__(C}l>tDY!L([J)Q '-',:....

--'_

Other titles in the Crowood Aviation Series

Aichi D3A 1/2 Val

Airco - The Aircr<lft Manuf<lcturing Company
Avro Lancaster
BAC One-Eleven
Bell P-39 Airacobra
Boeing 737
Boeing 747
Boeing 757 and 767
Boeing 13-17 Flying Fortress
onsolidated 13-24 Liberator
Douglas AD Skyraider
Engl ish Electric Canberra
Engl ish Electric Ligh tn ing
Fairchild Republic A-IO Thunderbolt II
Fokker Aircraft of World War One
Hawker Hunter
Hawker Hurricane
Junkers Ju 87 Stuka
Junkers Ju 88
Lockheed C-130 Hercules
Lockheed F-I 04 Starfighter
Luftwaffe - A Pictorial History
McDonnell Douglas A-4 Skyhawk
McDonnell Douglas F-IS Eagle
Messerschmitt Bf 110
Messerschmitt Me 262
Nieuport Aircraft of World Wm One
North American 13-25 Mitchell
North American F-86 Sabre
North American T-6
Panavia Tornado
The Turret Fighters - Defiant and Roc
Short Sunderland
V-Bombers
Vickers VC 10
Voughr F4U Corsair

Peter C. Smith
Mick Davis
Ken Delve
Malcolm L. Hill
Robert F. Dorr wirh Jerry C. Scum
Malcolm L. Hill
Martin W. Bowman
Thomas Becher
Marrin W. Bowman
Marrin W. Bowman
Peter C. Smirh
Barry Jones
Marrin W. Bowman
Peter C. Smith
Paul Leaman
Barry Jones
Peter Jacobs
Peter C. Smith
Ron Mackay
Marrin W. Bowman
Marrin W. Bowman
Eric Mombeek
Brad Elwmd
Perer E. Davies and Tony Thornborough
Ron Mackay
David Baker
Ray Sanger
Jerry Scum
Duncan Curtis
Perer C. Smirh
Andy Evans
Alec Brew
Ken Delve
Barry Jones
Lance Cole
Marrin W. Bowman

AVIATION ~ SERIES

Douglas Twinjets
DC-9 MD-BO MD-90 and Boeing 717

ThoIllas Becher

1)~CI
The Crowood Press

First published in 2002 by

The Crowood Press Ltd
Ramsbury, M'lrlborough
Wiltshire SN8 2HR

Thom'ls Becher 2002

Contents

Acknowledgements
This book would not havc been possiblc without thc support from Bocing's Long Beach
facility, the former McDonnell Douglas. I wish to thank Pat McGinnis, who opened up
its mesmcrizing archivcs for vital information and photographs, and John Thom and
Warren Lamb of Boeing's public relations office, for a tour of the facility, photographs
and othcr much-needed support. I also thank the retircd McDonnell Douglas enginccrs
interviewcd for this book for taking time to wax nostalgic. I also thank the many photographers who, sharing my similar passion for commcrcial aviation, were all too
willing to supply photographs from all over the world. Above all, I wish to thank my
wife, Amy, for her continual love, support and understanding.

1. DOUGLAS HISTORY

All rights reserved. No part of this publication

may be reproduced or transmitted in any form
or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopy, recording, or any
information storage and retrieval system,
without permission in writing from the
pub Iishers.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication
Data
A catalogue record for this book is available
from the British Library.
ISBN 186126446 I

Printed 'lnd bound in Grear Britain by

Bookcrafr, M idsomer Norton

2. DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT

19

3. LAUNCH AND PRODUCTION

45

4. EVOLUTION OF THE FAMILY

52

5. THE FAMILY GROWS: THE MD-80 SERIES

68

6. MD-90

102

7. BOEING 717

106

8. POWERPLANTS

119

9. HOW THE BIRDS ARE BORN

127

10. IN SERVICE

Designed and typeset hy Focus Publishing,

Ila Sr Bowlph's Road, Sevenoaks, Kenr
TN 13 3AJ

In trod lIction

138

11. SAFETY

165

12. THE COMPETITION

168

13. MILITARY, CARGO AND OTHER USES

170

14. THE FUTURE OF THE FAMILY

180

Appendix I: Deliveries by Year

184

Appendix II: Operators

185

Appendix Ill: Accidents

186

Index

189

CHAPTER ONE

Douglas History

Introduction
Among
the
most
common
and
recognizable commercial aircraft, the
Douglas Aircraft Company DC-9 was
developed to accommodate the explosive
growth in air travel during the boom of
the jet age in the 1960s. Designed to be
rugged, reliable and easy to maintain, the
DC-9 introduced jet service to hundreds
of communities in North America,
Europe and elsewhere around the world,
making air travel accessible and affordable
for millions of air travellers and enabling
airlines to open new routes and increase
service.
Combining all models in the family
over nearly forty years of development,
the DC-9 and its successors - the
McDonnell Douglas MD-80 series, the
MD-90 and Boeing 717 - remain the
second-most popular commercial jet ever
built, after the Boeing 737.
No other airliner in history has
undergone
more
evolution
and
refinement than th is prol ific and
ubiquitous series, starting with the
seventy-seat DC-9-10 model in the 1960s.
Developed as a short-range twinjet
aircraft to complement Douglas's much
larger four-engine DC-8, the DC-9 was
launched on 8 April 1963. This all-new
design featured rear fuselage-mounted
engines, a T-shaped tail and moderately
swept wings. Although not the first twinengine commercial jet - that distinction
goes to the Sud-Est (later Aerospatiale)
Caravelle - or even the first twin-engine
jet with the horizontal stabilizer attached
to the top of the tail- the British Aircraft
Corporation BAC I-II has that honourthe DC-9 was much more successful, a
model that made money for airlines,

appealed to passengers, and established a

formidable safety record.
The DC-9, a small jetliner designed
specifically for short, frequent flights,
brought the Jet revolution to towns and
cities that had, until then, only been
served by piston-powered aircraft. The
DC-9 helped to spawn a steady growth in
air travel that, in turn, created giant
airlines out of one-time local operations.
At the same time, the DC-9 contributed
to the economic growth of communities
that were able to use the lure of jet service
to attract new industries or encourage
expansion of existing ones.
The DC-9 family consists of four
distinct types: the original DC-9 line,
entailing five separate models, starting
with the initial DC-9-10; the McDonnell
Douglas MD-80 series, also with five
unique models; the McDonnell Douglas
MD-90; and the Boeing 717. This volume
describes each in detail.
Although now out of production, the
DC-9/MD-80/MD-90
series
today
remains an industry workhorse, a
tradition its latest offshoot, the Boeing
717, hopes to continue for decades to
come as the only member of the aircraft
family still being produced.
With its sporty look, unusual two-bythree seating arrangement, and reputation
for ruggedness and dependability, the DC9, along with its successors, remains a
favouri te among operators, passengers,
pilots and airports. Even with strict
engine-noise regulations around the
world, hundreds of older DC-9s, including
some of the first off the assembly lines,
have been fitted with noise-reducing hush
kits, ensuring that even the first members

Chronology
1963: Decision made to build the DC-9
1965: 25 February - First flight of the DC-9-1 0: 8
December - DC-9-10 enters service
1966: 1August - First flight of the DC-9 Series 30
1967: 28 November - First flight of the DC-9 Series 40
1968: 31 May - First flight of C-9A: 10 August - First
C-9A accepted by US Air Force: 18 SeptemberFirst flight of DC-9 Series 20
1973: 7 February - First flight of C-9B July - DC-9
Series 50 launched.
1974: 17 December - First flight of DC-9 Series 50
1977 December - DC-9 Series 80 announced
1979: DC-9-81 enters flight testing
1980: 12 September- DC-9-81 delivered to Swissair
1982: 28 October - Last OC-9 (C-9B) delivered
1983: DC-9-80 renamed MD-80
1984: 17 December - First flight of MD-83
1986: 4 December - First flight of MD-87
1987: 15 August - First flight of MD-88
1989: November - MD-90 production go-ahead
1990: MD-80 series assembled in China
1991: MD-95 announced at Paris Air Show
1993: 22 February - First flight of MD-90
1994: 16 November - MD-90 certified
1995: 1April- MD-90 enters service; MD-95
launched
1996: MD-90 enters service in Europe with SAS
1997: Boeing acquires McDonnell Douglas; Boeing
announces end of MD-80 and MD-90 lines
1998: MD-95 renamed 717: 2 September- first flight
of 717
1999: 12 October-717 enters service: Final MD-80
series (MD-83 model) delivered to TWA
2000: Saudi Arabian Airlines takes delivery of final
MD-90
2001: Long Beach facility scaled back: 717 deliveries
reach 100

Early Pioneer
The DC-9 was the second-to-last member
of a proud American institution, the
Douglas Aircraft Company. From the tiny
DC-I to the widebody DC-tO, Douglas
huilt a heritage of quality aircraft until its
amalgamation with arch-rival Boeing in
1997. The story of the DC-9 cannot be
adequately told without exploring some of
the
history
that
made
Douglas
synonymous with both commercial and
military aviation.
Tired of cold winters and with a nagging
desi re to bu i1d h is own aeroplanes,
twenty-eight-year-old
Donald
Wills
Douglas arrived in sunny Los Angeles (for
good) in 1920. He brought with him his
family, a few personal belongings, $600
and a letter of introduction to some of
California's wealthy investors.

The one-time Navy cadet and graduate

engineer was convinced that Californiawith its mild climate, open spaces and
energetic immigrants from throughout the
United States - would be the next centre
of aviation. Born the second son to
William and Dorothy Douglas of
Brooklyn, New York, Donald Douglas was
raised in the comfort of the upper middle
class. He had always expressed an interest
in the sea, so it was no surprise to his
family when Donald followed his younger
brother to begin his university education
at the US Naval Academy. However, he
resigned from the academy after his
sophomore
year
to
enter
the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
With his love for the sea supplanted by
an affinity for flight, Douglas completed a
four-year aeronautical programme in only
two years. Upon graduation, he landed a

of this venerable family will continue to

soldier on around the world well into the
twenty-first century, continuing a storied
aviation tradition.

job at MIT as an aeronautical engineer. In

August 1915, just twelve years after the
Wright Brothers' first flight on the dunes
of the North Carolina shore, Douglas
travelled to Los Angeles to interview as
the chief engineer at the Glenn L. Martin
Company, one of California's leading
aircraft manufacturers. Indeed, at just
twenty-three years old, Douglas became
the company's youngest chief engineer.
A year later, with World War 1
spreading in Europe, Douglas was
summoned to Washington, D.C., where
he was offered the posi tion of ch ief
civilian aeronautical engineer for the
Army Signal Corps' aviation section.
Douglas left the Martin Company for the
post, but returned a few months later to be
assigned the task of designing an attack
MD aD-series aircraft silhouetted. Boeing

DOUGLAS HISTORY

DOUGLAS HISTORY

The DC-9 in silhouette. Boeing

hadn't become the First to span a

continent, Davis sold his interest in the
company - unaware that Douglas had
stumbled upon a recipe For success.
Within two months of the Cloudster's
First flight, Douglas received his First
contract From the US Navy For three
torpedo
bombers,
wh ich
Douglas
designated DT-ls. In the two years that
Followed, the Navy increased its order to
thirty-eight of the aircraFt manuFactured
under the designation DT-2. A total of
ninety-three of the aircraFt were built,
garnering the attention of the Post Office
and the Army.
Douglas used many of the design
principles in the Cloudster and DT-I to
build the Douglas World Cruiser
(DWC), a cargo version called the C-l,

III observation aircraFt called the 0-2

,lIld a mail plane, the M-l. The World
( ruiser was the First aeroplane to fly
Iround the world. On 17 March 1924,
"1m DWCs leFt Clover Field in Santa
Monica, CaliFornia, en route to Seattle,
Washington, to start the 27,553-mile
(4 ),452km) journey. With stops in such
lilies as Tokyo, Calcutta, Vienna and
New York, two of the original Four
[)WCs returned on 23 September. The
,uccess of the flight helped to propel
[)ouglas to the Forefront of the aviation
IIldustry. Orders For various DWC
\l'rsions poured in, and by 1925
[)ouglas was producing Four aircraFt a
week From a converted movie studio
plant in Los Angeles.

Breakthrough Aircraft
With additional designs that included an
amphibious aircraFt and more bombers,
Douglas later opened a Factory at Clover
Field in Santa Monica, CaliFornia,
manuFacturing bombers For the US
military, which included the B-7, B-18, B19 and B-23. In 1932, with a nation still
struggling through the Depression,
Douglas was actively seeking commercial
customers. H is efForts paid off when a
young airline, Transcontinental and
Western Air (TWA), expressed interest in
acquiring ten new tri-motor transports. It
was with this project that Douglas kicked
off the First of what would become a
hugely successFul line of commercial

The DC-9-10 was the first aircraft in a family that would go on to become the second-most popular series of
modern commercial airliners. Boeing

aircraFt For the US Army that would

outperform Foreign Fighters in the nascent
Fighter-aircraFt industry.
Martin's
new
Facility
in
From
leveland, Ohio, Douglas set out to work
on what would become one of the most
important military projects of the time the Martin Bomber (MB-I). AFter its First
flight on 17 August 1917, the Army
ordered nine of the bombers. With his
First aircraFt in service, Douglas decided to
try h is luck as a solo engi neer and
businessman. In March 1920, the
aeronautical entrepreneur packed up his
Family to return to Southern CaliFornia.
He set up an office in the back room of a
barbershop. Two months aFter searching
For his Fi rst customer, Douglas met a
wealthy businessman named David Davis.
Davis, with $40,000 to invest, wanted to
sponsor the First-ever non-stop, coast-tocoast flight. Douglas took on the
challenge by Forming the Davis-Douglas
ompany. The upstart moved into a 10Ft
above a planing mill, and staFFed the new
company with six associates Douglas had
worked with at Martin.
Six months later, the company unveiled
its First aircraFt - the Cloudster. Although
the model wasn't the First aircraFt to fly
across the continental United States nonstop, Douglas noted with pride that it was
the First aeropl::lIle in history to ::lirliFt a
useFul load exceeding its own empty
weight. Disappointed that their plane
Donald Douglas with his DT-1 in early 1920s.
Boeing

aircraFt
the
DC-I
(Douglas
ommercial, First). Production of the
twin-engine DC-l began in June 1933,
with delivery to TWA by December.
Though over-budget,
it became
immediately clear that the DC-I had set a
new standard For airline saFety and
comFort. The passenger cabin was
insulated From engine noise through
rubber-mounted seats and noise-absorbing
carpet. The plane also had a galley and
lavatory. Although only one was ever
produced, TWA was pleased with the
creation and awarded Douglas a contract
to build twenty-Five larger versions designated the DC-2 - beginning a
history between Douglas and TWA that
would continue until the very end of the
century.
Next, Douglas improved the DC-2 over
its prototype predecessor. It was two Feet

DOUGLAS HISTORY

DOUGLAS HISTORY

The DC-3, still in service around the world today, is

the most popular airliner ever made. Boeing

(6Icm) longer, to accommodate two

additional passengers. The DC-2 was a hit
with the flying public. TWA employed the
aeroplane
on
its
nineteen-hour
Newark-Los Angeles route, which made
coast-to-coast travel possible overnight for
the first time. The DC-2 soon became the
aircraft of choice for many of the world's
largest airlines, including Eastern, Braniff,
Western, American, Pan Am and KLM. A
total of 156 DC-2s were produced.
At the insistence of American Airlines,
which would become one of its biggest
customers, Douglas began work on a new
aircraft similar in appearance to the DC-2.
Called the Douglas Skysleeper Transport
(DST), the plane was divided into six
compartments, each with two large seats
that could sl ide together to form a bed. The
plane also featured a honeymoon suite
equipped with its own bathroom - an
unheard-of concept at the time. American
took delivery of the DST - later known as
the DC-3 -on 7 June 1936.

The DC-l was the first in a long line of Douglas models. Just one was produced for service with TWA, a long-time Douglas customer. Boeing

The DC-2 made coast-to-coast travel possible in the United States. Boeing

70

77

DOUGLAS HISTORY

DOUGLAS HISTORY

The DC-6 was a faster and longer-range version of the DC-4. Boeing

The DC-4 was Douglas's first four-engine model. Boeing

Just twelve of the DC-5 models were built. Boeing

Douglas's final propeller-driven airliner was the DC-7. which could easily fly non-stop across the United States. Boeing

72

73

DOUGLAS HISTORY

DOUGLAS HISTORY

'1,441 aeroplanes. At its peak the Long

I\l',llh facility was producing 108 aircraft
I'l'r week. Production dropped with the
llld of World War II in 1945. A total of$2
hillion in backorders vanished overnight,
IIld the company laid off 99,000
l'lllployees nationwide. But like Boeing,
I he Douglas company used the war effort
III further develop the technology needed
Illr future commercial aircraft that later
Il'lluld be bu iI tin Long Beach.
The next Douglas aircraft, the DC-4,
1l',1S a four-engine evolution of the DC-3
1hat could carry forty-four passengers.
Roughly three times the size of the DC-3,
It was used by the military during World

War II, delaying its use in commercial

service until 1946. More than 300 DC-4s
were built. The next aircraft in the line
was the DC-5, a twin-engine aircraft that
used many DC-3 systems, although only
twelve were built.
Derived as an enhanced version of the
DC-4, the DC-6 was a faster, longer-range
aircraft. The improved DC-6B offered
even more power, and increased passenger
capacity from fifty-eight to eighty-nine
with top speeds of 380mph (611ktn/h).
The final Douglas propeller-driven
transport was the DC-7, introduced in
May 1953. It was the first commercial
transport able to fly non-stop westbound

The DC-8-62 caught on film on its first flight. Boeing

Originally conceived as a DC-2

derivative, the DC-3 featured a wider
fuselage, larger wing and lower operating
costs. As it turned out, the DC-3
revolutionized the airline industry. As one
of the most successful aircraft ever built,
the DC-3 made everyday air transportation
possible. By 1939, more than 90 per cent of
US airlines were flying DC-2s or DC-3s.
The DC-3 also appealed to one of
Douglas's most reliable customers, the US
Army, which bought aircraft converted to
suit its transport needs, including the C-32,
-33 and C-39. Eventually 10,300 DC-3s
and its military equiv<llents were produced,
with dozens still operating around the
world even today.
With World War II approaching,
Douglas scouted additional locations to
expand his operations. The property
where the DC-9 f<lmily would be
produced two decades l<lter began as the
winds of war blew half a world away. On
22 November 1940, Douglas broke
ground on its newest assembly plant in
Long Beach, Californi<l. With existing
facilities in nearby Santa Monica and EI
Segundo, the 200-acre facility adjacent to

Daugherty Field, the city's municipal

airport, was built to produce aeroplanes
for the US war effort.
For its time, the new plant W<lS a
technological
marvel. The
first
completely air-conditioned factory also
featured full artificial lighting. The
factory was designed to accommodate
thousands of employees - up to 43,000
men and women worked there, twentyfour hours a day, between 1941 and 1944.
The windowless eleven-building rlant
was protected from be ing spotted by
enemy aircraft. Most of its entryways and
receiving bays were <lccessible only
through double, lightrroof doors. From
the outside, it was camouflaged. Below
ground it offered underground storage ~lIld
bombproof shelters. The rlant was funded
by Douglas Aircraft, but the US
government agreed to repay the company
over sixty months. Aircraft production
started on 5 June 1941, just seven months
after plant construction had begun.
During that time, Southern California
experienced explosive growth. Thousands
of potential workers settled into the area,
giving the commerci~d aircr<lft industry a

14

Above: The DC-8 was Douglas's first jet-powered

airliner. The DC-8-61 was an intercontinental
version. Note the same cockpit shape as the DC-9.
Boeing

broad supply of skilled workers. The first

aircraft produced in the new facility was
the C-47 Skytrain, a modified DC-3 that
would become the standard transport
during the war. The C-47 differed from
the DC-3 in that its carpeting and
soundproofing were removed, heavy
landing gear was added and its cargo door
was enlarged. The Royal Air Force
received a large number of C-47s under
the designation Dakota, and the Soviet
Union produced the aircraft under its
deSignation, the Li-2. C-47s, one of the
four most important pieces of Allied
military equipment, would go on to playa
critical initial role in the 1948 Berlin
Airlift, delivering food, medicine and fuel
to those blockaded in West Berlin.
From 1941 to 1945, the Long Beach
plant produced an amazing 4,285 C-47s,
3,000 B-l7 bombers (under license from
historic rival Boeing), 999 Douglas A-20
bombers, and other aircraft for a total of

15

across the United States

prevailing winds. The DC-7C
dubbed the 'Seven Seas,' could
passengers. Douglas built 338
delivering the last one in 1958.

against
version,
fly 110
DC-7s,

Jet Age
Thanks to the DC- 3, DC-4 and DC-6,
Douglas was, by the mid-1950s, the most
popular manufacturer with the world's
airlines. But with development of the first
widely used jet-powered airliner, the
Boeing 707, Douglas grew concerned. As
production in Long Beach focused
primarily on building military transports,
competition in the r<lridly growing post-

DOUGLAS HISTORY

DOUGLAS HISTORY

James Smith McDonnell merged his company with

Douglas in 1967. Boeing

war commercial aviation

industry
prompted Douglas to design a commercial
jet transport to succeed its DC-7.
Th is historic model, the DC-8,
launched Douglas into the jet age in the
late 1950s, transforming Long Beach into
a world centre for commercial aviation.
On 2 April 1956, the company broke
ground on a DC-8 assem bl y faci! ity
adjacent to its existing Long Beach plant.
The one-million-square foot (92,903
square metre) facility, completed in just
thirteen months, made it possible to
produce commercial and military planes
si mul taneousl y.
Douglas proceeded cautiously with the
DC-8. While the company was rressured
by the widespread appea I of the 707,
Douglas wanted to avoid costly and fatal
mistakes that had grounded Britain's de
Havilland Comet, the world's first
commercial jet transport, in 1954. Three
years after the DC-8 programme was
launched, the first version, the DC-8-10,
made its maiden flight from Long Beach
on 30 May 1958.
Having met the milestone of jet
technology, Donald Douglas announced
his retirement on 28 October 1957. His
son, Donald Douglas Jr, succeeded him as
president of the Douglas Aircraft
ompany. Douglas Senior remained as
chairman of the board, leaving his son
with day-to-day operations.

