replaced for the most part.23
Some terms, even from the very common mythonymic stock, such
as Ft Frumos (Fair Youth/Prince Charming), or Zna/Znele (the FairyGodmother/the Fairies) are always controversially discussed, as it is not
very certain, for example, that Zna derives from Diana, although all the
phonetic, morphological-lexical and semantic-symbolic evidence would
confirm this evolution.
There are terms formed on Romanian soil, such as Mama, a word
of infantile origin, created autonomously in different languages, even
genealogically unrelated,24 so that the popular and archaic Latin mamma,
used in familiar register, bears no relations, despite all appearances, with the
corresponding Romanian term, and the standard literary doublet mater was
not at all adopted from Latin. In the combination Mama Pdurii/Muma
Pdurii (Mother of the Forest), etc., which was classified with the terms of
Latin origin, we can have the form with u (Muma), but also with Maica, a
Slavic form. What is more, the problem regarding the evolution of the Latin
paludem marsh to the Romanian pdure, through metathesis,
rhotacization, and especially through the spectacular change of meaning,
makes the classification in a certain group even more difficult.
Finally, if there can be an end to etymological problems, some
mythonyms are totally encoded. The first term from Ler mprat (Ler
Emperor) was intensely studied, due to its frequency in the incantatory
formulae of carols and spells, texts which accompanying ritual acts. We
23
121
25
The phenomenon is also attested in other lexemes and syntagms, such as the popular
interjection zu, reduction from Romanian (pe) Dumnezeu (by God) < lat. Dominus Deus.
122
124
Abstract:
The common points in the phraseology of Balkan languages are often attributed to
some Balkan cultural heritage, a term which is usually not defined any further. So, this
term can allow us to see how this heritage is represented in phraseology. First of all, the
use of a systematic empirical research to describe these phraseological units serves to
determine which idioms actually share a relatively identical lexical and semantic structure
across the three languages and could therefore be called widespread. This article presents
a contrastive study of the structures and semantics of phraseology units containing the
word head in Albanian, Bulgarian and Greek languages. This approach can describe
similarities and differences of mentality as reflected in phraseology.
Key words:
Head, phraseology, contrastive insight, Balkan languages, semantics.
Introduction
Glaser (1996) defines PhUs as Glaser nominations because they
designate a phenomenon, an object, a process or a state, a property or a
relationship outside the world. Every language forms them according to its
particular nature, often according to existing patterns. As a result, they are
widespread not only in the written language but also in the spoken
language. (Thomaj, Lloshi II, 1972: 231).
125
In this group, even national features of both nations are referred to,
because the phraselogical units carry not only the original structure but even
the meaning of the phraseological unit.
Based on the analysis of these phraseological units, it can be noticed
that most of them are linked to the meaning unit of thinking and
representative of life, ego. In the first case, some phraseological units are
introduced as synonymous versions, where the word head is replaced
with the synonyms mind, brain.
According to J. Thomaj and Xh. Lloshi the common origin of
Indo-European languages explains even the analogies in the process of
formation of the phraseological noun-phrases of this type. Therefore their
origin cannot be explained with any certainty and it is also difficult to
separate the Balkan stock of phraseological units, except in the cases
documented from written monuments (Thomaj; Lloshi, II 1972:227).
Conclusion
As a conclusion, we should point out that these phraseological
parallels cannot be called exhaustive. The contrastive semantic-structural
analysis of phraseological units will complete the linguistic coincidences
between Balkan languages. The study of phraseological units makes it
possible to assume that Balkan languages have to be studied in connection
with each other. At the same time, they preserve the features of the IndoEuropean family, but without affinity or connection to each other.
Even so, these coincidences in phraseology present in the general
system of the Balkan community are linked to the features of every
language in the complexity of its national features, of the history of every
nation in all its aspects (Thomaj; Lloshi, II 1972:234).
Quite probably, a systematic multilingual investigation of idioms,
along lines similar to those outlined above for proverbs, would produce
promising results.
131
References
AKADEMIA E SHKENCAVE T SHQIPRIS, 2002, Fjalor i gjuhs
shqipe, Toena, Tiran, 587-589.
FRANGOUDAKI, A. & THALIA D., 1997, What is our fatherland?
Ethnocentrism in education, Alexandria publications, (in Greek).
