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4.9HYDROPOWER
4.9.1BackgroundandStateoftheArt
i.Theuseofwaterpowerforirrigation
Themainshortcomingofwaterpowerasanenergyresourceforirrigationisthatitisonlyavailable
forconvenientuseinalimitednumberoflocationshavingsuitableflowsandheadstoengineeran
effectivesite.Also,mostregionswithhydropotentialtendalsotohaveplentifulrainfall,whichoften
makesirrigationalowpriorityasahydropowerapplication.However,despitethesedrawbacks,there
aremanyareaswhererainfallisseasonal(eg.wherewatercanusefullybeappliedduringthehotdry
summermonthstogainanextracroportoincreaseyieldsand,similarly,inmountainousareas,
wheresnowmeltwateroftenprovidessomelimitedhydropotentialinthedrysummerseason).
However,steephydraulicgradientsinhillycountrygenerallyallowanyvalleyfloorareastobegravity
irrigatedbydiggingcontouredcanals,whichtakewaterfromastreamanddirectitalongthesideofa
valleyatalesserhydraulicgradientthenthemainstream.Thispracticeisofcoursewidespreadin
muchofthecentralAsianmassif.Whengravitydoesthework,pumpingtechniquesaregenerallynot
needed.
Therefore,themainapplicationsfortheuseofwaterpowertopumpwaterwillbeinlowlandareas,
inevitablyusinglowheadwaterdropsasapowersource,toirrigatelandwhichwouldnotbe
accessibletogravitywaterflow.Anobviousimportantapplication,commoninChina,istoextendthe
commandareaavailabletoagravityirrigationschemetotakeinhigherlandaboveadam.Insome
aridregions,orregionswithdryseasons,therearelargeperennialriverswheretherivercurrentcan
beutilizedtoliftwaterwhichwouldotherwiseflowpastparchedfields.Eveninsomewetterandmore
mountainousareastherearesituationswherewaterpowercouldallowirrigationofterracesor
plateauxthatareinaccessibletogravityflowthiscanbeofimportancewhereflatlandwithsoil
suitableforcultivationisscarce.
Givenasuitablesiteinproximitytoasuitableneed,hydropowerhasanumberofimportantand
fundamentalattractions:
a.itisgenerallyavailable24h/day
b.itisarelativelyconcentratedenergysource
c.theavailableenergyiseasilypredictableinareaswhereriverflowdataareavailable
Itfollowsfromthesepointsthathydropoweredsystemstendtohaveahighpowertosizeratioand
henceafavourablepowertocostratio,theyalsotendtobemechanicallysimpleandrobust,and
thereforehavelongworkinglivesandrequirelimitedandsimplemaintenance.Asaresulthydro
powercanbeoneofthemosteconomicsourcesofpowerforthosefortunateenoughtohavea
suitableresourceavailable.
ii.Generalprinciples
Allwaterpowerapplicationsinvolveremovingenergyfromfallingorflowingwater.ThepowerP
availablefromaflowofQlitre/secfallingthroughaheadofHmis:

Where9.8isthegravitationalconstant(inmetricunitsofm/s2),andifQisinm3/s,thentheabove
formulagivesPinkW.Inotherwordsthereis9.8kWavailableforaflowoflm3/spermeterdrop.The
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actualoutputwillbereducedbymultiplyingbythesystemefficiencyeg.adevicewithanefficiencyof
50%willconverthalftheavailablepower.
Theefficiencyofhydropoweredsystemsishigh.Agoodsmallturbinewilltypicallybe70%efficient
andevenwaterwheelsandothermoreprimitivedevicestendtobe30to60%efficient,asindicated
inTable21.
Table21EFFICIENCYOFHYDROPOWEREDSYSTEMS
typeofdevice

efficiency
factor
(typical)

Undershotwaterwheel

0.300.40

Verticalshaftwatermill

0.200.35

PonceletundershotorBreastwheel

0.500.65

Overshotwaterwheel

0.500.70

Impulseturbine(egPelton)

0.700.85

Reactionturbine(egFrancis,
Prop.)

0.600.80

Waterpressureengine

0.600.80

Turbinepump

0.350.50

Hydraulicram(hydraulicoutput)