The first DC-8-tO entered service with

United Airlines and Delta Air Lines on
18 September 1959. It closed out the
decade with a multitude of orders from
some of the world's largest airlines, setting
the stage for a family of Douglas jet
aircraft. Soon thereafter, the DC-8 line
continued to evolve, with the faster Series
20, and two intercontinental versions, the
Series 30 and 40. In 1960, Douglas
introduced the DC-8 Series 50, which
used turbofan instead of turbojet engines
to reduce fuel consumption, giving the
aircraft greater rflnge than any of its
predecessors. It a Iso was the fi rst DC-8 to
be offered as a freigh ter. Soon after,
Douglas began a missile and space
business to take advantage of the space
race, and built a new headquarters
building in Long Beach.
It was during this time that a new
product line - the DC-9, which would go
on to become the most successful Douglas
transport since the DC-3 - was quietly
being developed and was soon launched.
By the mid- J960s, production in Long
Beach had risen to its highest level since
World War II. In addition to a handful of
military trainers, the plant also was
producing the latest DC-8 series, the
Super Sixty. The DC-8-61 had the same
nose and tail as earlier DC-8s, but its
fuselage was extended by nearly thirtyseven feet (I 1.3 m) . Two other versions,
the DC-8-62 and DC-8-63, followed. The
final version, the DC-8-70, debuted in the
early 1970s.

took effect on 28 April 1967, ensuring

that the DC-9 family would continue
with new funding and fresh marketing.
The new company, McDonnell Douglas
orporation, brought together the
aviation-pioneer spirit of Donald Douglas
and McDonnell, whose famous products
included the F-4 Phantom II fighter.
James McDonnell immediately assumed
the duties as the new corporation's
chairman and CEO. Donald Douglas Sr
was named honorary board chairman
while his son remained preSident of the
Douglas Aircraft unit until 1968. Douglas
Sen ior died on 1 February 1981, at the age
of eighty-eight.
The transfusion of McDonnell cash
saved Douglas from bankruptcy and
enabled it to continue a line of respected
aircraft. With the merger, Douglas
advanced into the widebody commercial
field with the DC-IO, a three-engine giant
that would compete with Boeing's 747
and Lockheed's LlOll in the long-range
market. The DC-tO's first flight, on 29
August 1970, helped to boost production
at the plant, which was experiencing the
effects of recession. The DC-l 0 succeeded
in bringing Douglas to parity with Boeing
in the commercial airliner industry.
McDonnell Douglas survived for two
decades, through economic downturns
that reduced demand for new airliners,

AIR

The DC-9 entered service after the Caravelle, the world's first twin-engine jet airliner. For a while Douglas offered to market the aircraft in the United States,
Ralph Olson, Flying Images Worldwide

Donald Douglas Sr's contribution to aviation

included the introduction of the DC-9 in 1965. Boeing

Mergers
Douglas quickly became the victim of its
own success. The company could not
produce stretched DC-8 and new DC-9
models fast enough to meet delivery
guarantees. Start-up and production costs
skyrocketed, and Douglas was unable to
secure additional working capital. Facing
bankruptcy at the end of 1966, Douglas
sought to merge with one of its rivals.
North American Aviation, General
Dynamics, Garrett
Industries and
McDonnell Aircraft Company were
invited to submit merger proposals. On 13
January 1967, James Smith McDonnell
agreed to pay $68.7 million for Douglas,
and Douglas reluctantly accepted the offer
from the McDonnell Company, which
had been rebuffed in a bid to merge with
Douglas four years earl ier. The merger

76

OCII:;

"-

OC_

The BAC 1-11, which made its debut before the similar-sized DC-9, was not nearly as successful as the Douglas model.
Ralph Olson, Flying Images Worldwide

77

DOUGLAS HISTORY

CHAPTER TWO

Design and DevelopDlent

Origins
fhe DC-9 was conceived and designed as
highly reliable, economical, short-range,
high-performance jet transport, with the
ilhility to operate from runways as short as
5,000ft (l,520m), to bring the speed,
Cllmfort
and
rei iabil ity
of
jet
transportation
to
hundreds
of
(ommunities previously served only by
propeller-driven airliners. Timed to meet
the needs of airlines for a small jet, the
DC-9 made its debut in 1965, just as the
market for jet travel was increasing
hetween 6 and 8 per cent a year.
Douglas initiated preliminary studies of
the DC-9 in the late 1950s. Unlike the
long-range DC-8, the DC-9 was
envisioned to operate on routes between
100 miles (l60km) and 1,500 miles
(2,400km) in length, and where traffic
was sometimes sparse. At the time, 60 per
cent of all air travel was over distances of
.1

500 miles (800km) or less, so the DC-9

was seen as an opportunity to bring new
standards of service to this segment of air
travel. One important consideration was
runway length. Most airports were still
adapted to the needs of the piston aircraft
and lacked the longer runways necessary
for jets. Short field performance was
therefore essential if the maximum
potential of this new aircraft was to be
rea Iized.
Perhaps Donald Douglas's vision for
such an aircraft was articulated as early as
] 955, when he told an audience in San
Francisco: 'I have great faith in aviation
and the future ... the aeroplane will come
into its own. It will transport most
everyone and everything from every place
to everywhere.' A decade later, the DC-9
would help to bring that vision to life.
Entering the marketplace after the

Douglas originally conceived the DC-9 as a four-engine stablemate to the larger DC-8. Boeing

A DC-8 (foreground) is assembled alongside a row of DC-9s. Boeing.

and cuts in defence spending that limited

production of its military models. All
manufacturing was consolidated to Long
Beach to save money, and layoffs were
common. The company continued to
flounder, despite building the very
successful MD-80 family, until a fierce
competitor it strove so much to match for
decades ultimately swallowed it up.
On I August 1997, Boeing merged with
McDonnell Douglas in a $16 billion deal
that created the world's largest aerospace
company, with customers in 145
countries. The acquisition turned Boeing,

the world's leading manufacturer of

commercial jets, into the biggest maker of
military aircraft as well. Boeing clearly
saw value in McDonnell Douglas's
lucrative military products, but the
Seattle company already had its own full
range of commercial aircraft. At the time
McDonnell Douglas was producing just
two DC-9 derivatives - the M D-80 family
and the MD-90 - as well as the MD-11, a
DC-10 successor. Few in the industry were
surprised, then, when Boeing announced
it would shut down production of all
McDonnell Douglas models.

78

larger Caravelle and similar-sized BAC Ill, but before the Boeing 737-100, the
DC-9 helped to define the short-range jet
market, one that would become, for many
airlines, the backbone of their business. 'It
was clear that shorter routes were needed
and that smaller airports really were
anxious to have jet service. We perceived
that,' says Roger Schaufele, the former
project director for the DC-9 who retired
as vice president of engineering for
Douglas Aircraft. 'While there were
competing designs, I think when our
marketing guys looked at it, there was an
opportunity to replace piston-powered
aircraft, and the traffic growth was
projected to sky-rocket.'
By the early 1960s, design studies in
Long Beach began to focus on a shortrange stablemate for the high-capacity
DC-8 known as Model 2011. The

The final jetliner with a Douglas

name, an M D-11
freighter, was
delivered to Lufthansa Cargo on 22
February 200 I. The last mem bel' of the
DC-9 line bearing the Douglas name,
an MD-90 for Saudi Arabian Airlines,
was delivered in February 2000, the
2,287th twinjet produced by Douglas
and McDonnell Douglas. While the
DC-9 family continues in the shape of
the 717-200, it now bears the Boeing
name, an attribute the company hopes
will enable the family to survive for
years to come.

79

DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT

DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT

Soecifications - DC-9
Powerplant:

OC-9-10 and OC-9-20: Two 12,250lb (5,500kgl Pratt & Whitney JT80 (various models)
OC-9-30 and OC-9-40: Two 14,500-15,OOOlb (6,500-6,800kg) Pratt & Whitney JT80 (various models)
OC-9-50: Two 15,500-16,OOOlb (7,OOO-7,250kg) Pratt & Whitney JT80 (various models)
Weights:

Empty 49,900lb (22,635 kg) (Series 1D); 52,880lb (23,985 kg) (Series 20); 57,190lb (25,940 kg) (Series 3D); 58,670lb (26,612 kgl (Series 40); 61,880lb (28,068 kgl {Series 501
Gross 90,7001b (41,177 kg) (Series 10); 98,OOOIb (44,450 kg) (Series 201; 11 O,OOOlb (49,940 kgl (Series 30); 114,OOOIb (51,756 kgllSeries 40); 121,OOOIb (54,885 kg) (Series 501
Maximum landing 93,4001b 142,365 kg) (Series 10 and 20); 11O,OOOIb (49,895 kg) ISeries 3D, 40,50)
Dimensions:

Length 104ft 5in (31.82m) ISeries 10 and 201; 119ft 3.5in 136.37m) (Series 30); 125ft 7in (3828m) (Series 401; 133ft 7in (40.72m) (Series 50): height 27ft 6in (8.38mlIAIl Series).
Wingspan 89ft 5in (27.25m) ISeries 10); 93ft 5in (28.47ml (Series 20, 3D, 40 and 50): wing area 934sq ft (86.8sq m) (Series 10); l,OOOsq ft 193sq m) (Series 20, 3D, 40 and 501
Performance:

Cruising speed 557 -570mph (898-917km/h); landing speed 155mph (250km/h)

Ceiling 35,OOOft (10,675m)
Range 1,265 miles (2,036 km) (Series 10); 1,848 miles (2,974 km) (Series 20); 1,635 miles (2,631 kml (Series 30); 1,685 miles (2)12 km) {Series 401; 1,635 miles (2,631 km) (Series
50)
Takeoff 5,1 OOft (l,555m) (Series 101; 5,1 OOft (l,555mllSeries 20); 5,530ft (l,685m) (Series 301; 6,850ft (2,088m) ISeries 40 and 501
Landing 4,450ft (1 ,355m) (Series 10); 4,450ft 11,355m) (Series 20); 4,680ft (1,425m) (Series 30;)4,720ft (1,440m) (Series 40); 4,880ft (1,485m) (Series 50)
Passenger capacity:

70-90 (Series 10 and 20); 105-115 (Series 30); 125 (Series 40); 139 (Series 50)
Cabin:

Width 10ft 1in (3.07m); height 6ft 9in (2.06m)

Fuel capacity:

3,693USgall13,9781) (Series 10); 3,679USga1113,9251) ISeries 20, 30 and 40); 4,259USgai (16,1221) ISeries 50)

company assigned a top management

team to direct DC-9 design, development
and production. Many employees who
worked
on
the
programme
had
backgrounds that spanned the entire
Douglas fam ily line, from the DC-3 to the
DC-8. Schaufele says Douglas's expenses
on the DC-8 programme took its toll on
company finances, and the DC-9 was
developed with a meagre budget. 'We had
a lot of experience. There was a lot of
knowing how to do things - keeping
everything simple, safe and reliable,' he
says. 'If we knew something worked, we
did it. We learned a lot of lessons from the
DC-8, and we even used hardware from
the DC-8 programme.'
Throughout its inception and early
design, the DC-9 evolved from four
strategic
fundamentals:
simplicity,
reliability,
maintainability
and
economics. Among the primary concerns
of Douglas engineers was to design and
build a reliable, rugged aircraft that was
easy to operate, one that could fly many
times every day, and one that would be
easier to maintain than the propellerdriven aircraft of the past or even the DC-

Model 2086 was close to the final DC-9 design. Boeing

20

H, whose new technology was a bear to

manage. This philosophy would lead to an
aircraft that could spend more time in the
air making money than idle on the
ground.
Before the DC-9's final design evolved,
Douglas stud ied a four-engi ne DC-9
concept, essentially a shortened version of
the DC-8 that was seen as being
compatible with existing DC-8 fleets. But
intensive market studies led Douglas to
extend the time-scale for the launch of
this new type, and to initiate a wholly
original design rather than attempt to use
DC-8 components. Engineers quickly
determined two engines would reduce
both operating costs and complexity - key
principles behind the ultimate success of
the model. 'The fewer engines you could
get away with the better,' Schaufele says.
With two engines instead of four, the
DC-9 could also be more competitive.
'The BAC I-II was the first to announce
an aircraft in this market size and was the

Douglas experimented with an underwing engine design before determining that a fuselage-mounted
design would be the most effective for the short-range DC-9. Boeing

first in service,' Schaufele recalls. 'The

people at Douglas felt there was enough
business for two competing types even
though we were after the same niche. It
was our intent to design a better
aeroplane.'
Before offering its own aircraft, Douglas
offered to market the Caravelle in the
United States as a way to enter the new
craze for short-range jets. Strapped for
cash to develop the DC-9, Douglas
formed an alliance with Sud Aviation,
promising to market the aircraft in the
United States and build it in Long Beach
if demand warranted. Douglas even
considered a new Caravelle design that
would offer a new fuselage, engines and
wing. But the partnership broke up when
demand for the Caravelle fell short.
Douglas managed to lease only a small
number of Caravelles to TWA under this

27

arrangement - and that contract was

cancelled after two years. The Caravelle
had limited success in the United States
despite its popularity in Europe. United
Airlines was the only major US operator,
taking delivery of twenty of the type,
beginning in 1961.
While the partnership may have fallen
through, the Caravelle, with its two rearmourned engines, greatly influenced the
DC-9's design. Another influence was the
DC-9's earliest competitor. British
Aerospace announced the sixty-fivepassenger BAC I-lIon 9 May 1961, two
years before the DC-9 programme was
officially announced. The BAC 1-11 was
the first twinJet aircraft designed
specifically for short-haul traffic, a niche
the DC-9 would later fill with
considerably more success. Except for the
Caravelle, there was little competition for

DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT

DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT

the BAC 1-11. Indeed, a wave of early US

orders for the type - including thirty
planes for American Airlines - convinced
BAC that it had a money-making
successor to the turboprop Viscount, the
only British transport with any wide-scale
success in the large and fast-growing US
market.
The Soviet Tupolev Tu-134, with
similar capacity to the DC-9-10, was also
influenced by the Caravelle. With aT-tail
and fuselage-mounted engines, the Tu134 made its first flight on 29 July 1963,
one month before the BAC I-II and a
full two years before the DC-9. But
because it never operated beyond Sovietbloc nations, it was never a competitive
threat to the DC-9.
Douglas had plans of its own in this
market. Headed by an engineering team
under the direction of John Brizendine,
who would go on to become Douglas's
president, the first tangible evidence of
the DC-9's final design dates back to
1962, when design study data was released
and a full-scale mock-up was built in Long
Beach named Model 2086. The aircraft's
specification was frozen in 1963. Now
named the DC-9, it quickly caught the
attention of Delta Air Lines, a DC-8
customer. With interest from a leading
airline - but without a single contract in
hand - Douglas formally announced the
DC-9 in April 1963, a bold step that,
because of the company's tenuous
financial position, likely made it possible
for Douglas to remain in the commercial
airliner business. Delta immediately
signed up for fifteen DC-9s, setting the
stage for a new model that would become
Douglas's second jet transport, the first
American-made commercial twinjet and,
most notably, the best-selling commercial
twinjet family for more than three
decades.
'We were behind BAC, so trying to get
a commitment from an airline was
tough,' Schaufele recalls. 'Airlines knew
BAC was committed to its aeroplane.
We had not committed.' But with Delta's
nod of approval, other airlines began to
sign up for the new model, including Air
Canada and two US regional carriers,
Allegheny and Bonanza. 'There was a lot
of interest from a couple of airlines, but

with any new model we had to be

patient,' he says. 'Still, we were off and
running.'
After maturing from a four-engine
design into a twinjet, production began
on 6 March 1964. The first prototype, a
DC-9-10 model, completed its inaugural
flight on 25 February 1965, and was
certified on 23 November 1965, entering
service with Delta on 8 December of that
year. Five DC-9s were flying by the end of
1965.
A total of 976 DC-9s were built, the
last one in 1982, over an eighteen-year
production run entailing five distinct
models: the DC-9-10, DC-9-20, DC-930, DC-9-40 and DC-9-50 - each
providing operators with maximum
efficiency for diverse combinations of
traffic density, cargo volume and route
distances. Succeeding models, the MD80 series and the MD-90, more than
doubled the production number of the
overall family.

Key Design Decisions

The DC-9's key design elements - a
moderately swept-back wing, two rearmounted engines, a T-shaped tail, and
two-by-three seating in the passenger
cabin - evolved over at least four years of
testing and modification involving nearly
1,000 engineers.
Because of the experience Douglas
brought to the programme, the company
hesitated to hire more than necessary.
Schaufele, the retired engineer says:

i.., t', ""

I ...

':l'.; .,',

It was a very low-cost programme. We didn't

lhrow droves of people on it. We all enjoyed
working on the DC-S, bur thm had a lor o(
prohlem, lO be resolved - it wa> our first jet
LnIl1SJXm.

TIle DC-9, though, wa, (un to work on

(rom the beginning. There was a great deal of

satisfaction from those who participated thar there
was a perceived need for an aeroplane thar we
were de,igning. We knew from our own (amilie,
lhal eight-hour automobile drives could hecome
one-hour jet flights. The market was just fanra,tic.

Timetable
1959-1962:
8 April 1963:
July 1963:
25 February 1965:
8 December 1965:

Initial design work

DC-9 announced, go-ahead
decision
Prototype construction started
First flight, DC-9-10
First airline service, DC-9-10

The DC-9-1D, shown in this company illustration,

was envisioned as opening jet service to
communities served only by propeller-driven
aircraft. Boeing

22

After rejecting a four-engine design and

even experimenting with a version
featu ri ng wi ng- mou n ted engi nes tha t
resembled the Boeing 737, then also
under design, Douglas focused on testing
and perfecting the final design of the
launch model, the DC-9-JO.

The aircraft had two engine choices:

the Rolls-Royce Spey, found on the BA
I II, or the Pratt & Whitney JT8D,
already flying on the Boeing 727, which
l'l1tered service in 1964. 'It was one of our
"oten tia I customers, A merican Ai rI ines,
that suggested we go wi th the JT8D,'
Schaufele says. 'The engine was already in
'l'rvice, and since we designed the DC-9
to fly many cycles per day, it was not a
good idea to start with a new, untested
l'ngine.' (The JT8D on the first DC-9-10
was actually a bit too powerful for the new
,rircraft. So the engine was derated for
lower th rust leve Is a nd opera ti ng
temperatures.)
The first step in the evolution of the
DC-9 was the definition of the size and
layout. With airlines ordering the larger
Boeing 727, Douglas felt there was a gap
111 the market for a smaller aircraft. Since
the desired size of the DC-9 and the
available engine types dictated a twoengine design, the first major design
decision was the wing. The DC-9's initial
cruising speed was to be Mach .80, or 80
per cent of the speed of sound. Since it
had to be fast and perform well on short
runways, various wing-sweep angles and

DC-9s on the assembly line. Boeing

wi ng th icknesses were stud ied to

determine the optimal combination - one
that would yield the lowest operating cost
for a given cruise speed, payload-range
ability, and field-length requirement. The
design chosen was 24 degrees of sweep at
the centre chord of the wing, in a manner
reminiscent of the Caravel Ie. The
resulting wing thickness allowed for
adequate fuel volume and sufficient
tra iI ing-edge angles over the wi ng's
control
surfaces.
The
thickness
distribution and the variation of the
aerofoil shape across the wingspan were
selected for optimum performance.
With the type of engine certain and the
wing design established, the next major
decision was engine location. One aspect
of the DC-9's design that differed
fundamentally from previous Douglas
practice was the location of engines.
Placing engines on the sides of the aft
fuselage, it was initially believed,
introduced the possibility of a drag
problem due to air separation formed by
the engine nacelle, the pylon separating
the nacelle and the adjacent part of the

23

fuselage. Another area of concern was the

possihility of engine operating difficulties
due to ingesting wakes from the wing,
spoilers and fuselage. These concerns
were proven to be unfounded during wind
tunnel testing.
The choice of fuselage-mounted
engines over wing-mounted ones was
carefully considered for the DC-9. One of
the arguments in favour of the aft engine
location was the higher maximum lift
capahility that comes from a clean wing
leading
edge
and
from
a
flap
uninterrupted by an opening for engine
exhaust or for nacelles. Another
important advantage engineers focused on
was the reduction of drag <lch ieved by
eliminating interference hetween the
wing and pylons. A third hencfit is the
reduction of asymmetric-thrust yawing
(drifting off course) in the event of one of
the two engines failing. With the nacelles
located close to the fuselage, the
asymmetric thrust is reduced and the
minimum control speed can he made
relatively low without having to increase
the size of the vertical tail. Another

DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT

DESIGN AND DEVELOPM ENT

I'

t ,III length, provid ing the model wi th

IIlll"casing control and stability.
As the DC-9 was undergoing wind
tllnnel
tests
to
improve
stall
l haracteristics, a BAC l-ll crashed after
!.:lllJ1g into a deep stall. That crash shed
light on the stall characteristics of an
,lIrcraft with a Ttail design. The aircraft
that crashed went into a deep stall
(l,llIsed by low fl igh t speed) at angles of
,Iltack ranging from 25 to 50 degrees. For
,lIrcraft designs that use the Trail and aftIl1llunted engines, pitching motions
heyond normal stall can provoke such
Incidents. To ensure normal recovery
during stalls, the DC-9's horizontal tail
was enlarged by about 20 per cent over
thc original design.
The last major decision - the cabin
lllllfiguration
was also carefully
lllllsidered. 'The basic two-by-three
'cating on the DC-9 was directly related
III the capacity of aeroplane,' Schaufele
cxplains. 'A two-by-two configuration
would have given us a fuselage that's too
long and three-by-three would have
mcant an aeroplane that's too shorr. Itwas

87.4'

cs

.",0'

J
T

studied and decided that two-by-three was

the hest solution.'
Douglas intended to stretch the DC-9
from the beginning, just as the DC-S had
becn available in different models.
'Initially, we didn't think of stretches
beyond the first plane. We focused on
competi tion wi th the BA C l-ll,' he says.
'But as traffic grew, we had an
opportunity. We prided ourselves on
making various versions and lengths that
customers wanted.' To ensure future
development of the model, engineers
made sure the DC-9 had enough wing
area. Engine placement ensured that
higher-thrust engine models could be
accommodated. Arrangements also were
made so the DC-9 could carry more
passcngers and fly farther. 'The key was
not LO lock yourself in,' Schaufele says.
The cockpit, designed to be simple,
logical and efficient, was created using
mock-ups. Designcd from the start to be
operated by two pi lots, it provides for
maximum crew comfort and efficiency.