GLSER, R., 1998, The Stylistic Potential of Phraseological Units. In
Cowie, A. P. ed.: 1998: Phraseology: Theory, Analysis, and
Applications. Oxford: Clarendon Press: 125-143.
GRUDEM, W., 1985, Does (Head) Mean Source Or Authority
Over in Greek Literature? A Survey of 2,336 Examples, Trinity
Journal no. 6.1 (Spring): 38-59:35.
HRISTOVA-BEJLERI, R., 1996, Njsi frazeologjike q prmbajn
krahasim n shqipe e bullgarishte. Seminari i XVIII i gjuhs, letrsis
dhe kulturs shqiptare, Tiran.
PIIRAINEN, E., 2005, Europeanism, internationalism or something else?
Proposal for a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural research project on
widespread idioms in Europe and beyond, Hermes Journal of
Linguistics no. 35.
THOMAJ, J., 2010, Fjalori frazeologjik i gjuhs shqipe, EDFA, Tiran.
THOMAJ, J., LLOSHI, XH., 1972, Paralele frazeologjike t gjuhs shqipe
me gjuh t tjera t Ballkanit, n Studime mbi leksikun dhe formimin
e fjalve n gjuhn shqipe, II, botim i ASHSH, 223-234.
THOMAJ, J., LLOSHI, XH., HRISTOVA-BEJLERI, R., QIRIAZATI, K.,
MELONASHI, A., 1999, Fjalori ballkanik frazeologjik, Dituria,
Tiran, 160-166.
,
, 1974,
. , 208.
132
CONVERGENCES ET DIVERGENCES
IDENTITAIRES
LA COMMUNICATION INTERCULTURELLE ET
LA NEGOCIATION DE LIDENTITE DES
ALBANAIS
Prof. Dr. Gjergji PENDAVINJI
Doc. Robert STRATOBERDHA
Universit Fan S. Noli Kor, Albanie
gjpendavinji@yahoo.com
robert_npf@hotmail.com
Abstract:
The article presents, from a theoretical perspective, the problem of negotiating the
identity of Albanians in the framework of intercultural communication, introducing at the
same time the data analysis of this phenomenon. The study methodology is based on
ethnographic research and the concept of culture.
One of the main issues of todays discourse, in the context of Albanian social
space, is the intercultural communication as a fundamental aspect of regional and global
integration processes. At the sociocultural level, the debate on negotiating the identity of
Albanians in the European integrated social space has aroused a great deal of interest.
Central to the discussion regarding the identity of Albanians has been the idea of
European identity. This thesis has received a number of interesting social, historical,
linguistic and cultural arguments. Great personalities of Albanian literature and culture,
like Ismail Kadare, Rexhep Qose etc., have brought their contribution to this intellectual
debate, which has sparked off new and innovative ideas with respect to negotiating the
identity of Albanians in the framework of communication within their socio-cultural space.
The review of such an issue, has naturally led us to some controversial
conclusions in terms of support, cultivation and renewal of some very important cultural
values in modern sociocultural communication.
Rsum:
Dans le cadre de la communication interculturelle, larticle expose une
perspective thorique sur le problme de la ngociation de lidentit des Albanais et la
fois prsente une analyse des faits sur le phnomne en question.
La mthodologie dtude est base sur la recherche ethnographique ainsi que sur la culture.
133
Une des questions du discours actuel dans le cadre de lespace social albanais est
la communication interculturelle comme un aspect principal des processus dintgration
rgionale et globale. A ce propos, le dbat sur la ngociation de lidentit des Albanais
dans lespace social europen et plus large encore a suscit beaucoup dintrt sur le plan
socioculturel.
Le problme crucial qui a gagn du terrain dans la discussion de lidentit des
Albanais cest lide de lidentit europenne. Ce dbat, qui a t rendu trs intressant
suite lintervention des personnalits minentes de la culture et des lettres comme Ismail
Kadare, Rexhep Qose, et dautres a mis face face maints arguments au niveau social,
historique, linguistique et culturel sur ce sujet.
Cette polmique intellectuelle a fourni beaucoup dides et darguments nouveaux
propos de la ngociation de lidentit des Albanais dans le cadre de la communication
lintrieur de leur espace socioculturel.
Lanalyse de cette discussion a fait tirer de manire naturelle quelques
conclusions contestables en ce qui concerne le soutien, la sauvegarde et la rnovation de
quelques valeurs culturelles dune trs grande importance la communication moderne
socioculturelle.