0.300.60

Rivercurrentconverter

0.250.30

Notethatinallcasesabove,exceptturbinepumpsandhydraulicrampumps,weareconsideringthe
conversionsimplyofwaterpowertoshaftpowertopumpwaterthenrequirestheadditionofapump
orwaterliftingdevicewhichinturnwillhavefurtherinherentinefficiencies.Theexceptionhasan
efficiencyfigurerelatingtothehydraulicoutputdividedbythehydraulicinput,sincethereisno
measurableintermediateproductionofshaftpower.
Itcanbeseenthatthetwokeyparametersrequiredtoestimatethepowerpotentialofawater
resourceareheadandflow.Techniquesfordoingthisarediscussedinmostreferencesonmicro
hydropower,suchas[61]and[62],Thestaticheadisthemoststraightforwardtomeasuremethods
whichcanbeusedinclude:
surveyor'slevellingequipment
spiritlevel,woodenpegsandstraightedge
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alengthofhosepipewithapressuregauge(lmofwater=O.lkg/cm2or.098baroror1.42p.s.i.or9.81kPa)
thehosepipeiscompletelyfilledwithwaterwithitsopenendsubmergedintheupperwatersourceandthe
otherendfittedwiththepressuregaugeisheldatthelowerleveltomeasuretheactualstatichead
barometer/altimeter(forhigherheadapplications)(i.e.surveyingbarometer/altimeter)
accurateexistinglargescalemapstotakeadvantageofaprevioussurvey
Theflowratecanvaryalotfromseasontoseasonobviouslythekeyperiodofinteresttofarmerswill
betheirrigationseason.Withlargerrivers,especiallythosehavingexistinghydroelectricschemeson
them,dischargemeasurementswillalreadyhavebeencarriedoutandbeenrecordedandwillusually
beavailablefromtherelevantriverauthority.However,inmostcasesinvolvingsmallscaleequipment
forhydropoweredwaterliftingitwillonlybeofinteresttoconsiderquitesmallstreams,riversor
canals,forwhichnodatawillbeavailable.Thereisavarietyofmethodsofstreamgaugingvaryingin
sophisticationandaccuracy,suchas:
a.damthestreamandmeasuretheoverflowbymeasuringthetimetofillacontainer
b.constructasmallrectangularweirfromwoodorconcreteandusethemethodgiveninFig.140
c.instreamswhereitisnotpracticabletobuildaweir,measurethedepthofthestreamatequal
intervalsacrossitswidth(atapointwherethestreamisstraightanduniform)asinFig.141.
Thentimeafloatdriftingdownthecentreofthemeasuredsection.Thisgivesthespeedofthe
currentatthecentreofthestreamthemeanvelocitywillbe0.60.85ofthisfigure.Arough,
rockystreambedrequiresafactorof0.6,whilesmoothmuddysurfacesrequireafactorof
0.85.Theflowiscalculatedfromtheproductofthemeanvelocityandareaofstreamcross
sectionusingappropriateunits:
e.g.velocityinm/s.xcrosssectioninm2givesflowratem3.
Obviouslyacurrentmeteroraship'slog,ifavailable,canmoreconvenientlybeusedto
measurethecurrentvelocityinsteadoftimingafloat.
d.dilutionsaltgaugingisanewtechniqueinwhichaknownquantityofsaltispouredintothe
centreofthestreamatonepoint.Anelectricalconductivitymeteristhenuseddownstream
fromthatpointtomeasurethedilution.Thedatacanthenbeusedtodeterminetheflowrate
e.useofautomaticstreamgauginginstrumentsacalibratedweirisusedtoderivethedaybyday
riverflowonanelectricorclockworkwaterlevelrecorder.

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Fig.140Flowmeasurementwithrectangularweir(afterBYSNepal)

Fig.141Methodofstreamgaugingwithouttheneedtobuildaweir

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Insomecasesitmaybeofinteresttouseriverorcanalcurrentpowereddevices,inwhichcaseitis
necessarytomeasurethecurrentvelocityeitherbytimingthepassageofafloatthrownintothe
currentbetweentwopointsonlandwhichcanbealignedwithitasitfloatspast,oracalibrated
currentmeteringdevice(orship'slog)canbeused.
Itisextremelydifficulttoestimatefloworcurrentvelocitybyeyehumanjudgementispeculiarlybad
atassessingthesekindsoffactorsandveryinaccurateresultsarelikely.

4.9.2UseofTurbinesforWaterLifting
i.Generaltypesofturbine
Aswithpumps,therearefamiliesofdifferenttypesofturbinetodealwithdifferenttypesofsituation.
Briefly,thesecanbecharacterizedasfollows:
a.
b.
c.

lowhead
medium
head
highhead

propeller/Kaplan

Banki/Francis

Pelton/Turgo

AtypicalsmallfixedbladepropellerturbineisshowninFig.142A.Theseareonlyadequately
efficientoveranarrowrangeofflows.Wherevariableflowandpowerisneeded,adjustablegatesare
providedandtheturbinerunnermayhavefixedoradjustablepitchblades.Thelatterisknownasa
Kaplanturbineandismoreefficientoverawiderrangeofflowsthanafixedpitchpropellerturbine.
Butthecomplicationofadjustablepitchrunnerbladesisexpensive,andthereforeisonlynormally
appliedforlargerscaleinstallations.
Thereisamiddleheadrangeofturbines,someofwhichinvolvemixedflow,ratherlikeamixedflow
pumpinreverse.Turbinesofthiskindrunfullofwater,andareknowngenericallyasReaction
Turbines.Themostwidelyusedmediumheadreactionturbineresemblesacentrifugalpump(except
theflowtravelsradiallyinwardsfromaspiralcasing)andisaFrancisturbineFig.142B.Reversed
centrifugalpumpshaveactuallybeenusedasacheapformofturbine,andcanbequiteacceptably
efficientoveranarrowrangeofflowsandspeedsatagivenhead.Anothertypeofmediumhead
turbineisknownastheBanki(aliasOssberger,MitchellorCrossFlow)turbine.Hereajetofwater
impingesonasetofcurvedbladesmountedbetweentwodiscs,travelsthroughthecentreofthe
rotorandemergesfromthefarsideagain.Turbinesofthiskinddonotrunfullofwaterandareknown
asimpulseturbinesinthattheyderivetheirrotationfromdeflectingajetofwater.Highhead
applicationsaregenerallydealtwithbyanothertypeofimpulseturbineknownasaPeltonWheel
(Fig.142C).Withthisahighspeedjetofwaterisdirectedataseriesofbucketssetaroundtherimof
thewheel.Eachbuckethasacentralsplitterwhichsplitsthejetintwoanddirectsitalmostbackin
thedirectionitcamefromandoutwardsfromtherimofthewheel.