A mock-up of the DC-9. showing a two-class interior configuration. Boeing

27.4'

no'="<
\

.../

~~

DOU GLAS DC9

Company diagrams showing the DC-9 design.
Boeing

significant gain with aft-mounted engines

is the reduction of drag during takeoff and
climb. Tests on the DC-S had shown a
substantial drag from the vortex arising
from the intersection of the pylon and
wing. Since performance in the takeoff
climb is especially important on a twoengine aeroplane, the beneficial effect of
eliminating the pylon from the wing was
probably the most dominant performance
factor in the decision to mount the
engines on the rear fuselage.
Several non-aerodynamic factors were
considered as wei!. Placing engines
beneath the wing tends to elevate the
entire aeroplane, increasing the length
and weight of the landing gear and builtin stairway. In an aeroplane the size of a
DC-9, maintainability and loadability
required an aircraft configuration that is

close to the ground, with minimum height

between the wing and tarmac. Another
advantage of having the engines mounted
on the rear fuselage is in case of landings
without landing gear deployed. Wingmounted engines would be severely
damaged in such a case, but the DC-9
engines would survive largely unscathed.
Schaufele, who served as the DC-9's
project aerodynamicist, cites another key
advantage. 'The design was accepted,' he
says. 'The BAC l-II and Caravelle
already were out there. So we went with
that arrangement, which was new for
Douglas. We figured if they could do it in
England and France, we can do it too.'
Placing the engines aft of the passenger
cabin also had implications for passenger
comfort: unless seated in the rear, next to
the
engines,
the
aft-mounted
arrangement was found to make for a
quieter cabin.
The next step was defining the design of

24

All essential controls and instruments can

be operated and viewed by either
crewmember.
The cockpit design was completed after
a long design cffort, and reviews and
critiques by more than 100 pilots from the
world's airlines and the US Federal
Aviation Administration. During two
years of development, Douglas thoroughly
analysed cockpits of both jet and non-jet
aircraft, taking into consideration such
factors as system analyses, flight crew time
and
motion
studies
to
ensure
compatibility
betwcen
cockpit
arrangement, crew work load and
operational reljuirements.
In addition, the DC-9 underwent a
laboratory developmclll and structural
testing process using principles and
systems thar were used to produce the
DC-S. Schaufele says testing showed the
DC-9 did everything engineers promised.
'Pcrformance-wise we were very satisfied
with the final product.'
The resul t - the DC-9-1 0 - was a sporty

the tai!' One of the DC-9's most

distinctive features is the high horizontal
stabilizer, mounted on top of the mil, <l
design also known as a 'Ttai!.' This
position accommodates engines on either
side of the aft fuselage and allows for a
clean wing design. The Ttail was
determined following an extensive study
that showed it was the most stable option
for the DC-9 - and was well-accepted in
the industry, as both the Boeing 727,
SAC I-I I and Caravelle had horizontal
stabilizers attached either at or toward the
top of the tail. During the DC-9's design,
the T-rail arrangement was the subject of
hoth analytical and wind tunnel studies.
No anomalies surfaced, and the design
proceeded without difficulty. The design
was shown to be the most efficielll
configuration, from a weight and drag
standpoint, to use with aft-mounted
engi nes. 1n add ition, the sweep of the
DC-9's tail resulted in greater horizontal

25

DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT

DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT

Wing

Jackson McGowen and John Brizendine look over

the DC-9 model. Boeing

aircraft, powered by two JT8D engines,

that measured 104ft 4in (31.8201) in
length, with a wingspan of 89ft 4in
(27.2501). Its cabin is 10ft J in (3.0701)
wide, carrying up to seventy passengers in
a two-class configurmion (fewer than
some versions of the DC-6) or ninety
passengers in one class. Standard fuel
capacity in the first DC-9 was
2,786USgal. (10,5461), providing for a
range of 1,265 miles (2,040km) at speeds
exceeding 500 mph (800 km/h) and
altitudes of more than 30,000 feet
(9,10001). The initial DC-9 has a wing
area less than that of a DC-3, a payload
capacity exceeding that of the DC-7 and
nearly the cruising speed of the DC-8.

Design in Detail
Much effort went into designing an
aircraft based on simplicity and durability.
All of the DC-9's systems and components
were carefully laid out to ensure the
aircraft would operate cost-effectively and
reliably, day in and day out.
The DC-9's ease of maintenance has set
high standards over the years for
airworthiness and low costs. This was
achieved, among other things, by
eliminating all unnecessary components,
since parts that are not installed to begin
with incur no maintenance costs. Douglas
engi neers actua II y el im ina ted some

subsystems required in larger jets without

forsaking safety. One example is the ability
to dump fuel, which is unnecessary because
the DC-9's maximum landing weight is 95
per cent of its maximum takeoff weight.
Systems and components that could not be
eliminated were designed and built to be
highly reliable, and only components with
a proven track record were considered.
Maintenance concepts never before

incorporated into an aeroplane contribute

to the DC-9's low operating costs, high
utilization rates and service longevity. To
simplify maintenance, systems and parts
on the aircraft were made as accessi ble as
possible to mechanics on the ground, from
engines and wings to the auxiliary power
unit (APU) and landing gear; providing
access for replacing components without having to disturb other systems or
components - was a predominant design
consideration. As result, the DC-9 was
among the world's first jet transports to
provide for easy servicing, inspecting and
troubleshooting capabilities to reduce and
simplify maintenance and to save time,
equipment and personnel. A prime
example of this is the engine installation,
designed for maximum commonality
between right- and left-hand units. The
only components that are not common
are the nose cowls and starter ducts.
Other than that, the engi nes are
interchangeable between right- and lefthand positions.
An overview of each of the DC-9's
major components follows:

The Pratt & Whitney JT8D engine was chosen

because of its existing marketplace success and
its ease of maintenance. Boeing

26

The DC-9 wing is highly efficient,

provides excellent performance on short
runways, and was, in its era, the simplest
design of any modern jet transport. One
reason the DC-9 is going strong even after
nearly forty years of service is its inherent
stability, provided in large part by the
wing.
The wing design was adapted from the
DC-8. Like its larger predecessor, the DC9 wing has a varying aerofoil shape and
thickness from the wingtip to the root of
the wing by the fuselage, providing
stabil ity and performance at both high
ami low speeds.
The DC-9's basic wing design was
determined from studies of the effect of
wing geometry on the overall project
design goals: the highest cruise speed
using available engines, economical
operations over short ranges, and the
ability to land and takeoff on short
runways. Various combinations of wing
area, sweep angle and thickness were
analysed.
Douglas relied heavily on data from
previous aircraft programmes and windtunnel tests to develop the final wing
deSign. These studies found that 934sq ft
(86.8sq m) of wing area (for the initial
DC-9-1O) with a 24-degree sweep angle,
resulting in a .80 Mach cruise speed, were
ideal. The wing on the first DC-9 model is
augmented by double-slotted flaps which
extend from the back of the wing over
two-thirds of the span. These flaps were
based on the deSign of earl ier Douglas
models, including the DC-8 and military
transports. The wing itself is a two-spar
structure with a leading edge that results
in a wing box with three shear webs. The
two half sections are joined at the
centreline of the aeroplane at the lower
fuselage.
Since the DC-9 was designed and
produced to provide a rei iable and sturdy
aeroplane structure - particularly crucial
for jets operating over short route
segments because frequent takeoffs and
landings put more stress on the airframe alloys used in the DC-9's all-metal wing
were carefully selected to achieve
maximum strength while maintaining
high fatigue and corrosion resistance.
Douglas used riveted skin and stringers in
the wing (as well as the empennage and
fuselage). Structural joints were kept to a
minimum to produce increased fatigue
resistance.

The wing itself incorporates the

ailerons, spoilers, tra iI ing-edge flaps, fuel
tanks, and supporting structure for the
main gear. Leading-edge slats were added
on the later DC-9-30 model.
Satisfactory stall characteristics have
always been one of the most important
design criteria for any aeroplane, particularly
passenger transports. Requirements for
adequate stall recovery and control were
established during the conceptual design of
the OC-9. Engineers were well versed with
initial stall problems that faced the BAC III, an earlier design with a Ttail. The OC-9
programme therefore underwent extensive
testing to ensure the chances of stall during
flight were remote.
To prevent stalls, the DC-9 has a
structure under the wing, known as a
vortilon, or vortex-generating pylon. This
fence-like device was developed during
wind-tunnel testing. Should the aircraft
approach a stall situation, the interference
of the vortilon with the cross flow of air
from the wing's leading edge creates a
strong vortex that goes over the top of the
wing. This creates an upwash of air that
helps the horizontal tail produce nosedown pitching during a stall. The vortilon
is installed on each wing's lower surface at
about one-third of the span. In addition to
the vortilon, a triangular strip of metal
extending spanwise from the fuselage is

Stall Testing

Flight testing would be incomplete if the stall programme - a test pilot's least favourite portion - were
not successfully completed. Aerodynamic stall speeds
and characteristics in various configurations and
power settings are the cornerstone upon which all
takeoff and landing performance is based, and is vital
to prove a new aircraft. This portion of testing is conducted when the pilot. at a safe altitude, pulls back
the power and lets the aeroplane decelerate, usually
at one knot per second. This is called the 1g stall, one
with neither positive nor negative g-force applied. At
a certain slow speed, buffeting of the aeroplane will
commence, followed by a series of gyrations until it
can no longer fly. At this point the nose will pitch
down, denoting the stall speed. The aeroplane must
be recoverable with forward pitch control and should
not exceed 20 degrees of roll during the recovery.
Stalls are induced over and over again to record the
exact airspeed at each stall.

located on the wing leading edge to

improve nose-down motion.
To further reduce stalls, the size of the
horizontal tail span was enlarged by 20 per
cent during the design process. The DC9's noted ability to avoid stalls and handle
well at low speeds were particularly
desirable for the short-haul market, where
much of the total flight time is devoted to
takeoff, approach and landing. The DC9's stability was demonstrated during
flight testing, when the model successfully
recovered from about 2,000 stalls.

Wind-Tunnel Testing

The DC-9's design was tried and finalized through

extensive wind-tunnel testing. Five primary miniature aircraft models were used in the process: a preliminary low-speed model to check basic aerodynamic characteristics; a high-speed model to check
high-speed stability, and control and drag characteristics; a third to obtain maximum-lift and stall characteristics data; the fourth with a relatively largescale aft-fuselage-empennage model to determine
horizontal and vertical tail lift: and the fifth was an
aft-fuselage-nacelle-pylon model for detailed drag
studies on the nacelle, pylon and fuselage. The
large-scale aft-fuselage-empennage model provided
extensive data on horizontal- and vertical-tail lift
characteristics and the effectiveness of the rudder,
stabilizer and elevator.
These tests involved six models and 1,500 hours of
operation in tunnels at four laboratories - the Douglas
Aerophysics Laboratory, the Guggenheim Aeronautical
Laboratory at the California Institute of Technology, the
Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory, and the NASA Ames
Research Centre. This was in addition to work conducted at the Douglas low-speed wind tunnel in Long
Beach. Results found that the DC-9's lift, drag, stability
and load measurement met or exceeded forecasts and
performance guarantees.

27

To further test the DC-9 design, in the days before

powerful desktop computers and virtual-reality sessions,
Douglas used analogue computer studies. Hundreds of
wind-tunnel runs with different configurations and various assumed pilot inputs were recorded. Later, the analogue computer served as an early-generation simUlator.
This set-up evaluated angle of attack, aeroplane attitude, flight-path angle, elevator angle, normal acceleration, air speed and altitude. These tests also showed the
DC-9's performance would exceed expectations once the
DC-9 finally flew.
Early development work on the low-speed model
generally verified the DC-9's estimated stability levels
and control capability. Yet further studies of air flow at
the intersection of the horizontal stabilizer and vertical
tail indicated a potential problem in the original design.
Design changes were subsequently made in the placement of the horizontal tail to ensure better stability.
Meanwhile, the high-speed model provided valuable
information on stability levels and control effectiveness
at high speeds, as well as an early check on the level of
drag during flight.
Results of the wind-tunnel tests showed the DC-9
could operate efficiently beyond its designed speed, and
in effect confirmed the decision by Douglas engineers to
use the T-tail design.

DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT

DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT

h<lwed the fatigue life should be 144,000

flight hours based on missions of 1 hour
\l~ minutes, and 120,000 flights based on
fllghls of 45 minutes each.
Unlike later aircraft, which had lighter
nllnposite material, the DC-9 is made of
.II metal
construction,
primarily
,tlllminium. To prevent corrosion during
fllghls in all kinds of weather, the DC-9 is
\Il~lIlated using paint coatings on steel
t.1~lenings installed in its aluminium
~l rllctures. In the fuselage, the size, spacing,
material and thickness of skins, stringers
.\Ild frames on the fuselage help to keep
Llllgue-induced cracks from extending.
The geometry of the DC-9 provides
~tructural integrity and safety from fire
h.1Zards in the event of a wheels-up
l'mergency landing. In several incidents
over the years, aircraft suffered so little
damage while landing without gear that
rcrairs were made and the aircraft flown
the following day. By contrast, an aircraft
with wing-mounted engines usually suffers
~cvere damage to the exrensive engines,
~lructural damage to the wing, and faces

the risk of fire hazard if the fuel lines arc

ruptured. Both the engine mounting pylon
and the fuselage arc protected from fire
damage by titanium shields and a specially
developed 3,000F (I ,650C) fire barrier
installed in the engine burner area.

Tail
The DC-9 tail consists of a vertical
stabilizer, a horizontal stabilizer, two
elevators and a rudder. The vertical
stabilizer is mounted on the aft fuselage,
and the horizontal stabilizer is mounted on
top of the vertical stabil izer to form the Tshaped tail. The rudder and elevators arc
mounted on the vertical and horizontal
stabilizers, respectively. A hole for the airconditioning system is located on the lower
leading-edge section. The rudder, which
heirs to control the direction of the
aircraft, is operated hydraulically with a
manual backup. Mechanically controlled
tabs aerodynamically
position
the
elevators, which control longitudinal
direction during normal flight.

The DC-9's basic cockpit was enhanced throughout the family's development. Shown is the DC-9-50. Boeing

Wings, nose sections and fuselages share the floor space during production in the 1960s. Boeing

The DC-9 wing evolved following the

original DC-9-10. Later models had a
larger wing (I ,000sq ft or 93sq m) and an
increase in wingspan of 4ft (1.2 I m) to
accommodate higher gross weights and
rassenger capacity. In addition, full-span
leading-edge slats, devices that improve
lift, were added as the result of customer
requests, and a reshaped leading edge was
introduced. These changes helped to
lower stall speeds and improve cruise
performance. Adding leading-edge slats
was the primary way to improve lift,
permit slower takeoff and landing speeds,
and improve performance on short
runways - all to better compete against
the Boeing 737, which debuted with the
devices. The slats, Iike the flaps, arc
extended and retracted by completely
separate, dual hydraulic-power systems.
The DC-9 series incorporates dual rearfacing navigation lights located in the

wingtip, along with the primary

retractable wing landing light. Extended
wingtips on the DC-9-30 and later models
did not leave sufficient depth to include
the retractable wing landing lights. A
compromise installation features the light
some 14in (35.5cm) inboard of I' he actual
tip, resulting in a bump on both the upper
and lower surfaces of the wing.

Fuselage
The DC-9's fuselage is composed of the
nose section, centre section and tail
section. The nose section is structu ra II y
identical
to
the
DC-8.
Entirely
pressurized, it contains the cockpit, the
accessory
compartment
and
the
electronics compartment. The centre
section is composed of the passenger
cabin, two cargo compartments and the
wheel wells. The tail section includes the

28

aft cahin rressure bulkhead, engine

support structure, auxiliary power unit,
empennage and the tail cone. Customer
options located in the tail include a
venn'al stairway and an emergency exit.
The type's rugged fuselage has been
thoroughly substantiated by analysis,
extensive testing, and by millions of miles
of DC-9 service over the years.
From the beginning, Douglas chose
materials for tear-resistant strength. The
fuselage shell is designed for a dependable
operating pressure of 7.46psi, which means
that, while flying at 35,000 feet ( 10, 700m),
inside the cabin it feels like the altitude
equivalent of 8,000 feet (2,500m).
The DC-9 fuselage was designed to
withstand 50,000 flights, although many
DC-9s in service today boast more than
100,000 cycles (one takeoff and landing is
a cycle). During testing, a pressurized
fuselage was pressure-tested for 120,000
cycles, and the empennage was fatiguetested for 360,000 cycles. Testing also

29

Cockpit
The DC-9 cockpit was designed to
accommodate two pilots. It incorporates
many conveniences that simplify the
crew's tasks. Lighted checklists, folding
writing tables and fixed chart-holders
help to reduce the workload, while
footrests, ample storage areas and general
roominess contribute to general comfort.
Essential displays and controls arc
dupl icated to provide redundancy and to
accommodate both pilots. The central
caution-and-warning presentation is
visible to both as well, within the pilot's
straight-ahead field of vision, so the crew
has a continuous advisory on the
cond ition of the aircraft. The fl igh I' deck
provides stations (or the captain and first
officer. The scats arc track-mounted and
arc fully adjustable. A folding scat is
available for a flight observer.
All flight, engine and other instruments
in the early DC-9s have white dialmarkings on black faces and are readable
during daylight without lighting. Mode
selectors in the DC-9 are rotary switches,
which provide vertical-speed control,
altitude control, pitch hold, coordinated

DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT

DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT

Inertial and Omega Navigation Systems

to provide long-range navigation, even
over water. High Frequency (H F) and
Very Iligh Frequency (VHF) with
optional Ultra High Frequency (UHF)
provide the aeroplane with short- and
long-range communications.
To alert the flight crew of any potential
stall, the DC-9 was equipped with two
completely
redundant stall-warning
systems.

Flight-Control Systems

The home of the DC-9 was a busy place during the height of production. Boeing

bank/turn/heading
hold,
heading
selection, and VOR (VHF Omnidirectional Radio)/Iocalizer.
The cockpit contains four different
types of windows: a centre windshield and
two side-windshields, a clear-view
window on either side, an aft window on
either side and two windows above. The
centre windshield and two sidewindshields are electrically heated to
remove ice and eliminate fogging. Electric
wipers and liquid rain-repellent aid in
maintaining good visibility, even in heavy
rain.
The DC-9's instrument panel is
mounted at an angle that improves
visibility. The instruments themselves are
clamp-mounted and can be removed
without opening the panel. Controls and
instruments used by both pilots arc
mounted on the pedestal between them,
on the main instrument-panel centre
section, the glareshield panel, the
overhead panel and the centre pedestal.
The DC-9's automatic pilot system
offers vertical-speed control, variable
localizer intercept angle, automatic
Instrument Landing System (ILS)
operation, and middle-marker sensing.
The combination of these features permits
the autopilot to control the flight path
under normal conditions from shortly
after takeoff to the start of the landing
flare.