Mots cls:
Communication interculturelle; ngociation de lidentit, discours sur lidentit
europenne des Albanais; argument sociolinguistique; analyse sociolinguistique et
ethnoculturelle.
Introduction:
La communication interculturelle ainsi que la ngociation de
lidentit sont en gnral des processus sociologiques lis la culture. Dans
le cadre des dynamiques sociales, les phnomnes de la communication
travers les cultures et les subcultures ainsi que la ngociation des identits
sociales occupent une place importante. Ces processus ont t mis en
vidence galement dans la socit albanaise pendant la premire dcennie
du nouveau sicle (21-e sicle) en tant que consquence de quelques
dveloppements rapides qui ont eu lieu dans tout lespace albanais et
particulirement la fin de la guerre au Kosovo et la cration de ltat
indpendant. Au sein de la dynamique sociale albanaise au Kosovo et des
transformations politiques, conomiques et sociales profondes, la question
de la ngociation de lidentit des Albanais a t lobjet dun dbat
134
R. ISMAIL, 26. 07. 2005, Discours tenu au Sminaire pour les enseignants, Pristina,
Gjuha dhe identiteti kulturor e kombtar.
2
Idem
136
Idem
137
138
les diffrences sont un phnomne normal pour chaque socit, donc mme
pour la socit albanaise. A lintrieur de ces distinctions il ny a rien de
trs particulier, ce qui arrive avec presque toutes les nations.
Mais la question se pose si les circonstances sociales et historiques sont
telles que ces diffrences peuvent mener vers de nouvelles identits ou non.
Assurment, la langue reste llment le plus consistant de cette
identit, voire la langue avec toutes ses formes linguistiques. Ainsi, peut-on
mentionner la langue de la posie nationale. Cette langue est une manire
prioritaire et une ralit en soi-mme qui, mme dans son aspect matriel
simplement comme code de communication, contient un lment
didentit5.
Dans le cadre du discours sur lidentit des Albanais, il a t tudi
mme un aspect historico-linguistique li linfluence ottomane chez les
albanais durant cinq sicles doccupation. Donc, combien la domination
ottomane trop longue en Albanie a-t-elle influ sur la sauvegarde ou bien
sur la modification de lidentit albanaise?
Nous distinguons deux attitudes diffrentes dans le dbat sur cet
argument: La premire attitude, reprsente par Ismail Kadare, argumente
que lidentit albanaise est reste inchange et non modifie. Selon lui,
cinq sicles de domination ottomane nont pas chang lidentit des albanais.
La deuxime attitude, soutenue par Rexhep Qose et dautres,
argumente la modification, la trace, les changements qua subis
lidentit albanaise prottomane sous linfluence de la domination ottomane.
Largument de cette attitude est li linfluence que la langue
albanaise a subie o un tas de mots de la langue courante a t emprunt de
la langue turque (tavan=plafond, dysheme=plancher, dyshek=matelas,
jorgan=duvet, tull=brique, alli=pltre, dollap=placard, araf=drap,
5
139
6
7
140
141
11
Idem, p. 25.
Idem, p. 55.
13
Idem, p. 58.
12
142
14
143
identits et veut mettre en vue les cas de leur rigidit temporaire si bien
dans lespace europen que dans celui albanais.
Conclusions:
Bass sur ltude du discours intellectuel sur lidentit et largument
de ngociation de lidentit des Albanais, nous pouvons tirer quelques
conclusions qui ne sont pas encore dfinitives pour le fait que ce dbat nest
pas encore considr consomm.
Premirement: La communication et la ngociation de lidentit
sous un aspect sociologique sont lies essentiellement la langue. La
ngociation de lidentit albanaise demande pralablement une rflexion et
une relation avec la langue albanaise.
Nous pensons que thoriquement cette relation entre lidentit et la
langue albanaise est essentiellement acceptable et ensuite ngociable. Cette
relation est argumente aujourdhui par les savants de la langue et les
sociolinguistes albanais. La langue albanaise comme fondement identitaire
des Albanais dispose de plusieurs codes de communication et chaque code a
ses propres valeurs identitaires et symboliques. Actuellement,
llargissement des espaces de communication entre les Albanais accentue
davantage le rle unificateur de notre langue et impose de la soigner et de
lentretenir. Les espaces sociaux du fonctionnement de notre langue dans le
processus de la communication renforcent les dimensions identitaires si
bien quils rendent ainsi indispensable et utile lexistence dun standard
unique de cette langue.