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Fig.142Someofthemaintypesofhydroturbineforlow,mediumandhighheads
Thereasonsforusingdifferentturbinetypesatdifferentheadsandflowsrelatetotheefficiencyand
speedofrotationthatisrequired.Lowheadtypesofturbine,likepropellerturbineshaveahigh
specificspeedthismeanstheytendtorotatefasterinrelationtothevelocityofthewatertravelling
throughthem,whichisimportantatlowheadsifelectricalmachinery,orrotodynamicpumps,areto
bedriven.Howeverhighheadswouldcauseequipmentofthiskindtorunatunacceptablyhigh
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speeds,(andotherproblemswouldalsooccur)solowerspecificspeedtypesofturbinebecome
necessaryastheheadincreases.Theinterestedreadershouldconsultastandardtextbookon
hydroturbinesasfurtherdiscussionisbeyondthescopeofthiswork.
Theshaftofaturbinecanbeconnecteddirectlytoagenerator,whichthencanbeusedtopower
electricpumpsforirrigation,oritcanbedirectlycoupledtoanappropriatecentrifugalorother
rotodynamicpump.Therouteviaelectricityisofinterestinthatirrigationwaterpumpingis.highly
seasonal,andasystemwhichproduceselectricitycaninmanycasesperformusefuldutiesotherthan
irrigation,suchasprovidinglightatnight,postharvestprocesses,etc.Howeverelectricitygeneration
inevitablyinvolvesahigherlevelofengineeringsophisticationandinvestmentthanisinherentin
poweringasimplepumpbyasimpleturbine.Also,anyhydroelectricplantneedstobewellprotected
fromflooding,whileasimpleturbinepoweringapumpismuchlessliabletodamageandcan
thereforebemoresimplyinstalled.Therearealsolossesofefficiencyinherentinconvertingshaft
powertoelectricity,transmittingtheelectricityandthenconvertingitbacktoshaftpowerthiscould
absorbe25to40%oftheenergyconverted.
Thechosenapproachmustdependonthesizeofthehydraulicresource,andthepotentialfor
satisfyingothereconomicapplications,plusofcoursethefinancialandorganizationalresourcesofthe
usercommunity.
ii.Chineseturbinepumps
TheChinesehavetakenthecombinationofturbinesandpumpstothelogicalconclusionofproducing
alargerangeofintegratedturbinepumpunits.Althoughthisisarelativelyrecentdevelopment
(originatingintheearly1960s)some60000turbinepumpswerereportedlyinuse[63]irrigating400
000haby1979.
Chineseturbinepumpsaregenerallyforlowheadapplications,wherethehydropowersourcewill
oftenbeacanaljumpinanirrigationschemeoraweironacanalizedrivergivingaheadintheregion
of1to15m.Thereforetheturbinemostcommonlyusedisafixedpitchpropellerturbinewhichis
appropriateforlowheads.Thisisgenerallymountedwithaverticalshaftsurroundedbyfixedgatesit
thereforetendstobeatitsmostefficientonlyoveranarrowrangeofflowrates.Acentrifugalpump
impellerismountedonthesameshaftastheturbine,backtobackasinFig.143.Whereahighhead
watersupplyisneeded,multistagecentrifugalpumpsmaybeconnectedtotheturbineasinFig.144.
Insomecasesanextensiondriveshaftcanbefitted,asinFig.145thisallowstheturbinetobeused
asageneralpowersourceattimeswhenthereisnodemandforirrigationwater.Forexampleitcan
readilybeappliedtopoweringasmallricemill,oilexpeller,generator,etc.Thisclearlycangreatly
enhancetheeconomicvaluetobegainedfromtheinstallation.
Alargevarietyofdifferentsizesandmodelsofturbinepumpsaremadebynumeroussmall
manufacturersinChina,andattractivelylowpriceshavebeenquotedfortheexportmarket.Table22
indicatestherangeofsizesofsinglestageturbinepumpsmanufacturedbyatypicalproductionunit,
theYouxiTurbinePumpPlant,Fujian,andthe(1981)exportpricesquotedforthesebytheFujian
ProvincialAgriculturalMachineryImport&ExportCorporation.
BecauseitcanbemisleadingtomakejudgementsontheeconomicsofChineseequipmentonthe
basisofChineseexportpricesconvertedattheprevailingexchangerate,somelimitedChinesedata
ontherelativecostsofalternativepumpingsystemswithintheChineseeconomyareofinterest.It
canbeseenfromTable23thatturbinepumpsaresignificantlycheaperthaneitherelectrically
energizedpumpsorenginepumps,asistobeexpected.Whetherthesamedifferentialswouldapply
elsewhereisopentoquestion,buttheturbinepumpisalmostcertaintobeeconomicallyattractive
whereverthereistheneedforirrigationwatercombinedwithsuitableinstallationsites.
Table24indicatestheperformanceofaselectionofsmalllow,mediumandhighheadturbinepumps,
includingestimatesofshaftpowerandefficiency.Theoverallefficiencyisintherange32to50%for
themodelsconsideredthisimpliesthattheturbinesandpumpsconsideredindividuallyratherthanin
combinationhaveefficienciesinthe56to71%range,assumingroughlyequalefficiencyforeach.
Othermodelsexistwithclaimedoverallefficienciesashighas58%.
Becausefixedpitchpropellerturbinesonlyhaveanarrowoperatingrangewherehighefficiencycan
beachieved,itisimportantthattheyareaccuratelysizedtosuittheflowandhead.Wherevarying
flowconditionsoccur,itisusualtoinstallseveralsmallunitsratherthanonelargeone.Thismeans
eachunitcanalwaysberunneartoitsoptimumflowconditionbyshuttingthemdownonebyoneto
caterforreducedflows.Agooddesignstrategyistoinstalltwounits,onewithtwicetheflowcapacity
oftheotherthenbothareusedunderthemaximumflowcondition,thelargercantake2/3ofthe
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maximumflowonitsown,andthesmallercantake1/3ofmaximumflowonitsown.Thisallows
efficientoperationat1/3,2/3andfullflow.
Turbinepumpsaretypicallyinstalledonaconcreteplatformbuiltintoaweir,asinFig.146.Therefore,
althoughtheturbinepumpunitisinexpensive,dependingonthesite,civilworkingsarelikelyto
representthelargestcostelement.Pipesalsowillbeexpensive,butthenforagivenflowtheywillbe
equallyexpensiveregardlessofthechoiceofpumpingsystem.
Higherheadsorhigherflowsarecommonlycateredforbyconnectingturbinepumpsinseriesor
parallel.