Part of the DC-9's reliability stems from

its ability to fly through all kinds of
weather, saving time for passengers and
the airline whilst ensuring safe operation.
The DC-9, from the start, was qualified
for IFR (Instrument Flight Rules)
operation in Category I weather (200ft
(60m) minimum decision altitude and
2,400ft (800m) runway visual range), and
was later certified for Category II (100ft
(30m) minimum decision altitude and
1,200ft (400m) runway visual range) and
Category IlIa (100ft (30m) minimum
decision altitude and 700ft (200m)
runway visual range).
The DC-9's avionics incorporated the
latest technology of the time. The
avionics equipment is installed in a
special pressurized compartment beneath
the cockpit floor and in a pressurized
accessory-compartment forward of the
cockpit above the nosewheel-well. The
compartment is accessible in flight
through a hatch directly behind the pilot's
seat.
In addition to the normal ground radioaid navigation systems, the DC-9 can he
equipped with Doppler weather radar and

Proven concepts and rei iable hardware

were the primary considerations in
design ing the DC-9's fI igh t-control
systems. The major flight controls on the
DC-9 consist of the ailerons on the wing,
and the rudder and elevators on the tail.
The ailerons, which provide lateral
control, and the rudder arc hydraulically
controlled with manual back-up in the
rare case of hydraulic failure. A cable
system connects the two ailerons. As one
is moved, the other moves in the opposite
direction. The elevator is manually
operated. Hyclraulics also power spoilers,
wing flaps and slats, and the landing gear.
The horizontal stabilizer trim is controlled
by an electromechanical system.
The wing flap system provides
mechrll\ical control and hydraulic
actuation of the flaps, which are hinged to
the trailing edge of each wing. The flaps
may be pOSitioned and held from full up to

The stairs feature handrails and non-skid

lurfaces. Boeing

full down to obtain increased drag, to

Increase the lift of the wing, and to lower
the stall speecl for landing and takeoff.
The hydraulics, in two independent,
ullltinuously operating systems, play a
Ltrge role in the aircraft's reliability and
,a(ety. The primary power source (or each
'ystem is an engine-driven pump. As an
alternate power source, a reversible
hydraulic-motor pump can supply pressure
to either system. When one system is
pressurized, the alternate pump can supply
pressure to the other without fluid
l'xchange between systems, wh ich usc
fIre-resistant hydraulic fluid. Although
hnth hydraulic systems arc completely
'eparate, almost all components - pumps,
cylinders,
reservoir
assemblies,
,lCcul11ulators, filters, gauges <lI1d valves are identical to enhance maintenance
"l11plicity.
Lateral aircraft control is also provided by
three hydraulically powered spoilers,
located ahead of the flaps on the upper
sUlface of each wing. The spoilers are used
as speedhrakes to decelerate in the air and
to decrease lift and increase drag during
landing. The spoilers closest to the fuselage
nperate only on the ground to increase drag
and
reduce
lift,
improve braking
Below: Baggage can be loaded onto the DC-9
without special equipment. Boeing

The DC-9 was designed to be self-sufficient at

airports without much ground equipment. The
stairway is stored under the cabin. although most
DC-9s flying today have eliminated the stairs to

:.",:

-~-.

save weight. Boeing

30

31

DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT

DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT

effectiveness and reduce stopping uistances

during rejected takeoffs and rollout
following landing. The centre and outboaru
'roilers operate as speedbrakes in the air, as
ground spoilers on the ground, and as
lateral-control spoilers at all times. Spoilers
are actuated automatically on touchdown
by wheel spin on the main landing gear.
As discussed, the location of the engines
on the aft fuselage greatly reduces yawing
motion due to asymmetric thrust when
compared to wing-mounted engines. Still,
the DC-9 required a powet{ul rudder for
handling in cross winds and low minimum
landing approach speeds. The rudder itself
is
aerodynamically
balanced
and
hydraulically powered.
Directional control on the ground is
improved by incorporating a rudder-pedal
nosewheel-steering system. This helps to
maintain directional control during takeoff
and landing rolls. A yaw damper is
included in the directional control system
to improve stability during normal
operations. The yaw damper moves the
Opposite: The first DC-9 fuselage is joined
with the wings. Boeing

32

This 1966 photo shows nose sections manufactured at Douglas's plant in Santa Monica. California. Boeing

ruduer as much as 3 uegrees in response to

yaw rate, and may be used throughout
takeoff or landing.
All control systems - airspeed, electrical,
hydraulic, cabin pressurization and fuel
pumping - are dual and independent
installations, which provide redundant
protection against system failure whilst, at
the same time, maintaining operating
simplicity and safety.

Passenger Cabin
The DC-9's cabin interior was designed to
provide a high level of passenger comfort,
flexibility in seating arrangements, and ease
of maintenance and servicing. DC-9s still
in service today have been overhauled from
the inside many times to reflect new designs
and technology, and different operators.
Customers usually dictate the features of
the cabin, so interiors and seating vary from
airline to airline. OC-9s built in 1973 and
beyond later received a 'wide look' interior
that provides a greater feeling of
spaciousness than in earlier models.

33

About the only thing in common

among all operators is the two-by-three
seating layout in economy class - an
arrangement that Douglas contended
was consistently preferred by passengers
over six-abreast cabins in other singleaisle airliners. With two-by-three
seating, each scat was one inch (2.Scm)
wider than other jets at the time. Firstclass seating is generally in a two-by-two
arrangement.
All mouels feature armrests that fold
back (except those on the aisle) and a
folding meal-tray in each seat back.
Passenger utilities, including reading
lights, cold-air outlets, flight attendant
call buttons and oxygen masks (in case of
cabin depressurization), are grouped on
panels above the scats. These panels can
be adjusted to accommodate any
distance between seats, also known as
seat pitch; the amount of seat pitch is
determined by the operator. Publicaddress speakers are staggered on
opposite sides of the aeroplane, so each
row has its own speaker.

DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT

DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT

The DC-9 mock-up showed the passenger

DOUGLAS DC-9

configuration in this 1964 photo. Boeing

TYPICAL SEATING ARRANGEMENTS

the fuselage by four spring-loaded latches.

An inflatable evacuation slide is optional.
Emergency escape is also possible through
the passenger entrance door, the galley
ervice door, and two windows on the
flight deck. Evacuation slides are built
into the passenger and galley doors, while
the cockpit offers another escape route.
Interior noise is minimized through the
use of shock-mounted panels, acoustically
insulated materials and acoustic windows.
Anti-vibration engine mounts and tuned
vibration-absorbers also reduce vibration
and noise in the cabin. Although among
the noisiest aircraft today, exterior noise
levels during takeoff were relatively low at
the time of the DC-9's debut because of its
ability to climb steeply.
DC-9 interiors include carry-on luggage
compartments, coat rooms, galleys, flight
attendant stations and lavatories, in
numbers and layouts depending on each
operator's option. The seats are
upholstered in flame-resistant pre-shrunk
fabrics, and serve as flotation devices in
case of water emergencies. In upgrading
the interiors, many airlines later installed
seat-back telephones. Seats can be
reclined to 38 degrees. The first-class
cabin has a 24in (61cm) aisle, with 19in
(48cm) in coach. The cabin divider and
partitions can he adjusted to meet the
needs of any configuration.
DC-9 galleys are equipped with heating
ovens and coffee makers. There is liberal
storage for ice, drinks, trays, paper
products and other items. Every DC-9
configuration is designed for the quick
meal and beverage service found on shorthop flights. Cabin side panels are made of
thermoplastic, which is easily cleaned and
scuff-resistan t.
The two lavatories are at the rear of the
aircraft. Most DC-9s have an electrically
operated built-in stairway, known as
airstairs, which facilitates passenger
loading and unloading. The passenger
entrance door is located forward on the
left-hand side o( the fuselage. It measures
33.5in (85cm) by nin (183cm). It can be
opened from either side and has steady
hold-open latches. The servicing door is

opposite the main passenger door.

Emergency exits are located over the
wings. The DC-9 also has plug-type liftout emergency exits in the cabin sidewall
over the wing. Each exit, 20in by 36in
(51cm by 9lcm), can be opened from
inside or outside the aircraft by a latchrelease handle. There is an additional
emergency exit in the aft section of the
fuselage that enables passengers to
evacuate through the tail cone, which can
be jettisoned. The tail cone is secured to

Fuel System
The DC-9 has three main fuel-tanks,
one in each wing and one in the centre
wing-section. Auxiliary fuel tanks are
also available in later models. The tanks
are normally filled through a singlepoint fuelling adapter, where the hose
from a fuel truck enters the wing. This is
located on the bottom of the right
wing's leading edge, about midspan. The
overall fuelling rate is 375USgai.

56 PASSENGERS FIRST CLASS

GALLEY SERVICE
AND EMERG EXIT

LAVATORY

ATTENDANT'S SEAT \

ATTENDANT'S SEAT
GALLEY

AND

CREW STOWAGE

IS"

I-

OBSERVER'S
SEAT

EMERGENCY
EXIT

PASSENGER
ENTRANCE

LAVATORY

6S PASSENGERS MIXED CLASS

34

on
OJ

83 PASSENGERS SINGLE CLASS

OOUGL~

The DC-9-10's two-by-three seating arrangement.

Note the lack of carry-on bins. a feature that was

'-.../AIRCRAFT DIVISION

added as a standard with the DC-9-30. Boeing

34

35

DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT

DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT

Fuelling the DC-9 can be done without need of

The DC-9 family has two sets of rear landing gear,

ladders. Boeing

consisting of two tyres each. Boeing

The DC-9's front wheel has an 82degree steering capability, which enables a
full 180-degree aircraft turnaround on
pavement widths as small as 63ft 7in
(19.4m) for the DC-9-10 to 85ft 5in
(26m) for the much longer Series 50.
Nosewheel steering is accomplished
through a steering wheel powered by a
dual hydraulic system. Even with the loss
of one system, ample steering remains.
During takeoff and landing roll,
directional control through nosewheel
steering is accomplished by steering the
rudder pedal. This permits the pilot to use
both hands for flight and engine controls.
Rudder-pedal steering is automatically
engaged with nose-gear strut compression
and disengaged with strut extension.
Nosewheel chines - deflectors on
outboard sidewall tyres - serve to control
water spray patterns from the nosewheel
to prevent water or slush being ingested
by the engines. As a result, the spray
pattern is dispersed and deflected
harmlessly under the wing.

derivative, by contrast, can carry

5,840USgal. (22,1061), or 39,1281b
(17,748kg) offuel with its larger wing.

Landing Gear and Brakes

(1,4191) per minute. At that rate, it

takes less than twenty minutes to fill up
a DC-9.
A fill control panel, which indicates fuel
quantity, is located adjacent to the fill
adapter. This control panel eliminates the
need for someone in the cockpit during
fuelling. Once in the tanks, fuel is directed
to engines and the APU through separate
lines. Each feed system includes two
electrically driven booster pumps, which
are arranged in parallel to provide
redundancy so that the aircraft can fly
even if one pump does not work. One
pump is also installed in the right mainrank for engine start and APU operation
in the absence of power. In normal
operation, the main-tank pumps are used
one at a time. To increase service life, and
because each pump has the capacity to
maintain adequate fuel flow for both

engines at maximum thrust throughout

the aircraft operating range, alternate
pumps may be used on alternate stages of a
trip. The cross-feed system allows any
single pump to supply fuel to both engines.
The inboard section of each main tank has
a gravity-feed reservoir. To prevent fuel
from flowing out of the reservoir during a
steep climb or rapid manoeuvre, check
valves are installed in each reservoir.
As the DC-9 models progressed, so did
their fuel capacity. The first DC-9-10
could carry 2,786USgal. offuel (10,5461),
or 18,6661b (8,467kg). By adding a fuel
rank in the lower cargo compartment, the
DC-9-30 and -40 models could carry
3,679USgal. of fuel (13,9261), or 24,6491b
(11,176kg) The Series 50 had a standard
supplemental fuel tank, increasing fuel
capacity to 4,259USgal. (16,1221), or
28,5351b (12,943kg). The later MD-80

36

The DC-9's landing gear, like the fuselage,

is built to withstand at least 50,000 flights
and up to at least 120,000 hours,
contributing to the model's reliability and
serviceability. The DC-9, like other small
and medium-sized airliners, has three sets
of landing gear. The forward landing gear,
underneath the forward fuselage, is
comprised of two wheels. The gear
retracts forward and up into the fuselage
nose-section. The rear landing gear
consists of two sets of two wheels, each
located below the wings, that retract in
and up into the wing and fuselage.
Overall, the DC-9 has six wheels and
tyres.
The
land ing gear
is
retracted
hydraulically. In an emergency, a control
level releases the gear. All three gears
extend and lock by gravity alone, without
hydraulic pressure. The gear doors close
after gear extension to reduce the noise in
the cabin.
The basic design of the landing gear
features pneumatic shock-struts with fixed
axles. This, combined with a wide
wheelbase, low centre of gravity,
nosewheel steering ability and ground
spoilers, provides the DC-9 with excellent
ground-hand Iing characteristics. The
hydraulically powered multiple disc,
metallic, air-vented brakes on each maingear wheel have been designed for a long
operating life. Its cooling features, with
thermal fuse plugs to prevent overheating,
are augmented by a large contact area,
maki ng each brake capable of 1,000
landings before having to be replaced.
The brakes are controlled by foot-pedal
operated valves. They are supplemented
by an electrically controlled anti-skid
system on each wheel that prevents
locked wheels. The system detects
impending skid by measuring landing
wheel deceleration against optimum
performance and, if necessary, reduces
braking pressure. It also helps to achieve
maximum brake efficiency, which
contributes to longer tyre life as well as
shorter stopping distances.

Air-Conditioning and Oxygen

Air-conc.litioning on the DC-9 family is
supplied by two identical air-cycle
refrigeration units, helping to maintain
passenger and crew comfort. This system
is designed for parallel operation but
capable of working independently. They
draw bleed air from both engine
compressors, but can function even if one
engine fails. One system supplies the
cockpit, while the other responds to cabin
controls. The A PU supplies power for airconditioning while the aircraft is on the
ground. Rapid changes in temperature
can be accompl ished by runn ing one
engine or the APU. The air-conditioning
exhaust is partially discharged into the
under-floor areas of the fuselage. Cockpit
ex haust is vented through the electrical
compartment to maintain the proper
temperatures for electrical and electronic
equipment. It is then fed to the underside
of the forward cargo-compartment floor,
which can carry animals safely and
comfortably. Air from the passenger cabin
is exhausted into the aft cargocompartment.
Separate,
automatic
The front landing gear also features two tyres.
Boeing

37

DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT

The DC-9 family, with the exception of the later

Boeing 717, have rear stairs, which assist in
passenger loading and cabin service. Boeing

temperature control systems, each with a

range of 65-80F (i8-27C), regulate
cockpit and passenger cabin temperature
to the desired settings.
The cabin pressure control works off the
air-conditioning system. The rate of
change in cabin pressure and cabin
altitude is controlled by an electrically
driven valve. Cabin pressure also can be
manually controlled should the automatic
system malfunction.
Oxygen is available in two separate
systems - one for crew, the other for
passengers. Each system draws from its
own
oxygen
cylinder.
Should
decompression occur in the cabin, the
passenger system automatically opens the
mask-container doors, pops out the masks

DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT

and supplies oxygen to passengers. Masks

also are available at flight-attendant
stations and in each lavatory. One
additional mask is located in every seatrow box, alternating from left to right, for
supplemental oxygen as well as emergency
oxygen for infants or attendants. First-aid
oxygen is instantly available at each seat
row and in each lavatory.
The DC-9 has an ice-protection system
in the airframe that supplies warmed air
from the engine bleed systems to the
wings and horizontal stabilizer. Because
ice build-up can cause an aircraft to lose
control on takeoff, anti-ice priority is
given to the wing's leading edge. The pilot
may, during flight and at the start of an
approach, divert wing air to the tail. The
air is later automatically transferred back
to the wing.
The DC-9 family has brought millions of people
home. Boeing

Below: The DC-9-20 features the fuselage of the DCAbove and top right: Wind-tunnel testing was a vital component in determining the flight parameters. Boeing

38

39

9-10 with the improved wing of the DC-9-30. Boeing

DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT

DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT

~ "'~T~~g~:'l[
j:l

-a

TAIL CONE
ACCESS DOOR

AFT LOWER
CARGO COMPARTMENT

(Series JT only)
Thousands of workers were employed to
manufacture and assemble the DC-9. Boeing

Other Systems
The DC-9 was designed to handle
simultaneous servicing of all major
systems. These include fuel Iing, galley
service, and lavatory cleaning all while
passengers board and disembark and
baggage is loaded and unloaded.
omplete servicing with maximum
refuelling can be completed at major
terminals in twenty minutes, less at
intermediate stops. Baggage and cargo
is loaded through two large cargo-doors
in the underside of the forward and aft
fuselage. The low ground-clearance
puts the lower-deck cargo-door bays at

waist height to allow loading and

unloading without a conveyor or
loading platform.
Since the DC-9 was designed for
quick turnarounds at airports that may
lack ground-handling equipment, all
models have two built-in boarding
stairs that can be used if jetways are
not available. The forward stairs arc
standard equipment. With non-skid
surfaces, these stairs are equipped with
handrails and can accommodate
uneven ground surfaces. At night they
can be illuminated. During flight the
stairs are stored under the cabin floor.
The stairway is normally controlled
from inside the cabin but can be
operated from the ground ::IS well; the

40

control station is next to the passenger

entrance
door,
within
reaching
distance from the ground. While the
stairway is extended, the door can be
closed but not locked. Both interior
and exterior control stations provide
the ability to manually operate the
door, although only the exterior
station has a manual override for the
stairway. To prevent inadvertent
operation of the stairway during flight,
the electrical stairway control system
is interlocked with the manual door
control. Today, with jetways at nearly
every airport, most airlines have
removed the forward stairs to shed
weight from the aircraft and increase
fuel efficiency.

PASSENGER FORWARD ENTRANCE DOOR

ESCAPE SLIDE
STOWAGE

FORVVARD ACCESSORY
COMPARTMENT
A schematic of key systems and doors. Shown is a cargo version. Courtesy Fred deLeeuw

41

DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT

DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT

AIRPLANE GENERAL - CARGO & ACCESSORY COMPARTMENTS

ELEVATOR

TAIL CONE

GEARED TAB

(Aerodynamically driven by deflected Lcontro I tab. Has hydrau I ic powered

augmentor as backup system).

(Geared to elevator movement.

A Iways assists control tab l.

HORIZONTAL STABILIZER
ELEVATOR CONTROL TAB

(See FLIGHT CONTROLS - HORIZONTAL

STABILIZER FUNCTIONAL SCHEMATIC)

(Mechanically connected to control column).

RIGHT AILERON
(Aerodynaltlically driven
by deflected contra/lab)

LEFT FLAP
(See FLIGHT CONTROLS - FLAPS
FUNCTIONAL SCHEMATIC)

AILERON CONTROL TAB

FORWARD
ACCESSORY
CO MPART MENT

RIGHT LEADING EDGE SLAT

(See FLIGHT CONTROLS - SLAT
FUNCTIONAL SCHEMATIC)

LEFT FLIGHT S PO I LER

(INBOARD)

ANGLE OF ATTACK TRANSDUCER VANES

FORWARD LOWER
CARGO COMPARTMENT
PASSENGER FORWARD
ENTRANCE DOOR

AILERON TORQUE TUBE AND OVERRIDE

MECHANISM

HORIZONTAL STABILIZER ACTUATOR

CONTROL (electrically powered)

(See FLIGHT CONTROLS - LATERAL CONTROL

AND SPOILER FUNCTIONAL SCHEMATIC)

(See FLIGHT CONTROLS - HORIZONTAL

STABILIZER FUNCTIONAL SCHEMATIC)

RUDDER LIMITER PITOT TUBE

NOSE GEAR
WHEEL WELL

RUDDER

FLAP CONTROLLED RUDDER

LIMITER
(See FLIGHT CONTROLS -- RUDDER
FUNCTIONAL SCHEMATIC)

ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONICS
COMPARTMENT

(Norma II y hydrau Iica Ily

powered). (See FLIGHT
CONTROLS - RUDDER
FUNCTIONAL SCHEMATIC)

RUDDER, POWER CONTROL, &

RUDDER LIMITER ACTUATOR

RUDDER CONTROL TAB

(Mechanically controlled dLring manual
rudder operation. Lockea in neutral
during power rudder operation)

(Pressure operated by Independent PltOt

systemJ.
(SEE FLIGHT CONTROLS - RUDDER
FUNCTIONAL SCHEMATIC)

A schematic of the entry doors and accessory compartments. Courtesy Fred deLeeuw

42

BBl-1559D

A look at the DC-9's flight control systems. Courtesy Fred deLeeuw

43

DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT

CHAPTER THREE
(SCAPE L1N(
STOWAGE

I)ouglas Aircraft was so confident of its

'porty new jet that it launched the DC-9
on 8 April 1963 - a crucial step that
formally made it available for sale to the
world's airlines - even though it had just
,Inc order from Delta Air Lincs for fifteen
Ilf the aircraft. A risky step, perhaps, but
lhc company was convinced airlines
would see this cost-efficient, rugged
model - larger than the BAC I-II but
,mallcr than the Boeing 727 - as a
neccssary staple in their fleets.
The DC-9 didn't represent a dramatic
,tdvance in jetliner technology; in many
ways the sleek new model was seen as

HEADSET
STOWAGE

"".( "',:,
CONSOLE

Launch and Production

simply the DC-8's little brother. But
unlike the big jets in their first years, the
DC-9 promised to generate impressive
revenues and substantial savings. The
DC-9's target short-haul market was
traditionally served by piston-powered
aircraft retired from longer routes and
was usually a money-loser for the airlines
because of the high costs of repeated
landings and takeoffs. The DC-9 was
touted from the beginning as being able
to make a profit with just twenty-eight of

Not one but two DC-9-10s emerged from a hangar to cheers during the rollout ceremony on
12 January 1965. Boeing

AILERON TRIM
CONTROL

COMPARTMENT ACCESS

A schematic of the flight deck.

Courtesy Fred deLeeuw

To speed up passengcr boarding and

disembarkation, the DC-9 also offers an
optional rear, or aft, ventral stairway. The
stair's main control station is inside the
aircraft, behind the rear pressurebulkhead. An exterior control station is
located next to the stairway and can easily
be reached by ground crews. If aeroplane
or ground power is not available, the
stairway will fall when the locks are
removed. The ventral stairway also serves
to support the tail during aircraft loading
and unloading.
The aircraft's electrical power consists
of both a primary and secondary

electrical system that satisfies the

requirements for aircraft self-sufficiency
on the ground and in the air. The
primary electrical system is composed of
alternating current (AC) and direct
current (DC) electrical power derived
from
engineand
APU-driven
generators. The secondary electrical
system is comprised of a nickel-cadmium
battery, which provides emergency
capability for certain navigational and
communications equipment in case all
generators fail.
The APU is the onboard source of
pneumatic and electric power. It frees
the DC-9 from any dependence on
ground power equipment. The APU is a
gas-turbine engine and compressor

44

the ninety seats filled. Since jets at the

time lost money on most flights shorter
than 300 miles (480km), and since 75
per cent of all US flights in the mid1960s were shorter than 250 miles
(400km), the DC-9 promised the lowest
operating costs of any airliner of its time
and was seen as a money-making
solution for the airlines.
The DC-9, a successful aeroplane by
any mcasure, would go on to operate in
some of the harshest environments on

that powers air-conditioning as well as

engine starting and electric power for all
normal aircraft systems. The self-starting
unit is controlled from the cockpit. It is
located just behind the pressure bulkhead
at the rear of the aircraft and is installed
in a fixed, fireproof and soundsuppressing container.
Thcrc are two fire-fighting systems on
board; one fixed, the other portable. The
fi xed
system
inc1 udes
two
fi reextinguisher bottles located behind the
pressure bulkhead to suppress engine,
pylon and APU fires. Portable equipment
consists of one hand-extinguisher on the
flight deck, two in the galley area and one
mounted on the forward face of the
lavatory partition.