Deuximement: Comme il arrive gnralement dans les socits
avances, chez nous aussi, la communication et la ngociation de lidentit
ne peuvent pas se faire en dehors du contexte interculturel. Donc, dans ce
processus il faut accepter comme des faits normaux les diffrences et les
changements lis des facteurs historico-culturels, rgionaux, dialectaux,
etc. Cela se voit mme au niveau sociolinguistique.
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Abstract
We could state that after having gone through a stage of great founders and
foundations in the 19th century, the Romanian culture began a new one.
Thus, in the general framework of the rebirth and national affirmation process that
characterized the second half of the 19th century, all the Romanian provinces lived a strong
cultural effervescence. In this context, in the old Walachian capital as well, culture was
reborn, cultural personalities such as I. H. Rdulescu being recognized on a national level.
He even tried to inaugurate a bookshop in Trgovite with the help of I. D. Petrescu. A
restoration in the cultural life of this town occurred through the opening of several primary
schools and the creation of a secondary school in 1874,1 and especially through the
creation of the Society Progresul (The Progress), in 1876, the first cultural society of
Trgovite, which managed to attract the towns personalities. 2 Out of the intellectuals of
Trgovite who laid the foundations of this cultural society and carried out a particular activity, we
shall mention: I. D. Petrescu, D. Condureanu, Al. Dudea.
Key words: culture, library, school, cultural society.
Constantin Manolescu, Mihai Oproiu, Pagini din istoria culturii trgovitene. Societatea
Cultural ,,Progresul (1876) (Pages of the cultural history of Trgovite. The cultural
society Progresul, 1876), in: Victor Petrescu, Mihai Oproiu, Constantin Manolescu,
Trgovitea cultural. Studii. Articole. Note (Cultural Trgovite. Studies. Articles),
Editura Bibliotheca, Trgovite, 2000, pp. 137-138.
2
Ibidem, p. 138; Mihai Oproiu, Dobrin Prvan, Trgovite. Oraul i mprejurimile sale
ntre 1821-1918 (Trgovite. The town and its surroundings between 1821 and 1918), vol.
II, Editura Biblioteca, Trgovite, 2001, pp. 279-280; For the Cultural Society Progresul
(The Progress) of Trgovite see the Central National Historical Archives (Arhivele
Naionale Istorice Centrale), Authority of Dmbovia County (Direcia Judeean
Dmbovia), (henceforth A.N.I.C., D.J.D.) Fond Primria oraului Trgovite (fund:
Trgovite Town Hall), dosar (file) 79/1876-1877.
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At the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century, in town
there were 10 schools running their activity: the 4 grade secondary school,
two schools for girls and two for boys, a school of secondary practice for
girls, founded by Fussea, the school for army assistants of Dealu
Monastery, where in 1912, the Military High School of Dealu Monastery
was founded8, and other schools that had already begun to get open in the
outskirts of the town.
In 1910, the first kindergarten (grdin de copii mici) was
opened, too9.
Another quantitatively representative series of documents of those
times, kept in the local archives, reflect the interest in the books needed to
award the 1st, 2nd and 3rd prize at each school, at the end of a school year
(for example, the headmaster of I.Vcrescu Primary and Secondary
School handed over to the mayor a clear list of the books that needed to be
purchased, some of them being Nine Stories for Children (Nou istorioare
pentru copii), The Two Sisters (Cele dou surori), The Christian Family
(Familia cretin), The Nightingale (Privighetoarea) etc., worth 0.70
lei each 10.
The petitions addressed to the Town Hall also concern other aspects
of the cultural life of Trgovite, for example the holding of certain courses
or the organization of exhibitions, for whose good running it was required
to assure the necessary space11, the organization in Trgovite of congresses
or conferences of the personnel in education (for example, at the 8 th
8
Fr. Dr. C.Niescu, Mnstirea Dealu i Liceul Militar N.Filipescu (Dealu Monastery
and the N. Filipescu Military High School), Tgv., 1932, pp. 60-74.
9
Xxx, coala general Vasile Crlova (Vasile Crlova Primary and Secondary School),
Tgv., 1976, pp.70-74.
10
SJAN Dmbovia, Fond Primria Oraului Trgovite, dos.34/1879, f. 10.
11
Idem, dos.106/1978, f. 4.
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