Fig.143Singlestagehighliftturbinepump(crosssection)

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Fig.144Multistagehighliftturbinepump(crosssection)

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Fig.145Turbinepumpfittedwithextensiondriveshaft(showpartsectioned)
Table22TYPICALSIZESANDPRICESOFCHINESETURBINEPUMPS
Type

Head
(m)

Lift
(m)

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Flow
(1/s)

Discharge
(1/s)

Weight(net)
(kg)

Price(net)
(US$)

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206

14

624

88180

612

59

89.00

306

14

624

210420

2142

155

127.00

406

14

624

370740

3772

290

198.00

606

14

624

6841354

70142

985

571.00

6016

16

1696

6501620

2557

1374

1237.00

Table23COMPARISONOFIRRIGATIONCOSTSINCHINA
Typeofsystem

Lift
(m)

Irrigationcost
(US$/ha)

Electric

30

3590

Engine

30

70130

Turbinepumps

70

515

Table24SOMEPERFORMANCEDATAOFSMALLTURBINEPUMPS
Turbinepump
model
Highyield

Highyield
Highyield

LowheadZD
680
LowheadZD
680
LowheadZD
680
MediumheadZD
540
HighheadZD
440

Working Working
head
flow
(m)
(1/a)
100

0.5

15

204
206

0.5
1.0

60
84

306

1.0

190

106
106

1.0
4.0

20
40

206
206

1.0
6.0

81
198

3010
3016

6.0
6.0

446
446

Z206
Z206

5
14

139
232

G206
G206

12
20

172
222

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Delivery
head
(m)
3
2
6
6
6
24
6
36
60
96
30
84
72
120

Delivery
flow
(1/a)
0.8
7.8
6.0
16.0
1.2
2.4

Shaft
power
(watts)
47
203
570

1,340
130
1,000

6.4 5608,180
15.5
19.2
11.2

19,250
19,250

10
16

4,620
21,600

11
14

14,400
30,900

Overall
efficiency
(%)
32.8

42.8
50.6

36.0

47.0

43.0

42.0

38.0
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Highlift

406
406

0.5
5.0

238
750

Highlift

4017
4017

1.0
6.0

333
815

3
30
17
102

20.9
66.1

3.3
8.5

Fig.146Typicalturbinepumpinstallation

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Fig.147Schematicdiagramofhydraminstallation