45

LAUNCH AND PRODUCTION

LAUNCH AND PRODUCTION

At the time of its debut to the public. the DC-9 had

thirty-six orders. Boeing

The DC-9 offered Douglas an important

lead over Boeing in the new market for
short-range jetliners. Not until 1965, only
three days before the DC-9's first flight
(perhaps an attempt to upstage its rival?),
did
Boeing
announce
it
would
manufacture its own short-range aircraft,
the 737 - which would, in turn, go on to
outsell any modern commercial airliner
ever made. The 737's design was greatly
influenced by launch customer Lufthansa.
The Germans insisted on a passenger
capacity of at least 100 - ten more than
the first DC-9 model could accommodate.
The only way Boeing could fulfil that
requirement was to give the 737 the same
width as the larger 727 and 707, allowing
for three-by-three seating instead of the
earth, opening up jet air travel to small
communities in much the same way as
one of its predecessors, the venerable
DC-3, hacJ done decades earlier.
'The plane wi II come closer to replacing
the DC-3 than anyone in the business
now believes,' Donald Douglas Jr, then
the company's president, told reporters
after the DC-9 was launched. 'More
people will fly for the first time - not just
the prestige carriagc tracJe but also the
greatest number of people. An estimate of
400
potential
sales
is
probably
pessimistic.' His projection certainly
held true - and was, in fact, vastly
underesti ma ted.
The DC-9's launch signalled a
corporate triumph for Douglas, which
was all but counted out of the aerospace
industry a mere two years earlier. The
DC-8 was losing dismally in the sales
race with Boeing's 707. Douglas also lost
in the bicJcJing on a string of defence and
space
contracts.
But
Douglas
reorganized itself, brought in respected
executives, cut costs and put the
company back into shape. With
production
under
way,
Douglas
employed an integrated DC-8/DC-9
final asscmbly line that initially
prov ided a high degree of common
tooling and suhstantial job knowledge
from the DC-8, helping to ensure high
production efficiency from the start of
assembly of the new mocJel.
Company officials join Donald Douglas 5r lcentrel
at the rollout of the DC-9. Boeing

46

I X ~-9's two-by-three arrangement even

th\lugh the DC-9 was 10ft (3m) longer
than the stubby 737-100.
By the ti me the 73 7-1 00 made its debut
III 1967, the DC-9 was already in service
\\ Ith 200 orders in hand, a lead that
w\lulcJ take Boeing almost twenty years to
ovcrcome. The DC-9 also fared well
Igainst the rival BAC 1-11. Despite the
British sales lead, Douglas had fifty-eight
firm orcJers and sixty options on the
DC-9 prior to its rollout, versus seventyf\lur orders and sixteen options for the
BAC 1-11.
Although Boeing initially made the 737
with limited operational characteristics,
lIs 737-200 rectified the situation but in
the interim Douglas had managed to build
';45 DC-9s between 1966 and 1969,
against only 224 737s. in those four years,
Douglas produced half of the DC-9 fleet.
Yet the company was losing money on
nearly every DC-9 manufactured. Too
many aircraft were sold at discount prices
that were insufficient to cover production
costs. The rapid development of thc DC9 and all its variants inhibitcd efficiencies
1I1 production methods, and the number
of hours to produce each aircraft exceeded
predictions.
in
addition,
the
commendable desire to provide as many
DC-9 options as possible contributed to
the explosive growth of the DC-9, but the
cxpense of doing so helped to propel
Douglas into a crisis that ended with its
merger with McDonnell. The problem
was compounded because Vietnam War
production had already used up all of
southern California's pool of talented
aerospace workers and delayed the
shipment of key components. There also
were some twenty different internal
aircraft configurations on the production
line within the first few months of the
first deliveries - hardly an efficient
method. Only when McDonnell and
Douglas merged in 1967 did production
get back on schedule. Douglas estimated it
had to sell 150 to 200 of the planes to
recover $100 million ([960 dollars) in
development costs.
By the time the first DC-9 was off the
assembly line, airlines had placed more
than $300 million (1964 dollars) in
advance orders and options for the DC-9.
Air Canada, Bonanza Air Lines, Delta Air
Lines, Hawaiian Airlines, Swissair,
Austrian Airlines and KLM Royal Dutch
Airlines had placed fifty-eight firm orders
and forty-four options.

Rollout and First Flight

Despite delays that prompted Douglas to
expand production lines to meet brisk
demand for the DC-9, the programme
remained on target. Douglas rolled out the
DC-9 - two of them, in fact, moments
after each other - on 12 January 1965, a
month ahead of the original schedule.
The rollout ceremony, inside a hangar in
Long Beach, was filled with bravado and
optimism. The city's Municipal Band
rattled the hangar's lofty rafters with
Sousa's march 'Hail to the Spirit of
Liberty'. The crowd of 800 then grew silent
when the building's fifty-three-foot, sixtythree-ton doors cracked open, letting in
the winter sun. Across the tarmac a white
tug gathered speed, pulling a factory-fresh
DC-9, gleaming in white paint trimmed
with blue and red. Midway between the
two hangars, the new jetliner wheeled
gently to a stop and waited. The crowd
applaudcd for the latest Douglas model's
public debut. The much-heralded event
immediately becamc an encore when a
second DC-9, structurally completed but
missing its instrumentation, followed the
first one to the apron. The second DC-9
rolled out three months early, a symbol of
the new programme's gusto.

Inside the assembly building, five

additional
DC-9s
were
nearing
completion whilc detailed parts were in
various stages of completion for an
additional twenty-eight aircraft, keeping
65,000 people employed in California,
thirty-five other states and Canada.
As the DC-9 rolled across the tarmac
and into the vicwing hangar, journalists,
government
and
local
officials,
representatives from contractors and top
executives from airlines on six continents
awaited closer inspection of the new kid
on the block.
Among the crowd was Donald W.
Douglas Sr, a participant in dozens of
similar ceremonies over fifty years of
designing and producing aircraft. He told
reporters:
I am still thrilled when I am privileged to see
the tangihle evidence of a long and difficult job
well done. Techniques have changed greatly,
but the hasic principles of powered flight
remain the same. Another principle that
remains unchanged is the fact that no such
achievement as rhe DC-9 is possible without a
dedicated and skilled group of human beings.
This was true in 1920, when the Douglas
ompany had six employees.

The DC-9 flight crew confers prior to the first flight. From left are Paul Patten. test pilot; Duncan Walker.
flight test engineer; and George Jansen. chief engineering test pilot. Boeing

47

LAUNCH AND PRODUCTION

LAUNCH AND PRODUCTION

a period of twenty-five years. We are confident

,he DC-9 will be worthy of the Delta colours
anJ will represent another milestone in the
JI'linguished line of Douglas aircraft which
have contributed so much to air transportation
all over the world.
All' Canada: Air Canada chose the DC-9
following the most exhaustive equipment
analy;is ever undertaken by the airline, on the
ha,i' of the DC-9's ability to be economically
Integrated into Air Canada's route structure
anJ its projected fleet makeup at the time of
delivery anJ on into the future. From foreca;ts

20 per cent of all air travel was for

distances of less than 200 miles (325km)
per trip. Statistics in Europe at the time
were similar.
The DC-9 played an important role in
enabling the world's airlines to bring to
their shorter route-segments and smaller
airports the same level of operating
efficiencies and public service that the jet
age had brought to long-distance travel
anu major metropolitan centres. At the
time of its uebut, the DC-9 was able to
operate into 98 per cent of all US airports
that hau commercial service.

prepareJ of future passenger traffic over the

Canadian carrier's particular routes, the aircraft

combines the lowest operating costs for the

,urline

with

the

most

desirable

flighl

frequencies for the passenger.

The DC-9-10 lifts off from Long Beach Municipal Airport on 25 February 1965. The aircraft carried flight
instrumentation equipment on a two hour fifteen minute test flight, landing at Edwards Air Force Base,
California. Boeing

Other top company officials on the

speaker's platform were Donald W.
Douglas Jr anu Jackson McGowen, a
Douglas vice president. As the DC-9
moved into position in the viewing
hangar, John Brizendine, the deputy
manager for the DC-9 programme, began
to describe the features of the new
creation. He explained to the crowd that
the DC-9-10, about a third of the size of
its big brother the DC-8, would carry
passengers with the same levels of speed,
comfort and safety as larger jets. He also
pointed out that the DC-9's ability to land
and takeoff from 5,000ft (l ,500m)
runways with a full passenger load would
bring jet service to airports that, at the
time, were only served by propeller-driven
aircraft.
In a filmed presentation shown at the
ceremony, US Secretary of Commerce
Luther Hodges hailed the economic
potential of expanded airline service
offered by the DC-9. He declared that the
impact of the DC-9 might equal that
made thirty years earlier by another twinengine Douglas transport, the DC-3. 'For
the first time,' he said, 'an American-built
aircraft will bring the great speed and
productivity of the jet transport to cities

which have not yet become part of the jet

age.'
US Senator Mike Monroney, chairman
of the aviation subcommittee of the
Senate commerce committee, briefly
addressed the rollout ceremony. 'No single
man has done more for world aviation
than Donald W. Douglas,' he said. After
recounting the successes of earlier
company models, he predicted 'the DC-9
will be great, too.'
When the gleaming new model rolled
to a centre-stage position in the hangar,
its boarding stairs lowered, revealing
seven uniformed flight attendants 'hostesses' at the time - each representing
one of the seven launch airlines. The first
person up the stairs into the new plane
was none other than Donald Douglas Sr.
Delivery of the first DC-9 was made to
Delta Air Lines three months ahead of
schedule, on 8 December 1965, following
extensive flight testing. By January 1966,
six aircraft had been delivered, to Delta,
Bonanza Airlines and Air Canada, and
four were in revenue service. The first
revenue flights were a harbinger of things
to come over the next few decades: one
DC-9 in those early days of service had
logged eleven hours and eighteen minutes

48

of revenue flying time in one day. Average

uti Iization among the first models was
seven hours and nineteen minutes, with
eleven departures per day and a load
factor (percentage of seats filled) of 75 per
cent. Not bad for an all-new aircraft.
That was noticed by customers. On 26
July 1963, when production began,
Douglas had firm orders for just eighteen
DC-9s. By early 1966, Douglas had orders
and options for 440 DC-9s. Why did early
customers choose the DC-9? The reasons
were as varied as their needs: field
performance, ruggedness, cabin width,
integration with existing DC-8 fleets and,
above all, lower costs and higher profits.
Here's what some airlines said at the time
of the DC-9's debut:

Statistics on air travel seemed to bear out

the DC-9 at the time of its uebut.
According to the Civil Aeronautics
Board, a US agency that managed civil
aviation, more than 60 per cent of US
airline passenger travel was for trips of less
than 500 miles (800km), and more than

The Inaugural Flight

The day of the DC-9's first flight, 25
February 1965, was memorable for
Douglas. In add ition to the successful
flight, Douglas announced it had sold
twenty-four more DC-9s, this time to
Eastern Ai rI ines, fu rther boosti ng the
programme. On that Jay Douglas also
formally C\nnounced that the DC-9 would

Flight test results please test pilots George Jansen and Paul Patten. Boeing

Hawaiian Airlines: The DC-9 was shown to be

ideally suited for the jet market routes of
Hawaiian Airlines. Capable of operating from
existing runways while carrying a profitable
payload, the aircraft can fly several route
segments without refuelling with a resulmnt
time saving in ground handling costs alone. In
addition, the totally new aircraft will have an
immediate stimulation to passenger traffic.
Delta A ir Lines: Our initial order for fifteen of
the DC-9s with an option for fifteen more will
number

Delta's

hundredth

include more advanced models in the

future, hinting of the family of aircraft the
DC-9 would later offer.
The first DC-9-l0 lifted easily off
Long Beach Municipal Airport, flew
around the California coastline and
landed two hours and fifteen minutes
later at nearby Edwards Air Force Baseone month earlier than planned. Loaded
on the initial flight were 10,OOOlb
(4,500kg) of instrumentation and
recording devices used
to
gain
certification. The flight was flawless.
Press reports were favourable, especially
because the DC-9 preceded the Boeing
737 into the air. The DC-9's first flight
also came two weeks before the BAC 1ll's first revenue flight.
At the controls of the first flight were
George Jansen, chief engineering test
pi lot for Douglas Aircraft, and co-pi lot
Paul Patten. Although the DC-9 was
designed for a two-person cockpit, on
board the initial flight was a flight
engineer, Duncan Walker. During the

Douglas-built

airliner. Our experience evidences the quality

and dependability of Douglas-built aircraft over

49

LAUNCH AND PRODUCTION

inaugural, the DC-9 was held to speeds

of 285mph (460km/h) amI a maximum
altitude of 20,000ft (6, 100m) while the
crew conducted initial tests of the
hydraulic, electrical, air-conditioning
and autopilot systems. The aircraft
offered no surprises during its first
voyage. Patten later told reporters: '[
think the DC-9 will be the magic
carpet
of
the
air-transportation
industry.'
The first DC-9 took off with a gross
weight of 77 ,0001b (34,900kg). Takeoff
roll was about 3,200ft (975m). The
aircraft's landing gear was lowered and
raised several times during the flight.
Low-speed handling characteristics were
reported excellent, and roll response was
good.
During the second flight a day later,
gross takeoff weight increased to 80,0001b
(36,300kg). The autopilot, which also
had been used on the first flight, was
employed for an automatic approach at
Edwards Air Force Base at the end of the
flight. The third flight, reaching 25,000ft
(7,600m),
explored
handling
characteristics.
The
engi nes
were
successfully re-started in mid-air at
15,000ft (4,600m). These flights began an
exhaustive
nine-month
flight-test
programme that would validate the
aircraft's capabilities and certify it to enter
commercial service.

Flight Testing
The DC-9 underwent three phases of
flight testing. The exploratory phase,
starting with the first flight, was designed
to view all the aerodynamic and system
characteristics of the aircraft; the
development and design verification
phase focused on performance, stability,
speed, and systems and components; and
the FAA certification phase, when the
aircraft demonstrated that it complied
with government regulations regarding
aerodynamics and systems. During testing,
the DC-9 fully demonstrated that its
performance met or exceeded guarantees
in all areas.
Aerodynamic design development was
conducted during the early portion of
the DC-9 test-flight <lnd cerrific<ltion
programme. The primary items that
required continued development in
aerodynam ics were roll characteristics
and takeoff cl im b performance. The
flight programme also led to three minor
improvements to the DC-9's wing that
further improved stall characteristics.
These included modifying an inboard
stall strip on the wing leading edge,
incorporating a small leading-edge fence
on the wing midspan, and modifying two

LAUNCH AND PRODUCTION

rows of vortex generators on the outer

wing panel. Because of its strong
inherent stall recovery characteristics
and sufficient pilot warnings, the DC-9
was shown to be extremely resistant to
stall.
Within the first four and a half months
of testing, Douglas conducted 237 flights,
accumulating 397 hours of flight time.
Compared to previous programmes, early
testing showed a 30 to 50 per cent
increase in test utilization. One day after
the first flight, Douglas conducted two
flights. From then on, twice-a-day flights
were common.
Five DC-9s were used for development
and
FAA
certification
flights,
accumulating [,280 hours of flight time.
These five, and four additional aircraft
used for demonstration and pi lot trai n ing,
flew a total of 1,948 hours in more than
1,200 fI igh ts - more than one mill ion
miles or forty-five times around the earth
at the equator.
The FAA awarded Douglas the type
certificate for the DC-9-10 on 23
November 1965, more than two months
ahead of schedule. Certification was
attained just nine months after the first
flight in what was one of the most

This 1965 photo. taken during certification testing. shows how nosewheel chines (shaped deflectors on
outboard tyres) effectively control the water spray pattern from the nosewheel to prevent water and slush
from being ingested by the engines. Boeing

50

thorough fI ight-test and development

programmes ever undertaken at the time
for a modern jet transport.
During the entire programme, only two
test flights were terminated before they
were completed, and only seven were
delayed by component or system
malfunction. One DC-9-10 in the test
fleet made fifty-five flights totalling lSI
hours within fourteen days - an average o{
nearly eleven hours a day.
Not only was certification attained
ahead of schedule, in keeping with the
pattern established early in the DC-9
development, but also performance was
better than Douglas had guaranteed.
Landing distances certified by the FAA,
for instance, were 15 per cent shorter than
the origi nal guaran tees. Other field
lengths were between 7 and 15 per cent
better.
Even before the first flight, Douglas
put the DC-9 through fatigue testing
for major componen ts and systems, as
well as static testing to measure the
aircraft's ability to withstand flight
under all conditions. More than thirty
structural
tests
were
completed,
covering the most critical conditions
an aircraft cou Id experience du ri ng
flight and testing. While subjected to
flight loads, all movable control

The DC-9-10 during flight testing. The line from the back of the tail was used
to measure performance. 80eing

surfaces, including spoilers, flaps and

ailerons,
successfully
met
their
operational
requirements. Critical
fuselage design conditions required
tests for flight-induced vertical, side
and roll bending, with and without
cabin pressure, as well as two groundturning
configurations.
The
empennage, horizontal and vertical
surfaces and the tail stub were checked
{or five critical design conditions. All
movable tail components were rotated
successfully at various load increments.
Test pilots learned from the beginning
that the DC-9 is a pi lot's aeroplane, fun to
fly and stahle, with no tendencies to roll.
The aircraft's stall characteristics were
examined throughout the complete range
of wing-flap settings in both the forward
and aft centre of gravity positions. In
testing, the DC-9 also exhibited the same
desirable nose-down pitching as was
determined in wind-tunnel tests.
The aircraft was taken well beyond the
speed at which airlines operate. Flutter
and vibration measurements taken during
high-speed test flights were the best that
engineers had seen in a commercial jet. In
general, the DC-9 felt solid.

57

onsiderable dala were collected for

landing and takeoff performance. Most
movements were recorded by a groundmounted camera {rom which Douglas
determined the aircraft's accelerations
and decelerations. The touchdown-tostop distances showed that the brakes, in
conjunction with the landing spoilers and
anti-skid system, were better than
predicted. Thrust reversers were also
found to he effective and easy to operate.
Even the electrical, hydrauliC, fuel, airconditioning and automatic controls fared
well, and only minor refinements were
needed on the autopilot system following
testing. Douglas conducted 5,000 separate
flight tests and more than 40,000 test
points were obtained on a variety of
equipment inside and outside the
aeroplane. The very first DC-9 ever built
made 600 test fI ights before Douglas
turned it over to commercial service. The
aircraft was completely refurbished and
delivered to Trans Texas Airlines.
Even as the first aircraft were put
through their paces, Douglas engineers
were working on new versions of the
DC-9, ensuring a family destined for
long-term sLiccess.

EVOLUTION OF THE FAMILY

CHAPTER FOUR

DC-9 FAMILY

Evolution of the FaDlily

From its inception, the DC-9 was
designed to grow - in length, capacity,
weight and range. Much like the DC-8
was built to various sizes and ranges to suit
customer needs, so too did Douglas realize
that more options would attract
additional DC-9 operators from around
the world. The DC-9-10 was followed by
sub-variants undistinguishable to the eye,
all with slightly different maximum
takeoff weight determined by an interior
configuration (extra lavatory, larger
galley, etc.):
DC-9-14 - 87,S001b (39,689kg) maximum
takeoff weight
DC-9-15-90,7001b
(41,141
kg)
maximum takeoff weight
For the sake of simplicity, this book refers
to either of these as simply the Series 10,
even though these aircraft are commonly
known as the DC-9-14 or DC-9-15.
Douglas built 147 JLC-9-10s between
1964 and 1969, includiug cargo versions,
and ten likec:sized DC-9-20s.
Before looking at growth, Douglas
briefly studied a scaled-down version, the
DC-9-5, intended for shorter ranges and
smaller capacities. Douglas dropped the
project within a year in 1965, officially
because of lack of airline interest, but also
because of the absence of a su itable
powerplant, Douglas's financial problems,
and expected competi tion from the
Fokker F-28, another short-range twinjet
with a Ttail design but smaller in
capacity than the DC-9.
Here is a look at the four other DC-9
models designed and produced following
the DC-9-10:

DC-9-30
The larger DC-9-30 would go on to
become the best-selling model in the
original DC-9 family, surpassed only by the
MD-80 series two decades later. The DC-930 was identical to the original model with

........