4.9.3TheHydraulicRamPump(orHydrant)
Thehydraulicrampump,orhydram,conceptwasfirstdevelopedbytheMontgolfierbrothers,better
rememberedfortheirpioneeringworkwithhotairballoons,inFrancein1796.Essentially,ahydram
(shownschematicallyinFig.147),isanautomaticpumpingdevicewhichutilizesasmallfallofwater
toliftafractionofthesupplyflowtoamuchgreaterheight.Inotherwords,aswiththeturbinepump,
itusesalargerflowofwaterfallingthroughasmallheadtoliftasmallflowofwaterthroughahigher
head.Themainvirtueofthehydramisthatithasnosubstantialmovingparts,andistherefore
mechanicallyextremelysimple,whichresultsinveryhighreliability,minimalmaintenance
requirementsandalongoperationallife.
Itsmodeofoperationdependsontheuseofthephenomenoncalledwaterhammerandtheoverall
efficiencycanbequitegoodunderfavourablecircumstances.Fig.147illustratestheprincipleinitially
thewastevalve(1)willbeopenundergravity,andwaterwillthereforeflowdownthedrivepipe(2)
fromthewatersource(3)(havingbeendrawnthroughastrainer(4)topreventdebrisenteringthe
hydram).Astheflowaccelerates,thehydraulicpressureunderthewastevalveandthestatic
pressureinthebodyofthehydram(5)willincreaseuntiltheresultingforcesovercometheweightof
thewastevalveanditstartstoclose.Assoonasitstartstoclose,andtheaperturedecreases,the
waterpressureinthevalvebodybuildsuprapidlyandslamsthewastevalveshut.Themoving
columnofwaterinthedrivepipeisnolongerabletoexitviathewastevalvesoitsvelocitymust
suddenlydecreasethiscontinuestocauseaconsiderableriseofpressurewhichforcesopenthe
deliveryvalve(6)totheairchamber(7).Oncethepressureintheairchamberexceedsthestatic
deliveryhead,waterdischargesthroughthedeliverypipe(8).Airtrappedintheairchamberis
simultaneouslycompressedtoapressureexceedingthedeliverypressure.Eventuallythecolumnof
waterinthe.drivepipecomestoahaltandthestaticpressureinthecasingthenfallstonearthestatic
pressureduetothesupplyhead.Thedeliveryvalvewillthenclose,duetothepressureintheair
chamberexceedingthepressureinthecasing.Waterwillcontinuetobedischargedthroughthe
checkvalve(9),afterthedeliveryvalvehasclosed,untilthecompressedairintheairchamberhas
expandedtoapressureequaltothedeliveryhead.Atthesametime,assoonasthedeliveryvalve
closes,thereducedpressureinthecasingofthehydramallowsthewastevalvetodropopen,
therebyallowingthecycletostartagain.
Theairchamberisavitalcomponent,asapartfromimprovingtheefficiencyoftheprocessby
allowingdeliverytocontinueafterthedeliveryvalvehasclosed,itisalsoessentialtocushionthe
shocksthatwouldotherwiseoccurduetotheincompressiblenatureofwater.Iftheairchamberfills
withwatercompletely,notonlydoesperformancesuffer,butthehydrambody,thedrivepipeortheair
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chamberitselfcanbefracturedbytheresultingwaterhammer.Sincewatercandissolveair,
especiallyunderpressure,thereisatendencyfortheairinthechambertobedepeletedbybeing
carriedawaywiththedeliveryflow.Differenthydramdesignsovercomethisproblemindifferent
ways.Thesimplestsolutionrequirestheusertooccasionallystopthehydramanddraintheair
chamberbyopeningtwotaps,onetoadmitairandtheothertoreleasewater.Anothermethodon
moresophisticatedhydramsistoincludeasocalledsniftingvalvewhichautomaticallyallowsairtobe
drawnintothebaseoftheairchamberwhenthewaterpressuremomentarilydropsbelow
atmosphericpressureatthemomentafterflowcommenceswhenthewastevalvereopens.Itis
importantwithsuchunitstomakeanoccasionalchecktoseethatthesniftingvalvehasnotbecome
cloggedwithdirtandisworkingproperly.
Thiscyclingofthehydramistimedbythecharacteristicofthewastevalve.Normallyitcanbeeither
weightedorpretensionedbyanadjustablespring,andanadjustablescrewedstopisgenerally
providedwhichwillallowthemaximumopeningtobevaried.Theefficiency,whichdictateshowmuch
waterwillbedeliveredfromagivendriveflow,iscriticallyinfluencedbythevalvesetting.Thisis
becauseifthewastevalvestaysopentoolong,asmallerproportionofthethroughputwateris
pumped,sotheefficiencyisreduced,butifitclosestooreadily,thenthepressurewillnotbuildupfor
longenoughinthehydrambody,soagainlesswaterwillbedelivered.Thereisoftenanadjustable
boltwhichlimitstheopeningofthevalvetoapredeterminedamountwhichallowsthedevicetobe
tunedtooptimizeitsperformance.Askilledinstallershouldbeabletoadjustthewastevalveonsiteto
obtainoptimumperformanceforthatparticularhydramandsite.
Therefore,itcanbeseenthattheoutputofahydramisconstant,24hrs/day,andcannotreadilybe
varied.Astoragetankisusuallyincludedatthetopofthedeliverypipetoallowwatertobedrawnin
variableamountsasneeded.
i.Installationrequirements
Inatypicalhydraminstallation,asupplyheadiscreatedeitherbydiggingasmallcontoureddiversion
canalbypassingariver,orinsomecases,particularlywithsmallstreams,itisnormalsimplytocreate
aweirandtoinstallthehydramdirectlybelowit.
Wheregreatercapacityisneeded,itiscommonpracticetoinstallseveralhydramsinparallel.This
allowsachoiceofhowmanytooperateatanyonetimesoitcancaterforvariablesupplyflowsor
variabledemand.
Thesizeandlengthofthedrivepipemustbeinproportiontotheworkingheadfromwhichtheram
operates.Also,thedrivepipecarriessevereinternalshockloadsduetowaterhammer,andtherefore
normallyshouldbeconstructedfromgoodqualitysteelwaterpipe.Normallythelengthofthe
drivepipeshouldbearoundthreetoseventimesthesupplyhead.Also,ideallythedrivepipeshould
havealengthofatleast100timesitsowndiameter(eg.thedesignlengthfora100mm(4in)
drivepipeisabout10m,andfora150mm(6in)drivepipeitisabout15m).Thedrivepipemust
generallybestraightanybendswillnotonlycauselossesofefficiency,butwillresultinstrong
fluctuatingsidewaysforcesonthepipewhichcancauseittobreakloose.
Thehydrambodyneedstobefirmlyboltedtoaconcretefoundation,asthebeatsofitsactionapplya
significantshockload.Itshouldalsobelocatedsothatthewastevalveisalwaysabovefloodwater
level,asthedevicewillceasetofunctionifthewastevalvebecomessubmerged.Thedeliverypipe
canbemadefromanymaterialcapableofcarryingthepressureofwaterleadingtothedeliverytank.
Inallexceptveryhighheadapplications,plasticpipecanbeconsideredwithhighheads,thelower
endofthedeliverylinemightbebetterassteelpipe.Thediameterofthedeliverylineneedstoallow
foravoidingexcessivepipefrictioninrelationtotheflowratesenvisagedandthedistancethewateris
tobeconveyed.Itisrecommendedthatahandvalveorcheckvalve(nonreturnvalve)shouldbe
fittedinthedeliverylineneartheoutletfromthehydram,sothatthedeliverylinedoesnothaveto
bedrainedifthehydramisstoppedforadjustmentoranyotherreason.Thiswillalsominimizeany
backflowpastthedeliveryvalveintheairchamberandimprovetheefficiency.
ii.Choiceofhydramdesign
Traditionalhydramdesigns,suchasFig.148,developedacenturyagoinEurope,areextremely
robust.Theytendtobemadefromheavycastingsandhavebeenknowntofunctionreliablyfor50
yearsormore.AnumberofsuchdesignsarestillmanufacturedinEuropeandtheUSAinsmall
numbers.ThehydraminFig.148differsfromtheschematicdiagramofFig.147inhavingitswaste
valveonthesamesideasthedrivepipe,butitsprincipleofoperationisidentical.
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Lighterdesigns,fabricatedusingaweldedsheetsteelconstruction.(Fig.149)weredevelopedfirstin
JapanandarenowinproductioninotherpartsofSEAsiaincludingTaiwanandThailand.Theseare
cheaper,butonlylikelytolastadecadeorsoastheyaremadefromthinnermaterialwhichwill
probablyeventuallycorrodeneverthelesstheyoffergoodvalueformoneyandarelikelytoperform
reliablyforarespectablylongtime.However,hydramsaremostlyintendedforwatersupplyduties,
operatingathigherheadsandlowerflowratesthanarenormalforirrigation.Thereforeitislikelythat
themostusefulhydramsforirrigationpurposeswillbethelargersizeshaving100150mm(4"6")
drivepipes.Somesimpledesignsthatcanbeimprovizedfrompipefittingshavealsobeendeveloped
byaidagencies,(suchasinFig.150)andsomeinterestingversionshavealsobeenquitecrudely
improvizedusingscrapmaterials,suchasinsouthernLaosusingmaterialssalvagedfrombombed
bridgesandwitholdpropanecylindersasairchambers.Needlesstosay,suchdevicesareverylow
incostthepipesintheendcostconsiderablymorethanthehydram.Theyarenotalwaysasreliable
astraditionaldesigns,butneverthelessareusuallyquiteadequatelyreliableandareeasytorepair
whentheyfail.

Fig.148Traditional(Blakes)Europeanhydramdesign

Fig.149SouthEastAsiantypeofhydram

Fig.150Lowcosthydraulicramusingstandardpipefittings
Table25HYDRAMINPUTCAPACITY

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Nominaldiameterofdrivepipe

ins.bore

mm.bore
litresper
Volumeofdrivingwaterrequired minute
tooperatetheram

11/4

11/2

21/2

32

40

50

65

80

from

12

27

45

68

to

16

25

55

96

137 270 410 750 1136

100 125 150

175

200

136 180 364

545

770
1545

Table26HYDRAMPERFORMANCE
Supply
Head

Deliveryhead(m)

30

(m)

7.5

10

15

20

1.0

144

77

65

33

59

20

12

1.5

135

96

70

54

36

19

15

2.0

220

156

105

79

53

33

2.5

280

200

125

100

66

260

180

130

87

215

150

255

173

310

236

3.0
3.5

4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0

282

40

100
115
155
185
216

9.0
10.0

Litrespumpedin24hoursper1/minofdrivewater.

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50

60

80

100

25

20

12

40

32

24

16

12

65

51

40

27

18

75

60

46

32

20

86

69

53

36

23

118

94

72

50

36

140

112

94

64

48

163

130

109

82

60

187

149

125

94

69

212

168

140

105

84

245

187

156

117

93

125

12
14
16
23
34
48
55
62
69

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12.0
14.0
16.0
18.0
20.0

295

225

187

140

113

265

218

167

132

250

187

280

210

169

237

188

150

83
97
110
124
140

iii.Performancecharacteristics
Table25(from[64])indicatestheinputcapacityofdifferentsizesofhydramitisthisinputwhich
determinesthedeliveryflowatagivendeliveryhead.Thelowerlimitindicatestheminimuminputflow
requiredforpracticaloperation,whiletheupperlimitrepresentsthemaximumpossibleflowahydram
canhandle.Table26[64]thenindicatestheprobablelitrespumpedin24hrsforeachlitre/minof
drivewater.
Althoughthecostsofhydramsareapparentlylow,assoonashighflowratesareneededatlower
heads,thesizeofhydramandmoreparticularlyofdrivepipe,beginstoresultinsignificantlyhigher
costs.Thereforehydramsarebestsuitedtorelativelylowflowratesandhighheadapplications,
(perhapsterracedtreenurseriesinmountainousregions)whileaturbinepump,asdiscussedinthe
previoussection,appearsmoreattractiveforthelowerheadsandhighflowratesthataremore
commonforirrigationofcommercialcropsonlowlandfarms.