"'

DC-9-30 vs. DC-9-10

DC-9-30
119ftJ.5in (36.37m)

DC-9-10
104ft 5in (31.82m)

105-115
1,923 miles (3,095km)

70-90

Empty Weight

57,190lb (25,940kg)

Wingspan

93ft 5in (28.5m)

49,OOOlb (22,635kg)
89ft 5in (27.25m)

Length
Capacity
Range

several notable exceptions: it was longer

and heavier, could carry more passengers
and cargo, had an improved wing with a
slightly longer wing span, could fly farther,
and used more powerful versions of the
JT8D engine. First designated DC-9-3550,
and then DC-9-151, the DC-9-30 was the
first stretched version of the Douglas
twinjet, one that would become a
standard-bearer against which future
members of the family would be judged.
The Series 30 is the most widely used
member of the DC-9 family, accounting for
about 60 per cent of the entire fleet.
Schaufele,
the
former
Douglas
executive, says the DC-9-30 was his
favourite model, not coincidentally
because it was the most successful one.
'The DC-9-30 has a nice, clean wing.
Perfect application. The right size. We
met all the performance guarantees. We
just outright designed a better aeroplane.'
The DC-9-30 was launched with an
order from Eastern Airlines and first flew
on L August 1966, and was del ivered to
the airline on 27 January 1967. It entered
service on 1 February 1967. The Series 30
was stretched 9ft 6in (2.9m) over the DC9-10, to accommodate up to 115
passengers, making it much more
economical to operate than the DC-9-10
or its rivals in terms of costs per seatmile/kilometre.
As the first DC-9 model with full-span
leading-edge slats, in contrast to the fixed
leading edge of the Series 10, the DC-930 was able to maintain the DC-9-1O's
abil ity to operate from short runways
despite higher takeoff and landing
weights. In fact, the new leading-edge

52

devices on the DC-9-30 enabled the

model to achieve even lower landing
approach speeds than the Series 10. For
exampLe, the approach speed with full
passengers, baggage and reserve fuel for
the Series 10 is 145mph (232km/h), while
the approach speed for the Series 30, with
5,0001b (2,268kg) of additional weight, is
135mph (217km/h). The slats, designed
following extensive wind-tunnel testing,
were later incorporated on other DC-9
models as well, providing higher climb
lift. As an added benefit, the full-span
slats weigh less than slotted flaps and
they're easier to actuate and de-ice.
It was the first time leading-edge highLift devices were used on a Douglas
commercial transport. The Series 30 also
offered triple-slotted flaps, making the
model less dependent on aerofoil design
to achieve increased range and higher
payload. To accommodate the higher
gross weight, the DC-9-30's wingspan was
increased by 4ft (1.2m).
Following completion of the initial
aerodynamic design and wind-tunnel
development of the DC-9-30 wing,
hardware representing the system was
designed and then flight-tested on the
first DC-9-10 ever built. The flight
programme included tests for cruise drag,
takeoff climb drag, maximum lift
capability, stall characteristics and general
handling qualities. The experience from
this programme was invaluable in
documenting
expected
night
characteristics, uncovering minor design
problems and developing modifications
prior to the development and certification
ohhe DC-9-30.

........

SERIES 30
1967
105 PASSENGERS
19% LOWER DOC

1,265 miles (2,036km)

SERIES 10
BASE 1965
BO PASSENGERS

........
SERIES 10RC
1967
BO PASSENGERS
RAPID ODNVERSION
TO CARGO

"'

........

........

........
SERIES 20
196B
BO PASSENGERS
10% REDUCED
FIELD LENGTH
REQUI REMENTS

SERIES 80
19BO
155 PASSENGERS
20% LOWER DOC
THAN DC9-30

SERrES 30RC
1967
105 PASSENGERS
CARGO CONVERSION

SERIES 40
1968
115 PASSENGERS
4% LOWER DOC
THAN DC-93D

SERIES 50
1975
125 PASSENGERS
9% LOWER DOC
THAN DG-9-30

THE DC-9 HAS EVOLVED:

"'

FROM 77,000 POUNDS TO 149,600 POUNDS

FROM 104." FEET TO 147.8 FEET
FROM 12.500 POUNDS TO 20,000 POUNDS

IN DESIGN WEIGHT
IN FUSELAGE LENGTH

SERIES 30 (C9A)
196B
SERIES 30 (C9CI
1975
AIR FORCE

IN ENGINE THRUST

FROM 8Cl PASSENGERS TO ISS PASSENGERS

IN SEATING CAPACITY
IN LOWER CARGO COMPARTMENT
VOLUME

FROM 600 CUBIC FEET TO 1,2.53 CUBIC FEET

........
SERIES 30 (C-9B)
1972
NAVY

The evolution of the DC-9 family is shown in this Douglas illustration. Boeing

The Series 30 would go on to include

higher-weight versions, the DC-9-31 and
-32, with the -32 leading to the
windowless, cargo-door equipped DC-932AF, the convertible DC-9-32CF and
the DC-9-32LWF (with no cargo door
and intended for package carriers). A
model DC-9-33 and -34, also with higher
weights, were made available - just as the
Series LO had different sub-variants based
on maximum takeoff weight:
DC-9-31
DC-9-32
DC-9-33
DC-9-34

- 98,0001b (44,452kg)
- 108,0001b (48,988kg)
-114,000Ib (5I,710kg)
- 121,000Ib (54,885kg)

The DC-9-30 was primarily designed for

operations on the US East Coast and
Europe, where runways were available and
where the range of the larger 72 7 was not
required - a key reason why the DC-9
family was slow to gain popularity
elsewhere in the world.
Douglas produced 662 DC-9-30s
between 196oam] 1982, incluaing fortyseven for the US Air Force and US Navy.
The DC-9-30 established a broad worldoperating base, although the bulk have
been operated by a few large carriers. The
DC-9-30 is considered the standard DC9, a balance of capacity, runway

performance and range being the right

one for most operators in the United
States and Europe.

DC-94 0
Another upgrade in the family, the DC9-40, was developed in response to
SAS's need for a short-range aircraft
with more capacity on busier routes.
The Series 40 incorporates a modest 6ft
4in (1.87m) fuselage stretch over the
DC-9-30, raising single-class capacity to
125-L28, by two additional rows of five
seats. With the higher capacity,
however, the Series 40 has less range
than its shorter siblings.

DC-9-40 vs. DC-9-10

The DC-9-30 is powered by ever-morepowerful models of the JT8D engine: the

JT8D-9A, with 14,5001b (6,600kg) of
thrust, the JT8D-11 with L5,0001b
(6,800kg) of thrust, the ]T8D-15 with
15,500lb (7,000kg) of thrust and the ]T8D17 with 16,0001b (7,250kg) of thrust

Length
Capacity

DC-9-40
125ft 7in (38.28m)

DC-9-10
104 fe 5in (31.82m)

125
1,790 miles (2,880km)

70-90
1,923 miles (3,095km)

Range
Empty Weight

58,670lb (26,612kg)

49,0001b (22,635kg)

Wingspan

93ft 5in (28.5m)

89 ft 5in (27.25m)

53

EVOLUTION OF THE FAMILY

EVOLUTION OF THE FAMILY

SAS: loyal Douglas Customer

EVOLUTION OF THE DC-9

BASIC WING

cd

DC-9-10

.:
:

BASIC FUSELAGE

/.

oooooooaoooooo@oooooooooo

104.4 FT
(31.8 m)

.:~

}\:;'-- .

.1

89.4 FT
(27.2 m)

,.

': i
'''~
;.:

~~

,I

-------------------------------------------------..---......_-....

---~.--------------------._'--

SAME AS DC-9-10

0000000000000080000000000

DC-9-20

HIGH-LIFT WING

179-IN. FUSELAGE EXTENSION

(455 em)

n
~

:.:.:.:.;. oooooa@c@oooooooC+
~..---c _
~._:.

ooooooo~oW

,C

255-IN. FUSELAGE EXTENSION

(648 em)

Q
o

.o . .

~itmJ ~~o~,

__

.1

93.3 FT
(28.5 m)

3'"-"\

350-IN. FUSELAGE EXTENSION

(889 em)
,-, :"G
l.J

'.'')~~~~~

.l .....

.~:~:r:}~:~:}~

IMPROVED HIGH-LIFT WING

DC-9 SUPER 80
522-IN. FUSELAGE EXTENSION
(1326 em)

,
\,
""
"
""

,"

~~~;\~~--.~~
_____
~

I
54

I~

'-,

~I

..'

107.8 FT
(32.9 m)

For more than fifty years SAS, the national airline of

Denmark, Sweden and Norway, preferred Douglas aircraft. With the exception of the DC-5, the airline flew
all types, from the DC-3 to the DC-1 O. As a loyal customer, SAS (Scandinavian Airline Systeml had a
strong influence in the 1950s and 1960s on the development of new aircraft. As a result, four models were
specifically designed for the Nordic airline - two DC-8
models, the DC-8-62 and the DC-8-63, and two DC-9
variants, the OC-9-20 and OC-9-40.
The OC-9-20 and OC-9-40 were intended to succeed the first-generation Caravel Ie on SAS's European
network and the Convair 440 Metropolitan propliner
on domestic routes within the three Scandinavian
countries. SAS ordered ten OC-9-20s in December
1966. The Series 20 was designed for the special
operational requirements of SAS, to cope with small
runways and harsh conditions at smaller domestic airports. It combined the short fuselage of the OC-9-1 0
and the larger, high-lift wings and more-powerful
engines of the OC-9-30. The result was an aircraft
with remarkable flying characteristics and performance ideal for short runways.
SAS also was successful in persuading Douglas to
produce the larger OC-9-40. When SAS ordered these
models, it did so because capacity, rather than range
capability, was a concern. Having made this point to
Douglas earlier, an order was placed because no
other short-range aircraft with the same capacity as
the OC-9-40 was available for delivery within three
years. Another factor influencing the choice of OC-9s
was that Swissair ordered twelve, and both airlines
worked closely together through operational agreements. SAS ultimately increased its OC-9-40 order to
sixteen.
SAS used its versatile OC-9 on European segments, from the Norwegian polar island of Svalbard,
the northern-most civil airport in the world, to southern Europe and the Middle East. In the 1970s, SAS
operated the largest fleet of OC-9s outside the United
States Up to sixty OC-9-40, -33AF freighters and OC9-20 variants flew in SAS colours. SAS later added
the OC-9-30 and larger Series 50, MO-80 and MO-90
models to its fleet.

The DC-9-40 made its maiden flight on

28 November 1967, entering service with
SAS on 12 March 1968 following
certification on 27 February. The DC9
40 features JT8D.9, JT8D.15 or JT8D.17
engines. Apart from the fuselage stretch
and more powerful engine options, the
DC9-40 is quite similar to the Series 30,
using the same wing but offering
additional fuel capacity.
-.eventyone DC;,2..1QLwere built from
1972 to 1975, for just two customers, SAS
and TOA of Japan. The aircraft later
Opposite: The family's fuselage extension is shown
in this drawing. Boeing

DC-9-20 vs, DC-9-10

Length
Capacity

DC920
104ft Sin (31.82m)

DC910
104ft Sin (31.82m)

7090
1,848 miles (2,974km)

70-90
1,923 miles (3,09Skm)

Range
Empty Weight

52,880lb (23,985kg)

49,OOOlb (22,635kg)

Wingspan

93ft 5in (28.5m)

89ft 5in (27.25m)

found their way into the fleets of Finnair,

Northwest Airlines and other carriers.

DC-9-20
The fourth DC9 model to enter service
(although the second numerically) was
the DC920, a combination of the earlier
Series 10 and 30 aircraft. This aircraFt first
flew on 18 September 1968, and was
primarily designed for short routes, and for
operations out of airports with short
runways requiring optimum hotandhigh
takeoff and landing performance.
The DC-920 was designed at the
request of one airline, SAS. This model
combined the original short fuselage of the
DC910 with the longer and more
advanced wing found on the Series 30,
powered by a pair of morepowerful JT8D
II engines. Just ten were builS for SAS.
The first Series 20 model entered service
on 23 January 1969 after certification on
11 December 1968. Its short body and large
wing spawned a nickname for this version:
the Sporr. SAS flew its last DC-920 on 15
December 2000, although a few of the
former SAS types carryon with small
carriers in the United States and AFrica.

DC-9-50
The Final model in the original DC-9
family was the DC950, the largest
aircraft to bear the 'DC9' designation.
It included an additional 8ft (2.4m)
stretch over the DC-940, making it 14ft
3in (4.3m) longer than the DC-930,
with seating increased to 139, Fourteen
more than the Series 40 and twentyfour
more than the Series 30. Its total length
measured 133ft 7in (40.72m).

Douglas ~~tXsix Series 5Qs from

1975 to 1981, most of which are still in
service with a dozen airlines. Over the
years, DC9 50s flew wi th Eastern
Airlines, Northwest Airlines, Swissair,
SAS, TWA, Hawaiian Airlines, Finnair
and other carriers.
Announced on 5 July 1973, the DC-9
50 flew for the first time on 17 December
1974, countering competition from the
Boeing 737200 ADV, an advanced model
with bener performance. The Series 50
entered service with Swissair on 15
August 1975, a month behind schedule
because of the effects of a prolonged
labour strike earlier that year at
McDonnell Douglas. The official type
certificate was awarded four days earlier
after a sevenmonth flight development
programme involving 570 hours of flight
testing with two aircraft.
Seven airlines - Swissair, Austrian,
Finnair, Spantax, Hawaiian, Egyptair and
Allegheny - ordered thirtyfour DC950s
at the time of the first flight. The Series
50, introduced in a white and blue paint
scheme with a gold and blue stripe
extending the length of its fuselage, was
the First aircraft to be equipped with the
more powerFul JT8D17 engines, each
producing 16,0001b (7,250kg) of takeoff
thrust.
McDonnell Douglas touted the model's
operating efficiency and environmental
improvements, along with its passenger
comfort and additional capacity. 'The
reliability, comfort and performance
excellence for which the DC9 family of
twinjets is so well known will be
continued by the Series 50,' Jackson
McGowan, president of the Douglas
division of McDonnell Douglas, said in a

DC950 vs. DC910

DC9-S0
133ft 7in (40. 72m)

Length
Capacity
Range

139
2,067 miles (3,326km)

Empty Weight

52,8801b (23,985kg)

Wingspan

93ft 5in (28.5m)

55

DC910
104ft 5in (31.82m)
70..90
1,923 miles (3,095km)
49,OOOIb (22,635kg)
89ft 5in (27.25m)

EVOLUTION OF THE FAMILY

EVOLUTION OF THE FAMILY

DC-9-30 TYPICAL ARRANGEMENTS

OJ

g~
It"
-~

Above: The DC-9-30 was the second member of the

DC-9 family. Boeing

~"

Opposite: Typical seating arrangements in the

DC-9-30. Boeing

, n,

119 Single Class

29-,30-, and 31-ln. Pitch

115 Single Cia..

32-ln. Pitch

56

97 Mixed Cia..
12 First Cia..
38-ln. Pitch
85 Coach Cia..
34-ln. Pitch

company announcement. 'This new

version is designed for those short-tomedium-range routes where traffic is
increasing but has not yet reached a
volume requiring wide-cabin jetliner
service. '
In addition to a longer fuselage and
improved engines, another change was
the add i tion of small strakes on the
forward fuselage. Unique among subsonic
airliners, the stl"akes - long, thin pieces
that protrude from the fuselage below the
cockpit windows - were needed to
improve stability at low speeds given the
ai rcraft's
longer
fuselage.
Other
improvements in the Series 50 included
new landing gear and upgraded anti-skid
braking system.
The DC-9-50 was also different from
the inside. A new-look interior patterned after its widebody cousin, the
DC-la, which was entering service
around the same time - included new
overhead luggage racks, sculptured wall

Models That Never Made It

In 1977 McDonnell Douglas designed a short-field version of the OC-9-20 to meet a growing requirement
from Japan's domestic carriers for an aircraft that
could serve lower-density domestic routes. Although it
never entered service, this lighter-weight version of the
Series 20 was configured to carry between eighty-five
and ninety-five passengers. In addition to its lower
operating weight and higher-thrust engines, the OC-922 design configuration had extra wing spoilers, oversized low-pressure tyres and a modified centre of gravity that would permit a lower approach speed. These
features were aimed at adapting the aircraft for operations from the short - slightly under 4,OOOft (1,200m)runways at some Japanese domestic airports; strips
that were used during World War II but could not be
expanded. The Series 22 would have incorporated the
cockpit and cabin configuration of the OC-9-40.
The OC-9-22 was aimed at the same market the
company was trying to satisfy with its proposed (but
never built) OC-9-QSF (quiet short field). Airframe
changes to this paper plane included 500lb (227kg) less
weight than the standard Series 20 with the removal of
the ventral stairway and the addition of athird set of
inboard spoilers that help to shorten the -22's landing
rollout. The original OC-9 design has three spoilers on
each wing, but the inboard panels were eliminated
when it was determined that the two outboard sets
could meet the OC-9's field requirements. Also incorporated on the proposed OC-9-22 was an advanced antiskid system, higher-thrust JTBO-15 or -17 engines,

57

oversized low-pressure tyres to reduce the landing

gear footprint, and all design improvements developed
for the OC-9 over a decade.
The OC-9-QSF, proposed under a NASA study, was
never economically feasible because it would have
required new engines to reduce noise, a move that
would have added millions of dollars to the cost of
each aircraft. At the time no US operators had a need
for the proposed aircraft since existing powerplants
were already meeting noise requirements. The QSF
model was pitched to Japanese customers. Airlines
there were looking to replace their fleets of Nihon YS11 twin turboprops. The 12B-passenger QSF, based on
the OC-9-40, would have been capable of operating
from Japan's numerous short runways. Modifications
that would have been added to the QSF model include
leading-edge variable flaps, extended trailing-edge
flaps, additional spoilers, 2ft (61cm) wingtip extensions
and more advanced JTBO-200 engines (which ended up
debuting on the developing MO-BO series). A higher
flotation landing gear also was offered as an optional
feature to meet the low load-classification of Japanese domestic runways. Another idea was low-pressure
tyres, at 95-1 OOpsi compared to 130-135psi on standard OC-9 tyres. The automatic braking system, the
nosewheel brakes and a new anti-skid system introduced on the OC-9-50 were all envisioned in the model
to shorten the landing roll. While Douglas focused on
Japan, it also marketed the QSF in other parts of the
world, ultimately without success.

EVOLUTION OF THE FAMILY

EVOLUTION OF THE FAMILY

Left: A comparison of the DC-9-10 and DC-9-30

wing design. Boeing

Opposite top: Delta Air lines. the launch carrier for

the DC-9-10. also flew the Series 30. Boeing

Opposite bottom: The DC-9s were produced at the

same long Beach factory as the DC-B. Here DC-9-

~
1. . . . -

C)

Eo

\.....-r"

p...

...

30s on the assembly line with DC-Bs in the

background. Boeing

Below: At the model's peak. Douglas was producing

more than 200 DC-9-30s a year. Boeing

58

59

A.\

\.....\~e..s

,.

~~~

EVOLUTION OF THE FAMILY

EVOLUTION OF THE FAMILY

Eastern Airlines was a major operator of the DC-9-30. Boeing

An Eastern Airlines DC-9-30, seen during flight
testing. Boeing

An Aeromexico DC-9-30 on the flight line in Long Beach. Like its predecessor, the Series 30 is well suited for servicing airports
with little ground support. Boeing

60

panels, acoustically treated ceiling panels,

soft indirect lighting, and use of advanced
II1terior finish materials also developed for
the DC-lO.
The flight-deck layout on the DC-9-50
IS similar to the DC-9-30, so crews can fly
hoth types. On the other hand, benefiting
from its experience in developing the
family over the years, McDonnell Douglas
made improvements to such components
,IS the autopilot and weather radar. The
model was also upgraded with an
automatic engine-synchronization system
to match turbine rotation speeds, and an
air data system to alert the crew of preselected altitudes.
The DC-9-50's first flight occurred one
week after its rollout. Lasting five hours
and ten minutes, the aircraft flew over the
Pacific Ocean and parts of California and
Arizona at an altitude of up to 35,OOOft
(IO,600m) to check on the performance
and control characteristics of the engines,
autopilot and major systems. The fl igh t
took
place
on
the
seventy-fi rst
anniversary of the Wright Brothers' first
flight. (Their aircraft flew less than the
distance covered by the Series 50's
fuselage.)

DC-9 Milestones
15 February 1963
8 April 1963
25 April 1963
1July 1963
18 July 1963
26 July 1963
20 August 1963
22 November 1963
10 January 1964
6 March 1964
13 May 1964
20 July 1964
24 July 1964
4 September 1964
14 October 1964
5 November 1964
12 January 1965
25 February 1965
18 September 1965
23 November 1965
8 December 1965
1August 1966
13 January 1967
1 February 1967
28 November 1967
12 March 1968
18 September 1968
23 January 1969
5July 1973
17 December 1974
15 August 1975
28 October 1982

Douglas Aircrah Board of Directors authorizes start of detail engineering

Douglas announces decision to produce DC-9
Delta Air Lines orders fiheen, options fifteen
Bonanza Airlines orders three, options three
Completion of wind-tunnel tests for initial configuration
Production under way in Long Beach plant - first spar cap milled
Design finalized for two-person cockpit
Air Canada orders six
Assembly of first wing begins at de Havilland Canada.
Assembly of first fuselage begins at Long Beach
Swissair orders ten
Trans World Airlines orders twenty, options twenty
Assembly of first DC-9 fuselage passes halfway point
First wing arrives in Long Beach
Wing and fuselage joined for first DC9
Hawaiian orders two
First DC-9 rolled out in public ceremony
First flight of DC-9-10
First delivery of DC-9 to Delta Air Lines
FAA certification of DC-9-1 0
First revenue flight with Delta Air Lines
First flight of DC-9-30
Douglas and McDonnell merge
DC-9-30 enters service
DC-9-40 first flight
DC-9-40 enters service
DC-9-20 first flight
DC-9-20 enters service
DC-9-50 announced
DC-9-50 first flight
DC-9-50 enters service
Final DC-9 (C-9B) delivered to US Navy

61

EVOLUTION OF THE FAMILY

~ . iii

EVOLUTION OF THE FAMILY

~~LAS
,

DC-9-40

----~-

",

"",.

--

"..,..,..,..

-~

_ __

_..

The DC-9-40, first produced for SAS and Japan's lOA, features a fuselage 6ft 4in (1.87m) longer than the DC-9-30. Boeing

Perhaps the type's best selling points

were its more environmentally friendly
engines and better per-seat economics.
The DC-9-50 was known as the 'inflation
fighter'
for
its
favourable
fuel
consumption and relatively low operating
costs. Its JT8D-15 or -17 engines gave the
Series 50 the honour of being the quietest
member of the family, with sound
absorption material in the engines and
nacelles also found on the DC-lO. Its
ability to perform quieter takeoffs
benefited airport neighbours - and was a
prime reason Swissair chose the model.
With its extra capacity and lower breakeven costs, the DC-9-50 offers economic
advantages over earlier models of the DC-9,
particularly on high-density routes. Seatmile costs (the cost of operating a flight, per
seat and per mile flown) were calculated to
be about 15 per cent lower than those on
the Series 30, although payload and range
suffered in summer conditions or at highaltitude airports. Another saving came from
the DC-9-50 having a high degree of
commonality with the systems and
components of earlier DC-9s.