4.9.4WaterWheelsandNorias
Theundershotwaterwheelisprobablyboththemostobviousandtheoldestmethodofextracting
energyfromrivers.Inmanycasesthedevicesimplydipsintotheriverandisturnedbythemovement
ofthecurrentseeFig.151.Intheexampleillustrated,fromVietnam,theentirestructureismadeof
bambooandbambootubeswithoneendclosedaremountedaroundtherimofthewheel.The
bambootubesdipintotheriverandreemergefilledwithwater,whichtheytonearthetop,wherethe
waterpoursoutintoatrough.DevicesofthiskindarequitewidelyusedinSEAsia,includingChina,
JapanandThailandaswellasVietnam,andareknownas"norias".Fig.152showsaChinese
versionandillustratestheprincipleandmethodofconstructionquiteclearly.Thenoriaissimilarin
manywaystothePersianwheelandwasdiscussedearlierinSection3.4.1.
Thebiggestshortcomingofthenoriaisthattheyneedtobeofadiametersomewhatgreaterthanthe
headthismakesthemfineforlowheadapplications,buttheygetlargeandcumbersomeforhigher
lifts.TheexampleillustratedinFig.151is10mindiameterandisclaimedtobeabletoirrigateabout
8ha[65].Thereisasmallweirjustvisibleintheillustrationwhichcreatesaheadofabout100mmat
thebaseofthewheelwhichsignificantlyimprovestheperformance.The10mdiameterVietnamese
noriaturnsattherateofabout1revolutionin40secondsanddeliverswater,typically,attherateof7
litre/sec.ThecostoftheseVietnamesenoriasisquotedasbeingtheequivalentofUS$225450,[65].
Althoughthenoriaisattractiveinbeingrelativelyinexpensiveandalsobeingcapableofmanufacture
inthevillage,thesiteswheretheymaybeusedarelimitedandtheyareparticularlypronetodamage
byfloods.ThereforeannualrepaircostsquotedforVietnamesenorias[65]canbeasmuchas30
50%ofthecapitalcostoftheinstallation.However,underVietnameseconditionsthesamesource
indicatedthatsomesampleinstallationswhichweresurveyedproducedareturnfortheusersin
termsofvalueofgrainproductionintherange2460%overtheestimatedcosts.

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Fig.151Bamboowaterwheels,Vietnam

Fig.152ChinesetypeofsmallscaleNoria

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Fig.153Waterwheeldrivencoilpump(seealsoFig.50)
AmodernversionoftheAsiannoriaisthefloatingcoilpump,versionsofwhichhavebeentestedby
theSydfynsgruppen(supportedbyDANIDA)atWemaontheTanaRiverinKenya,bytheDanish
BoyScoutsontheWhiteNileatJubainsouthernSudanandbytheGermanagencyBORDAonthe
RiverNigernearBamakoinMali[66](seeFig.153).Theprincipleofthecoilpumpisexplainedin
Section3.6.4andalsoillustratedinFig.50.Theserecentexperimentalrivercurrentpowered
irrigationpumpingsystemsconsistoffloatingundershotwaterwheels(mountedonfloatingpontoons
madefromemptyoilbarrels),andbyusingacoilpumpitispossibletousequiteasmalldiameter
waterwheelandtouseittoliftwatertoaheightconsiderablygreaterthanitsdiameter(around10
15mispossiblefroma23mdiameterrotor).
Theclaimedperformanceoftheprototypefloatingcoilpumpswas6.6litre/secagainstadelivery
headof5mwitharivercurrentvelocityof1.2m/sontheTanaRiveratWema.Forreasonswhichare
notknown,thesimilarunittestedontheNileonlypumped0.7litre/secagainst5mheadwiththe
samerivercurrentvelocityof1.2m/s.Quitehighcurrentvelocitiesintherangefroml2m/s(24knots)
arenecessaryfordevicesofthiskind.TheKenyanmachinewasmademainlyfromglassreinforced
plastic(fibreglass)andcostUS$4000in1979,butthemuchlessefficientSudanprototypeused
steelandwood,withflexibleplasticpipeforthecoilpumpandonlycost$350Inbothcasesthe
considerablelengthofflexiblepiperequiredaccountedforaboutonethirdofthetotalcost.
TheRoyalIrrigationDepartmentofThailandhasdevelopedasimilarfloatingundershotwaterwheel
devicetothosejustdescribed,butinthiscasethewheelismechanicallylinkedtoaconventional
pistonpumpbymeansofsprocketsandchains.Itrequiresaminimumcurrentvelocityoflm/switha
riverflowofatleast0.6m3/sanditisclaimedtobecapableofpumpingfrom0.31.5litre/sectoheads
of60m15mrespectively.Thecostwasquotedat$1450,notincludingthedeliverypipingandheader
tank.
Ageneralproblemwithwaterwheelsisthatifthedriveistakenfromthemainshaft,thecosts
becomehighinrelationtothepoweravailable,becauselargeslowmoving(andthereforeexpensive)
mechanicaldrivecomponentsareneededtotransmitthehightorqueinvolved.Also,withshaftsonly
turningatbetween15rpm(whichistypicalofwaterwheels)eitherverylargepumpsweptvolumes
arerequiredoralotofgearingupisnecessarytodriveasmallerpumpatanadequatespeedeither
waytheengineeringisexpensiveinrelationtothepower.Thereforewaterwheels,although
apparentlyofferingsimplesolutions,arenotalwaysaseasytoadaptforpoweringmechanicaldevices
suchaspumpsasmightatfirstbeexpected.
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4.9.5NovelWaterPoweredDevices
i.ThePlataPump
AnunconventionalalternativetoasmallwaterwheelforpoweringasmallpumpisthePlataPump
(Fig.154).ThisdevicewasinventedinNewZealandandsomeeffortshavebeenmadeto
commercializeitinternationally,althoughitisnotbelievedtobeverywidelyused.Init,aseriesof
smallturbinerotorsaremountedonasingleshaftalongtheaxisofacylindricalduct,approximately
2.5mlongby0.5mindiameter.Itisabitlikeamultirotoredpropellerturbine,althoughthereareno
diffusersorotherstaticbladestocontrolrotationofthefluid.Theshaftdrivestwoopposedsingle
actingpistonpumpsviaacrank.ThePlataPumpisintendedtobemountedinalowdamorweir,so
thatitslopesataslightangleandwaterrunsdownhillthroughit.Itisnotsupposedtorunfullofwater,
butworksbestwhenrunningaround1toJfullperhapsbecausewhenrunningfulltheflowrotates
andtherebycauseslossofefficiency.

Fig.154CutawayviewshowinggeneralarrangementofaPlatapumpinstallation
ThePlataPumpisdesignedtooperateonheadsof0.25lmusuallythisisengineeredbyplacingthe
PlataPumpatanappropriateangleonastreambedandbuildingupaweirwithrocksorother
materialtocreatethenecessaryhead.TheoverallefficiencyofthePlataPumphasbeenmeasured
asbeinginthe630%rangeatdeliveryheadsfrom690m[66],Thebestefficiencywasrecordedat
24mhead.Typicalperformancewithaworkingflowof85litre/secis1.3litre/secat6m,0.25litre/sec
at24m,0.11litre/secat38m.Aworkingflowof153litre/secwasnecessarytoallow90mdelivery
headtobereached.
ThepriceofthePlataPumpinkitformwasaboutUS$2000in1980,[66],soitseemstobe
relativelyexpensiveinrelationtoitsperformanceincomparison,forexample,withChineseturbine
pumpsdescribedearlier.Italsoappearstobelessefficientandrobustthantheturbinepump.
ii.Therivercurrentturbine
Theenergyofmotion(orkineticenergy)availableinriverorcanalcurrentsis,exactlyasforwind,
proportionaltothecubeofthevelocity.Therelationshipbetweenpowerandvelocityis:

wherepisthedensityofwater(1000kg/m3forfreshwater),Aistheareaofcrosssectionofcurrent
inm2andVisthemeanvelocitythroughthecrosssectioninm/s.Fromthisthefollowingpower
densitiescanbecalculated,asshowninTable27:
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Table27POWERDENSITYINWATERCURRENTSASAFUNCTIONOFWATERVELOCITY
velocity

(m/s)
(knots)

powerdensity (kW/m2)

0.5

1.0

1.0

2.0

0.06

0.5

1.5

2.0

3.0

4.0

1.7

4.0

ItisinterestingtocomparethiswithTable16givingtheequivalentresultforwindsimilarpoweris
experiencedinwateratabout1/9thevelocityinwindneededtoachievethesamepower,duetothe
muchhigherdensityofwater.Sinceameanwindspeedof9m/swouldbeconsideredmostattractive
fortheeconomicuseofwindpower,itisclearthatevencurrentsoflm/smaybemorethanadequate
asapowersourceiftheycouldbeexploitedefficiently.Moreover,amajorproblemwithexploiting
windenergyisitsgreatvariability,butrivercurrentsgenerallyflowsteadily24hoursperday,[67].
Thetraditionalandmostobvioustechnique,undershotwaterwheels,areaninefficientmeansto
exploitcurrents,sincethebulkofthemachineisexternaltothewateratanyonetimeandtherefore
providesnopower.ThereforetheIntermediateTechnologyDevelopmentGroup(UK)undertooka
programme,financedbytheNetherlandsGovernment,todevelopturbineswhichwouldoperate
efficientlyentirelysubmergedtoextractshaftpowerfromrivercurrents(theauthormustdeclarean
interest,sincethedeviceinquestionwasdevelopedunderhistechnicalsupervision).
ThemaindevicetestedisaverticalaxiscrossflowturbinesimilartotheDarrieuswindmillinprinciple
(seeSection4.7.2).Ithastheadvantagethattheverticaldriveshaftconvenientlycomesthroughthe
surface,sothatanymechanicalcomponentscanbelocatedonthedeckofapontoonabovewater.
Unlikeawaterwheelthisdevicecaninterceptacomparativelylargecrosssectionofcurrentusing
littlematerialotherthanarotortodosomoreoveritturnsrelativelyfastinrelationtothecurrent
(13.5rpminthiscasewithalm/scurrent)whichreducesthegearingneededtodriveapumpata
reasonablespeed.TheconceptisillustratedinFig.155,whileanactualworkingirrigationpumping
unit,installedonthewhiteNilenearJubainsouthernSudan,workedreasonablyreliably,wasfitted
witha3mdiameterverticalaxisrotor(3.75m2crosssectionalarea)poweringacentrifugalpumpviaa
twostagetoothedbeltspeedincreaser.Itwastestedandfoundtopumpapproximately3.5litre/sec
throughaheadof5mwithacurrentof1.2m/s.Therotorefficiencyis25to30%(aswithasmall
windmill)andanoverallsystemefficiencyof6%hasbeenachieved,includingpipelossesaswellas
pumpandtransmissionlosses.Theprototype,whichcosttheequivalentofUS$5000tobuild,has
beenusedsuccessfullytoirrigatea6havegetablegarden.Smaller,simpler,lowcostversionswere
alsotestednearJuba.Costsaredifficulttodeterminewithprototypes,butthedeviceappearstobe
potentiallyeconomicallyattractive.

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Fig.155ITrivercurrentturbinepump
Thepotentialforusingtherivertopumpitsownwaterhasbeendemonstrated,butfurtherworkwill
beneededtooptimizethisdeviceandadaptitforcommercialproduction.However,theconsiderable
powerpotentialinmanyriver,canalandforthatmattertidalcurrentsshouldensurethatthisat
presentlittleknownandlittlethoughtofpowersourcegainsincreasingrecognition,andwilleventually
bemadeuseof.Thisisparticularlybecausemanylargerivers(suchastheNile,Euphrates,Zambesi,
Indus),flowthroughregionswhicharearidorwhichhaveseveralmonthsofdryseason.

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