The DC-9-40 with another famous long Beach resident, the Queen Mary. Boeing

62

The DC-9-40 offered additional capacity for busier routes. Just seventy-one of the models were built
between 1972 and 1975. Boeing

The Series 50's largest downfall, perhaps,

was that it had the same engines that
powered shorter DC-9s, giving it the
impression that it was underpowered.
There was talk in the 1980s of improving
its performance by re-equipping with the
JT8D-200 series engines that went on to
power the DC-9-50's successor, the MD-80
series, but those engines were just too big
to be considered, and would have imposed
serious weight and balance problems. Also
considered for an engine replacement on
the family was the Rolls-Royce Tay 670,
but
that
programme
also
never
materialized because it would have meant a
competitor for the Fokker 100, a twinjet
that entered service in 1987 with Rolls
engines. Despite their improvements, the
DC-9-40 and -50 models sold only
modestly before the arrival of the further
stretched MD-80 series.
Nevertheless, nearly forty years after
beginning operations and two decades
after the final DC-9 rolled off the

63

assembly line, the DC-9 family today

remains a mainstay for dozens of airlines
around the world, still building a
worldwide reputation for reliability and
durability unmatched by any other
aircraft model. Today, the worldwide
fleet makes more than 3,500 flights per
day, with each aircraft averaging more
than five hours of revenue service daily.
Over the years, DC-9 aircraft have flown
some sixty million hours of revenue
service.
The economics of the DC-9, in
addition to the model's reliability, is the
main reason why so many are still in
service today. Flying seven hours per day
with a 60 per cent average load factor, the
DC-9 could pay for itself, including spare
parts, in about four years from passenger
revenues alone. This is why several
airlines, with plenty of DC-9s already paid
for, will continue flying the model despite
the lure of newer aircraft and escalating
fuel prices.

EVOLUTION OF THE FAMILY

EVOLUTION OF THE FAMILY

...,

Ser/es 2 0

C's

...

.~---

The DC-9-20. produced at the request of SAS. combines the fuselage of the DC-9-10 with the high-lift wing found on the DC-9-30 and the more-powerful JT8D
engines found on the DC-9-40. It is shown here during a test flight. Boeing

A total of976 DC-9s were built between

1964 and 1982. Today more than half of
the DC-9s delivered remain operational,
thanks in part to hush kits - mufflers for
engines - to meet noise regulations, further
extending the life of a venerable model.
The final DC-9, a C-9B military variant,
was delivered to the US Navy on October
28, 1982.

Improvements and Upgrades

Over the years, the DC-9 underwent
hundreds of improvements designed to
extend the life of the aircraft and make it
more efficient. From new cabins to
cockpit upgrades, DC-9s operating today
are greatly different to the ones that first
entered service in the 1960s.
To keep its DC-9 fleet competitive with
newer aircraft such as the Airbus Industrie
A320 family and Boeing 737s, operators
have spent millions of dollars on installing
noise suppression systems in the cabin

A Series 40 undergoing final assembly. Boeing

alone. Noise in the cabin was among the

earliest complaints about the DC-9 but
technology, developed long after the aircraft
debuted, has helped to alleviate those
concerns.
Upgrade programmes have included
new avionics systems, weather radar,
navigation and communication systems,
structural modifications, interior refurbishment and exterior paint. Other
modern marvels, including windshear
detection and global positioning, have
been added to many DC-9s.
Although supplanted by the MD-80
series, a large number of DC-9s remain in
service in 2002, with more than sixty
operators, almost three-quarters of them in
North America. While many are being
retired (particularly after the industry
turmoil following the terrorist attacks of II
September 200 I) or replaced with newer,
more fuel-efficient aircraft, others continue
to be attractive to airlines around the world.

64

The decision to retire additional DC-9s

will be made by economics and not
technical considerations, since the DC-9
fuselage can withstand 140,000 or more
cycles before encountering structural
problems, although regulatory agencies
are becoming increasingly stricter with
older high-time aircraft.
As the original DC-9 family ages and the
total number of operating cycles increases,
several issues have been identified related
to fatigue:

-II

Cracked bulkheads
Cracks in emergency doors
Cracks in main landing-gear fitting
Skin cracks on tail
Rudder skin cracks
Corrosion
Belly skin cracks

The number of DC-9s ordered - and still

in service - is a testament to the attractive

-The DC-9-50. the last member of the original DC-9 family, was rolled out in December 1974. Boeing

65

EVOLUTION OF THE FAMILY

EVOLUTION OF THE FAMILY

Family at a Glance
OC-9-10
OC-9-20
OC-9-30
OC-9-40
OC-9-50
MO-Sl
MO-S2
MO-S3
MO-S7
MO-SS
MO-90
717

".,

First production model

Combination of OC-9-1 0 fuselage and OC-9
30 wing
Fuselage stretch, longer wing
Fuselage stretch, more powerful JTSO
engines
Fuselage stretch, more powerful JTSO
engines
Fuselage stretch, wingspan increase, JTSO200 engines
More powerful JTSO-200 engines
Version for hot and high performance
Fuselage shrink
New avionics
Fuselage stretch, V2500 engines
New avionics, interior, BR7l5 engines

.
The DC-9-50 cabin, patterned after the widebody
DC-1O, features recessed indirect-lighting, broad
flat ceiling panels, and sidewall panels restyled to
emphasize cabin width. Boeing

The Series 50, seen here on its first flight on December 171974, is 14ft (4.3mllonger than the DC-9-30, providing for a capacity of up to 139 passengers.
The first flight lasted more than five hours. Boeing

~/,

NSll"~1
".

"c;:;:o"

The Series 50 seen during a test flight. The model was dubbed the 'inflation fighter' for its fuel efficiency at a time of rising fuel costs. Boeing

66

The DC-9-50 is equipped with JT8D-17 engines featuring sound-absorbent material in the nacelles and
engines to reduce noise levels during takeoff. Boeing

67

operating economics of the type. Douglas

and McDonnell Douglas were able to offer
a family of aircraft flexible enough to
meet the varying demands of the
operators. The DC-9-30, in particular, has
managed to retain high values due to their
excellent
operating
characteristics.
Although originally purchased in large
numbers by major American carriers,
fledgling and expanding operators
throughout the world have created a
substantial demand for the type over the
years, reflecting their low cost relative to
new aircraft and their ability to provide
flexibility in terms of capacity and range.
The
DC-9,
even
without
the
succeeding MD-80 series, can certainly
be considered an enormous success in
terms of airframe manufacturing. Only
the Boeing 737 and 727 surpassed the
original DC-9s in terms of numbers
(including the MD-80 series, the DC-9 is
second after the 737). The number of
aircraft still in service, the extensive
0rerator base, combined with the
orerating economics of the aircraft and
relatively low acquisition costs compared
to new aircraft, are likely to keep DC-9s
flying for years to come. Although DC-9s
were fitted with hush kits during the late
1990s to meet Stage Three noise
requirements, their retirement may be
speeded up should a more stringent
regulation, Stage Four, take effect, or if
fuel prices are too much for the old
engines.

THE FAMILY GROWS: THE MD-80 SERIES

Specifications - MD-80 series

CHAPTER FIVE
Powerplant
MO-81: Two 19,2301b (8,700kg) Pratt & Whitney JT80-209
MO-82: Two 20.8901b (9,500kg) Pratt & Whitney JT80-217 A/C
MO-83 and MO-88: Two 21 ,6901b (9,840kg) Pratt & Whitney JT80-219
MO-87: Two 20,8301b (9,450kg) Pratt & Whitney JT80-217B/C or -219

The FaDlily Grows:

The MD-80 Series

Weights:
Empty 77,888Ib (35,885kg) (MO-81); 77,9761b (35,369kgl (MO-82, -88); 85,4891b (38,737kg) (MO-83); 73,2741b (33,237kg) (MO-87)
Gross 140.0001b (63,505kg) (MO-81, MO-871; 149,5001b (67,810kg) (MO-81 with JT80-217A engines, MO-82, MO-88!; 160,0001b (72.575kg) (MO-83)
Maximum landing 128,0001b (58,060kg) (MO-81, MO-87); 130,0001b (58,965kg) (MO-82, MO-88); 139,5001b (63,275kgl (MO-83)
Dimensions:
Length 147ft lOin (45.1ml (MO-81, -82, -83, -88); 130ft 4in (39.76m) (MO-87); height 29ft 7in (9.02m); 30ft 4in (9.3m) (MO-87); wingspan 107ft lOin (32.87m); wing area 1.209sq ft
(112.3sq m); fuselage diameter 11 ft lOin (361 m); tailwing span 40ft 2in (12.24m); tailwing area 314sq ft (29.17sq m)

With more efficient engine technology

becoming available in the mid-1970s and
a growing demand for more fuel-efficient
and quieter commercial jets, McDonnell
Douglas - seven years before the last of
the origi nal DC-9s rolled off the
production line - announced it would
extend the DC-9 family to an entirely
new, yet related, line of aircraft: the Super
80 series.
Officially known as the DC-9-80, the
family would be popularly known as the
MD-80 series, consisting of five models
that, like the original DC-9, offered
various weights, ranges and passenger
capacities to accommodate the needs of
airlines. In addition to new Pratt &
Whitney ]T8D-200 series engines, among
the improvements in this modernized
DC-9 were bigger wings, a longer fuselage,
advanced avionics and a new, more
modern interior, providing the already
successful aircraft family with an even
more promising future.
The MD-80 line combines newer
technology with proven features of the
DC-9 family, proViding performance
characteristics designed to meet the
demands of a new decade in terms of
economics, operations, environment and
regulatory needs. Like the DC-9, it was
designed as a short-haul airliner, but its
added enhancements gave the MD-80
series the ability to cover longer, mediumrange routes.
The MD-80 series developed over
two decades of production to comprise
the MD-81, MD-82, MD-83, MD-87
and MD-88. This line would go on to
outsell the original DC-9 series, and
together they gave McDonnell Douglas
the honour of producing the second
most popular modern-day aircraft
fam il y.

DC-9 SUPER 80 TYPICAL ARRANGEMENTS

Performance:
Cruising speed 504mph (813km/h) or Mach 0.76; landing speed 139mph (224 km/h)
Ceiling 37.000 feet (11 ,275m)
Range 1,800 miles (2,897km) (MO-81); 2,360 miles (3,798km) (MO-82, MO-88); 2,880 miles (4,635km) (MO-83!; 2,730 miles (4,393 km) (MO-87)
Takeoff 7,250ft (2,21 Om) (MO-81); 7,450ft (2,270m) (MO-82); 8,375ft (2,552m) (MO-83); 6,1 OOft (1 ,859m) (MO-87)
Landing 4,850ft (1 ,478m) (MO-81); 4,920ft (1 ,500m) (MO-82); 4,690ft (1.585m) (MO-83); 4,690ft (1 ,429m) (MO-871
Passenger capacity:
One class 172 (MO-81I; 172 (MO-82);172 (MO-83); 139 (MO-87); 172 (MO-88)
Two class 155 (MO-81); 153 (MO-82); 155 (MO-83); 130 (MO-87); 153 (MO-88)
Cabin:
Width 10ft 4in (314m); height 6ft 9in (2.06m)
Fuel capacity:
5,840USgal. (22,1061) (MO-81, MO-82, MO-87, MO-88); 7,000USgal. (26,4951) (MO-83, MO-87 with auxiliary fuel tanks)
Payload:
40, 1121b (18, 194kg) (MO-81); 44,0241b (19,969kg) (MO-82, -88); 42,3141b (19, 193kg) (MO-831; 38.3761b (17,566kg) (MO-871

Design and Development

~

155 Single CUI

31 to 33.10. Pitch

172 Single Class

30"0_ Pitch

147 Mixed

135 Coadl
32 and

Various seating arrangements in the MD-81.

8.2

Boeing

68

a ..

12 First Class
3610. Pitdl

aa.

33~ln.

Pitdt

Like all successful products, the MD-80

series fulfilled a need in the marketplace. In
this case the need was brought on by rising
fuel costs and pressure from airport
neighbours
and
environmentalists,
particularly in Europe and the United
States, to reduce pollution and aircraft
noise. With new, more fuel-efficient engine
technology available, McDonnell Douglas
moved quickly to offer airlines a new option.
It was during the throes of recession in
December 1975 that the company
announced it was proceeding with a new
DC-9 design. Company officials felt that,
since it would be the first new jetliner
built by the combined McDonnell
Douglas, it deserved a new designation as
well. As a result, the familiar DC-9
moniker was changed to the more
descriptive MD-80 (for McDonnell
Douglas) series. It was marketed as the
'Super 80' to reflect the planned inservice date of 1980.

Prior to its well-known MD-80 name,

early design configurations for the type
were known, at various times, as the DC-960, DC-9-55, DC-9-55RSS (Re-fanned
Super Stretch) before the DC-9-80, which
was formally launched in 1977. The Super
80 began showing up in company
marketing brochures in 1976, along with a
proposed model powered by standard ]T8D
engines and one with the CFM56 engine,
then a new entrant in the medium-sized
aircraft market. Noise considerations ruled
out the standard-engine option, and airline
wariness of the unproven CFM56
eliminated that version from consideration.
The focus then turned to the Pratt &
Whitney ]T8D-200 engine, which was
being tested as part of a US governmentfunded project to re-engine existing aircraft
to reduce aircraft noise. By the end of 1976
discussions were under way with long-time
customer Swissair on a stretched DC-9 that
would be powered by the enhanced, more
efficient, higher bypass-ratio engines.

69

Frustrated with the lack of success of

the DC-9-50, the last member of the
original DC-9 family, McDonnell Douglas
was hopeful that a new but similar aircraft
would win over both current customers
and potential new ones. With standard
engines and an unmodified Series 30
wing, the DC-9-50 did not sell enough
units to make a return for the company. It
also failed to make environmental
inroads. Swissair, for example, ran into
serious community-relations problems
around its home airports when it became
clear the -50 was noisier than even the
carrier's DC-9-30s. Protests against the
Series 50 were sufficient to end additional
purchases and lead McDonnell Douglas to
continue work on a successor. In addition,
Swissair and other customers were looking
for a higher-capacity, longer-range airl iner
with the DC-9's formula for success.
Swissair had two alternatives: buy
additional DC-9-50s (economically sound
but environmentally risky) or press for a

THE FAMILY GROWS: THE MD-80 SERIES

THE FAMILY GROWS: THE MD-80 SERIES

The DC-9 re-fan project tested the JT8D-200 series

engine on the DC-9-30 fuselage. Boeing

new and more expensive DC-9 with new

engines. In order to maximize the
operating costs of the MD-80 series,
fifteen additional seats were added to the
DC-9-50 design, leading to a fuselage
stretch. The larger wing - needed to
achieve desirable flight characteristics also meant an increase in the aircraft's
weight. These innovations led to an
aircraft that had the same operating costs

as the DC-9-50 but used less fuel, could

carry more passengers and was quieter.
Swissair was convinced that this
aircraft would be ideal for its fleet,
despite a 33 per cent higher acquisition
cost. The company's then-president,
Armin Baltensweiler, visited McDonnell
Douglas in January 1977 to plead the

case for a new aircraft and, on 19

October 1977, McDonnell Douglas
finally decided to go ahead, following
Swissair's decision, on 29 September
1977, to sign a contract for fifteen units.
(Swissair, a loyal European customer, was
the first airline in Europe to operate the
DC-IO and also operated the DC-9-30, 40 and -50 models as well.) In a way, an
airline had to convince McDonnell
Douglas to build an aircraft - as opposed
to the usual practice of aircraft
manufacturers marketing to airlines.
The first model of this new series, the
DC-9-81 (MD-81 as it's commonly
known) is the sixth member of the DC9 family. McDonnell Douglas evaluated
a range of DC-9 derivatives prior to
settling on the final design. The
model's earliest prototype featured a
DC-9-30 fitted with JT8D-200 engines.
Another, the DC-9-55, used the same
engine with a 12ft 8in (3.86m)
stretched fuselage over the DC-9-50.
Yet another included a DC-9-30 with
an all-new wing, but that option was
rejected as being too expensive and
inefficient to develop.

The MD-80 series has a unique shape. Chris Coduto

A small team of design engineers spent

several
months
studying
possible
configurations for the Super 80 before
concluding that a 14ft 3in (4.36m)
fuselage stretch was optimum for the
market needs and would lower direct
operating costs. (The MD-80 could have
been stretched even further - by six feet,
or 1.83m, to accommodate ten additional
passengers. )
Takeoff gross weight had to be higher
than earlier DC-9 models to give the
aircraft - nearly the size of the Boeing 72 7
- the desired range with increased
payload. Douglas engineers acknowledged
early in the design process that a new
wing would be required. Later, the team
concluded that extending the wing root
and tip of the wing used on the DC-9-30
and -50, with improvements to the
existing high lift system, would provide
the
increased
fuel
capacity and
performance they were seeking.
It quickly became clear that the Super
80 was more than a simple rework of the
DC-9. It would be the biggest project in

--

70

Long Beach since the DC-I O. McDonnell

Douglas corporate headquarters in St
Louis was cautious of moving ahead with
a new model, perhaps because of the DC9-50's lack of success but also because of
Boeing's cancellation in 1975 of the 727300, a new version of the 72 7 that
eventually spawned an all-new aircraft,
the 757. The 727-300 was technically
comparable with the DC-9-55 prototype,
and Boeing had decided that the
technology level of the aircraft was not
high enough to offer a large long-term
market. British Aerospace also had
dropped its proposed re-engined BAC 111-700.
The key to the break-even point on the
latest DC-9 model was the US regional
market, and the company insisted on an
order from a US carrier before it would go
ahead with the programme, which it
marketed to fifty-two existing DC-9
operators.
The initial response from airlines was
lukewarm, and the redesigned Super 80
was formally launched with just twenty-

77

An interior view of the MD-80 series. Boeing

seven firm orders, nine options and a

letter of intent for three models from a
total of just four airlines. Swissair, which
took the lead in urging production of the
aircraft model, placed orders for fifteen
and options for five. Austrian Airlines,
which had a partnership with Swissair,
ordered eight and took options for four,
while Southern Airways (to become
Republic Airlines upon delivery) ordered
four. In addition, the letter of intent for
three aircraft came from Venezuela's
Linea Aeropostal Venezolan.
At the time, McDonnell Douglas
forecast a market for 430 of the type by
1990 - in reality, 682 were delivered by
then - and an overall market potential of
800. To the company's surprise, a total of
1,191 MD-80 series aircraft were
produced for sixty-nine airlines over
twenty-one years. Except for a few
involved in accidents and a smattering of
early retirements, all continue in service
to this day.

THE FAMILY GROWS: THE MD-80 SERIES

McDonnell Douglas leaders promised

customers the Super 80 would help ease
critical environmental, economic and
energy problems facing airlines at the
time. They boasted the new DC-9 model
would have the lowest operating costs of
any aircraft in its class, with fuel
consumption the lowest for any existing
commercial jet. With its new engines, the
aircraft was touted to be only half as loud
as rlanes powered by original JT8D
engines.
About 1,800 employees worked on the
design, test flight and manufacturing
planning stages of the MD-80 rrogramme,
with thousands more later on the
production end. MD-80 develorment cost
McDonnell Douglas $800 million in late1970s dollars, and the comrany estimated
at the time that it would reach
profitability with delivery of the 100th
aircraft.
Joe Callaghan, a thirty-four-year
Douglas veteran, was the chief design
engi neer for the M D-80 after iI' en tered
service, and was general manager of
engineering for rhe entire twinjet line

THE FAMILY GROWS: THE MD-80 SERIES

The Super 80 first took flight in wind tunnels. where

its final shape was tested for aerodynamic
performance. Boeing

before his retirement. He says the key to

produci ng the M D-80 series was the more
advanced engine technology:
Improved engines helped ro conquer rlVo key
issues: fuel efficiency and airport noise. The
MD-80 had the distinction ar rhe rime as being
rhe mosr fuel-efficient and quieresr aircraft in
irs class. Another factor thar led ro rhe MD-80
lVas rhe need to carry more passengers. Bener
engines mean ir could carry more people.

The Super 80 forced rivals Boeing,

Lockheed and Airbus to galvanize their
plans for future aeroplanes. Not only did
the Super 80 steal a jump on newgeneration rlanes, it also posed a real
threat to booming sales of the 727-200,
rhen the industry's hottest-selling aircraft.
A combination of escalating development
costs and the limited financial resources
available to airline customers compelled
McDonnell Douglas to concentrate on
develoring a derivative that drew
maximum performance gains from rroven
designs.
Developments thaI' led from rhe DC-950 to the Super 80 were so extensive it
may as well be considered a new aircraft.
It was the fourth stretch in the DC-9
family, but the first time an advancedgeneration powerplant was added as rart
o( the derivative formula. Adarting the
JT8D-209 engines, each rated at 18,5001b
(8,400kg) of thrust, made it possible to
stretch the Super 80 and meet the
stringent noise regulations and fuel
efficiency requirements of the I980s.
McDonnell
Douglas
engineers
considered several fuselage lengths and
seati ng caraci ties before sett! ing on the
rresent configuration when marketing
studies indicated it had the widest arpeal
An aircraft throttle. mounted on a pedestal. was
used as a signal to open assembly-building doors
to unveil the first two Super 80s. Grasping the
throttles were (from left) John Brizendine. thenpresident of the Douglas Aircraft division of
McDonnell Douglas. Hubert Papousek and Anton
Heschgl of Austrian Airlines. Armin BaltensweiJer.
then-president of Swissair. and Sanford McDonnell.
then-president of McDonnell Douglas. Swissair
and Austrian Airlines were the first to order the
newest version of the DC-9. Boeing

72

among the world's airlines. The baseline

DC-9-80 model, the DC-9-81 (known as
rhe M D-81 for the year i I' entered
service), has an overall length of 147ft
lOin (45.1m) - 45ft Sin (13.7m) longer
rhan the original Series 10 and 14ft 3in
(4.3m) longer than the DC-9-50.
Maximum cabin capacity in the MD-80
series is 172 passengers in a one-class
seating arrangement. The standard cabin
layout accommodates 137 people in two
classes with twelve seats in first class and
125 in coach. An alternative 155-rassenger
economy class interior also is offered. The
Super 80 carries twice the passenger load
and nearly half as many seats again as the
DC-9-30, the family's most common type
prior to the Super 80. (The rhrase 'Super
80' is still found on window shades on
models operating even today.)
Wi th 13 7 passengers and baggage, the
initial Surer 80 had a nonstop range of
between 1,500 and 2,700 miles (2,410 to
4,345km), depending on the model, at a
cruise speed of 546mph (878km/h). The
increased fuselage length gave the Super
80 a below-deck cargo volume of 1,294cu
(I' (36.6cu m). The aft cargo-hold door
was increased over the DC-9 to the 50in
by 53 in size (1.27m by 1.34m) of the two
front fuselage doors to take advantage of
the increased volume.

The Super 80 was rolled out with the help of bagpipers. saluting the Scottish heritage
of McDonnell Douglas. Boeing

Other major airframe changes made on

the Super 80 included extending the wing
from the 93ft 4in (28.5m) span used on all
earlier DC-9 models to 107ft lOin
(32.87m)
by adding
2ft (6Icm)
extensions to each tip and a 10ft 6in
(3.2m) centre wing-section plug. The
wi ng changes resu Ited ina 28 per cent
increase in total area - to 1,279sq ft
(119sq m) - and rrovided volume for an
added 1,520USgal. (5,7541) of fuel. The
span of the horizontal stabilizer on the
Super 80 was also increased to 40ft 1in
(12.2m), which is 3ft 6in (1.06m) wider
than that used on all rrevious DC-9s. The
maximum height at the top of the Ttail is
29ft 4in (8.93m), 1ft 4in (39.6cm) higher
than that of the Series SO model.
Visually, it is the length of the Super 80
that is most striking; the more so as all but
a single 19in (48.26cm) frame of the
stretch over the DC-9-50 is ahead of the
wing. Sleek, aerodynamic and rocket-like,
the MD-80 is among the most recognizable
aircraft flying today. With the same narrow
body and circular cross-section as its
predecessor, the M D-80's fuselage is
extended far forward of the wings, making
it simple to tell the external difference

73

between this offspring and its DC-9 rarent.

Aside from the MD-87, which is a
shortened, version, it is difficult to tell the
models aran visually unless an observer
knows the variants each airline uses.

Improvements Over Earlier DC-9s

Along with its new technology and
stretched fuselage, the M D-80 series
retained the ruggedness and durability
that was the hallmark of the DC-9 family.
From the cockpit to the engines and from
the interior to the wings, the series offered
a host of improvements over its earlier
siblings, enhancements that appealed to a
wide array of operators around the world.
In addition to larger passenger capacity,
better rer-sear costs and significantly lower
noise levels and emissions, other
imrrovements designed into the M D-80
series included a digital flight guidance
system, three-rosition slats, easier access to
cargo COl11rartments, and a new aft galley
door. The digital flight guidance system
integrates nine subsystems into two
identical digital computers, providing lower
crew workload, greater reliability and lower
maintenance costs. The three-position slats

THE FAMILY GROWS: THE MD80 SERIES

TilE FAMILY GROWS: THE MD80 SERIES

The rollout ceremony featured flight attendants

dressed in the uniforms of launch customers. Boeing

same length: 147ft lOin (45.lm).

Stretching the Super 80 to 171 in (4.34m)
more than the OC-9-50 led to several
changes to the fuselage. The stretch was
accomplished by inserting a 152in
(3.86m) plug forward of the wing and a
19in (48cm) plug aft of the wing, making
it possible to insert four more rows of seats
than on the OC-9-50. This greater length
also increased cargo volume to 1,253sq ft
(35.5sq m) in three belly compartments,
two of which are forward of the wing.
The MO-87, as described later, has a
fuselage length of 130ft Sin (39.75m).
That's 17ft Sin (5.3m) shorter than the
rest of the family, or similar in length to
the 0C-9-30.

Wing, Tail and Exteriors

enable pilots to select virtually any takeoff

lift settings, within specified limits,
permitting optimum takeoff performance.
The MO-80 series also differs from its
predecessor by incorporating a flat cargo
floor, a second loading door in the forward
fuselage, and an aft compartment door to
facilitate cargo handling.

Fuselage Stretch
The most obvious difference over earlier
versions is the length of the M 0-80 series.
With the notable exception of the MO87, all variants in the model - MO-8!,
MO-82, MO-83 and MO-88 - have the

Aside from the fuselage, the most

extensive structural alteration in the
Super 80 was in the wing, which is where
one begins to wonder where the
derivative ends and new aircraft begins.
To create a wing that could carry a longer
fuselage, the existing OC-9 wing outer
panels were sliced off the centre section
and mated to a new box, adding 10ft 6in
(3.2m) to the wingspan, with a 2ft (6Icm)

Flight testing the Super 80 series took place largely in Yuma, Arizona. Boeing

..

74

~xtension added to each wingtip. This

ulI1figuration increased the wing area by
280sq ft (26sq m), or 28 per cent more
than the OC-9-50. For all intents and
purposes, the result was a new wing, with
two sections of flaps per side instead of
one, a different profile and additional
spoi leI'S and slat sections.
The wing on the MO-80 series, with a
redesigned centre section, is 10 per cent
more fuel efficient than that of a OC-930, -40 or -50. The new centre section
was also redesigned. Of the 5,779USgal.
(2 1,8761) of fuel capacity in the new
wing, 2,100USgal. (7,9491) are extra
capacity in the thicker centre section of
the wing, resulting in 59 per cent more
fuel capacity over the original OC-9.
The angle of sweep on the M 0-80 series
wing remains the same, at 24.5 degrees,
but the aspect ratio was increased from
8.71 to 9.62. (The aspect ratio is the
wingspan divided by the chord, which,
in turn, is the wing area divided by
wingspan. For example, a wing with a
span of 100 feet and an area of 1,000
square feet has an average chord of ten.
The aspect ratio of this wing is ten,
meaning it is ten times longer than wide.
A high aspect-ratio wing is generally
more efficient than one with a low
aspect ratio. However, a high aspectratio wi ng wi II be heavier.)

The MO-81 underwent 1,085 hours of flight testing, in a programme marred by two accidents during the
certification period. Boeing

This contributes to climb performance

and fuel efficiency in addition to
providing better low-speed characteristics
through lower induced drag. On earlier
model DC-9s the leading-edge slats were
either closed or open, and were not
optimized for the best takeoff or landing
position. The Super 80 has variable flap
positions, so the leading-edge slats are
coordinated with the trailing-edge flaps.
With the low flap settings (0 to 13
degrees) used for takeoff, the slats go out
to 18 degrees with the slats at the leading
edge closed.
The tail on the MO-80 series is the
same size as that of other OC-9s, but
slightly reprofiled at the top end of the
leading edge to accommodate a longer
horizontal stabilizer. The length of the
M D-80 made it necessary to make the
horizontal stabilizer more powerful.
This was achieved by extending the
span of the stabilizer by 20in (50.8cm)
on each side of the tail by means of a
plug at the root. The inboard conn'oltab on the horizontal stabilizer was
lengthened and a new geared anti-float
tab was added outboard of the existing
tab. The term 'anti-float' was used
hecause, during landing, when the

75

horizontal stabilizer is at a negative

angle, the elevator tends to move
several
degrees
downward,
thus
lessening tail lift. By installing a geared
anti-float tab that Il'1OVeS, the elevator is
forced to streamline with the stabilizer,
with no loss of lift. In this way pitch
control is more powerful when it's most
needed.
On the exterior, there are visible signs
of additional titanium panels and
fasteners near the engine pylons. The aft
end of the cabin is closer to the engines
than on the original OC-9 series because
much of the additional cowling volume
was toward the front of the engine, and
the increase in engine diameter brought
the engines closer to the fuselage. Despite
that, the Super 80 is quieter in the rear of
the cabin than its predecessors because
more effective noise-suppression materials
are used.
The rear fuselage was structurally
strengthened due to the heavier engines,
and complicated by Swissair's insistence
on a service door ahead of the engines.
Freight and baggage handling is
improved relative to earlier OC-9s
through the installation of a flat floor in
the cargo hold.

THE FAMILY GROWS: THE MD-80 SERIES

THE FAMILY GROWS: THE MD-80 SERIES

Engines
Although old by today's standards, the
Pratt & Whitney ]T8D-200 engines
powering the MD-80 series represented
enough of an improvement in fuel burn,
noise and emissions to make it possible to
launch an entirely new line of DC-9s that
continue to meet today's stricter
environmental standards.
The ]T8D-200, like the aircraft it
powers, comes in several variations,
depending on the type of MD-80,
developed around two models: the ]T8D209 and the ]T8D-217. These are
described in detail later.
The biggest factor in reducing noise
levels was a larger fan in the higher-bypass
ratio ]T8D-200 series engine, which
provides lower exhaust-velocity; an

internal mixer to keep high-velocity hot

gases and lower-velocity bypass-air mixing
within the engine nacelles, rather than
after the exhaust has left the aircraft;
more favourable location of stationary
vanes with relationship to the large
forward fan; and extensive acoustic
treatment of the engine and nacelle
components.

Cockpit
Like the DC-9, the flight deck on the
M 0-80 series accommodates two pilots,
an issue that led to a legal tussle with the
union representing US pilots. The

cockpit can also seat one observer, who

sits in the jump seat behind the captain.
The cockpit is another area of vast
improvement over earlier DC-9s. 'The
flight deck was a quantum leap in
technology,' recalls Callaghan, the retired
McDonnell Douglas engineer. Foremost
were the avionics, which featured the first
digital
flight-guidance
system
in
commercial aviation. Although the
airframe was a derivative, the automatic
flight-guidance system and air-data
computers were entirely new equipment,
making use of digital electronics in a
much bigger way than anything
comparable in production at the time.

The MD-80 series flight deck featured a digital flight-guidance system. the first of its kind in commercial
aviation. The cockpit's performance management system optimizes vertical navigation to save fuel. Boeing

76

\nd each successive member of the MD,,0

line
includes
variations and
\'nhancements in flight-deck technology
IIld amenities.
System improvements include a digital,
III t egrated fl ight-gu idance and con trol
'ystem, dial-a-flap control for more
Ilcurate flap settings, flow-through
looling of the avionics compartment, an
,Idvanced, digital fuel-gauging system, and
an optional fl ight-management system
IIlat gives horizontal and vertical
guidance. Other fl igh t deck changes
IIlclude flat liquid-crystal displays,
.tlternati ve fl ight-management systems,
.lI1d windshear detection.
Unlike the DC-9 cockpit's exclusive use
of analogue dials and gauges, the MD-80
series offers EFIS (electronic flight
II1strument system), just one of the many
vast technical improvements over the
DC-9. The change from analogue to
digital technology provided improved
maintainability, reduced crew workload,
hetter reliability and more accurate flight
path control. [n addition, for the first time
.1 fully electronic head-up display (HUD)
was available as an option.
Though the MD-81 flight deck was
primarily all-analogue-type instrumentation,
heginning with the MD-82, an EADI
(electronic attitude director indicator) and
EHSI (electronic horizontal situation
indicator) became available, although
airspeed indicator, altimeter and other
functions were still analogue. Not until the
MD-88 were EADI and EI-lSI standard
equipment.
Digital avionics were one of the
aircraft's
strongest
selling
points,
providing additional information for
pilots while reducing complexity and
increasing reliability. The advantages
included better maintainability and lower
minimums for automatic landings in poor
weather. Seven functions that would
normally be performed by separate
systems are integrated on the Super 80
through two identical digital computers,
each of which can manage all of the
systems by itself. Wh i1e none of the
functions were new to civil aviation at the
time, some of them - including
autothrottle and automatic reserve thrust
- were new to the DC-9 family.
The computers provide altitude alert,
stabil ity augmentation, automatic pilot,
the flight director, speed control, engine
thrust setting, automatic reserve thrust
and
full-time
automatic
throttle

........
..........

//

The Super 80. shown here outside the assembly building. featured a fuselage 14ft 4in (4.36mllonger than
the DC-9-50. boosting capacity to 155 in a two-class configuration. Boeing

functions. The autopilot enables landings

in Category Ilia weather - which means a
50ft (15m) landing decision height and
700ft (200m) runway visual range, further
enhancing the aircraft's reliability. An
autoland rollout guidance function also is
available as an option.
The M 0-80 series has two autopilot
systems. Each provides full control of the
aircraft in all phases of normal flight. Red
warning lights flash whenever the
automatic pilot is disengaged. An aural
disengage warning also sounds whenever
the automatic landing mode has been
engaged and the autopilot is subsequently
disengaged. The cockpit contains two
monitored flight-director functions. The
first one normally provides signals for the
captain's instruments, while the second is
for the first officer. These computations
are integrated with the autopilot. The
autopilot and flight director both operate
simultaneously. The automatic throttle
controls the thrust of each engine under
normal conditions, including all phases of
takeoff, flight and final approach.
A centre instrument panel separates the
pilot's and first officer's instrument panels,
and an overboard switch panel is located
in the ceiling between each station. Radio
and navigation panels are installed
forward and beh ind the cen tre control
pedestal, on the glareshield and on the
overhead panel. The captain's and first

77

officer's altimeters display altitude as

received from the air-data computer.
Mach/airspeed indicators are installed for
both captai nand fi rst officer. A
pneumatic altimeter/airspeed indicator is
installed on the captain's instrument
panel for backup.
Two electric vertical-speed indicators
are provided, one for each pilot,
displaying vertical airspeed from 0 to
6,000 feet (I,800m) per minute. An
airspeed/static air-temperature indicator is
located on the first officer's instrument
panel. Two digital, central air-data
computers (CADC) are installed in the
electric/electronic compartment. Each
pilot is provided with a horizontal
situation indicator (HSI), which provides
a pictorial display of heading, VOR (VHF
Omnidirectional Radio), glideslope and
localizer deviation, to-from information,
selected course and heading. Two digital
readouts are provided to display this data.
Both the captain and first officer have
attitude director indicators (ADls) to
display pitch and bank information,
glideslope and localizer deviation, flightdirector steering command, slip-and-skid
information, speed deviation and radio
altitude. A flight mode/instrument
warning annunciator is installed in each
of the pilot's instrument panels. These
units display flight director, autopilot and
autothrottle flight modes.

THE FAMILY GROWS: THE MD-80 SERIES

Head-Up Display (HUD)

The original purpose of the HUD was to monitor the
automatic landing system. but the display is an effective tool on its own when a fully automatic landing
cannot be made, The main elements of the display are
a rectangular box representing the ILS window in
which the aircraft has to stay. a small command dot
serving the flight-director function. and a small circle
with wings representing the aircraft. Keeping the aircraft symbol over the command dot maintains the aircraft on its proper flight path for the approach, Allowing the command dot to drift away from the aircraft
symbol generally results in both symbols departing
the ILS window. but reimposing the aircraft symbol on
the command dot brings both of them back,
As the aircraft approaches the runway for landing.
the following sequence of events takes place:
The letters DH begin blinking to represent the
selected decision height.
Atl 00 feet (30 mI. the box depicting the ILS window disappears and is replaced by symbolic runway
sidelines providing a perspective display of runway
alignment.
Below that height the command dot begins to flash
as a flare alert,
As the altitude passes below 50 feet (17 m!, the dot
stops flashing and begins to rise on the display,
Pulling back on the control wheel to keep the HUD
aircraft symbol over the command dot results in a
smooth flare and touchdown,
Adapted from McDonnell Douglas' fighter jets. the
HUD also provides takeoff and go-around guidance,

A glareshield-mounted flight guidance

control panel provides the following
functions: automatic pilot engagement
and mode selection, flight director
engagement
and
mode
selection,
autothrottle engagement and mode
selection, altitude advisory, automatic
reserve thrust, thrust rating, altitude alert,
and stability augmentation, A monitored
altitude-alert system driven by the
selected
d igi tal
gu idance-com pu tel'
provides several visual and aural message
to the flight crew, informing them of
various levels of deviation from selected
altitude.
Most
MD-80
series
aircraft
incorporate a head-up display (H U D)
that helps reduce crew workload and
improve safety, This system, the first of
its kind in commercial aviation when it
was introduced on the model, is
available either as a single or dual
arrangement, The HUD is designed to
assist the pilot in precision and visual
approaches by presenting data on a seethrough acrylic block from an overhead
cathode ray tube. This information also
provides a pilot with sufficient
information to fly safely at low altitudes
and through windshear. It also helps to
avoid perceptual illusions brought about
by airport physical and lighting
conditions,

THE FAMILY GROWS: THE MD-80 SERIES

The head-up display is designed for fulltime availability from

takeoff to
touchdown, The HUD is not integrated
with the automatic landing systems and is
not the intended stand-by in case of
autopilot failure, but it docs give the
captain the ability to monitor the aircraft
in all phases of the flight, The display, fed
by a digital generator taking its
information from the main flightguidance system, is mounted in the ceiling
above the captain, The reflector is rotated
to the right and upwards when not in use,
The reflector operates at a distance of
about 6in (l5cm), The HUD indicates
not only the basic attitude, pitch angle,
deviation from the radio beam, airspeed,
angle of attack and projected touchdown
point, but also a box indicating the safe
manoeuvre margin, symbols indicating
autopilot mode and approach phase, a
flashing decision-height symbol when this
is reached, and flare cues for landing. The
HUD can provide guidance for takeoff in
VFR (Visual Flight Rules) and IFR
(Instrument Flight Rules) conditions, and
can project a visual glideslope and a
touchdown aiming point during landings
at airports without Instrument Landing
System (ILS),
The basic cockpit layout of the Super
80 is essentially the same as earlier
versions of the DC-9, allowing pilots rated
in those versions to transition to the
newer type without a separate type rating,
Pilots flying the MD-80 series do not need
a new aircraft rating, and once rated on
the DC-9, the rating would be applicable
to all models with limited simulator
training, The cockpit incorporales a
considerable number of work-saving
features,
They
include
a
thrust
management system with full-lime
automatic throttles and a thrust-rating
computer that automatically computes
req u ired thrust and issues th rottl e
commands for all phases of flight, from
takeoff to touchdown, The Super 80
cockpit is the first in which seven
guidance and control functions arc
integrated into a single digital system,
The fuel control panel provides
con ti nuous digital fuel-quanti ty readouts
and continuous gross weight readouts
based on the zero fuel weight of the
aircraft as entered into the system's
computer prior to takeoff. Dual overheadThe l,OOOth OC-9 was an MO-81. delivered to
Swissair, At left is a OC-9-10, Boeing

78

The Super 80 cabin retains the family's well-liked

lwo-by-three seating configuration in economy
class, Boeing
IlH lunted automatic pressurization-system
lontrols require only destination airport
i1t1tude and barometric setting inputs
pnor to takeoff, with no further attention
Ilccded during flight.
The MD-80 series also features
Il'designed landing gear up-lock latches
Ih,lt eliminate the need for the crew to
lOl1lluct an up-larch check after takeoff.
fhis check involves moving the landing
gcar handle to the up-latch position after
Ihe gears have been retracted on takeoff,
fhe large increase in the Super 80's gross
wcight meant that the landing gear,
housed in the wing root plugs, had to be
lIlodified and a new support fitting added,
Another step-saving technique is the
,Iutomatic shutdown feature in the
,lllxiliary power unit, which eliminates
Ihe need for the crew to monitor APU
Icmperatures before shutting off the unit
,Iftel' the engines have been started and
Ihe electrical/hydraulic load has been
~hifted from the APU to the engines, A
cooling-off period of about a minute is
neeJed for this on earlier DC-9 versions,
On the M 0-80 series, the A PU off
position can be selected immediately after
transferring the load to the engines, and
the unit will turn itself off automatically
after cooling down.
ontrol forces are distinctly heavier on
the M 0-80 than on earl ier versions of the
DC-9, and the aircraft generally has the
feel of a larger transport in all phases of
flight. While this requires some additional
muscle during manoeuvring ar low speeds,
il also translates into better stability
characteristics,
It is the first DC-9 equipped with an
automatic reserve-thrust system, which
functions Juring takeoff in the case of an
engine failure, Detecting the loss of
thrust, the flight-guidance computer
automatically drives up the thrust on the
other engine to compensate for the
decline in takeoff power. The computer
also detects failures in any of the seven
subsystems and stores the information for
maintenance needs,
There are considerable weight s:wings
with the digital system, Four computers
on the MD-80, with a reliability rate three
times higher, handle functions requiring
thirteen computers on the DC-9-50,
cutting maintenance costs in half.

Passenger Cabin
McDonnell Douglas had no worries about
the market acceptability of the longer
aircraft, insisti ng that, like the origi nal
DC-9, the M 0-80 series' fi ve-abreast
layout was better than six-across because
that aircraft had to be 80 per cent full
before the unpopular centre scats were
needed, In other words, the ratio of aisle
and window scats (four to one) is higher
than in aircraft with six-across seating,
Inside, the MD-80 series debuted with
new scats and interior along with
additional headroom and cleanly curved
overhead stowage compartment exteriors
that created an open, spacious feeling,
The overhead bins were l2 per cent larger
than the DC-9s and large enough to lay
carry-on garments flat, At the request of
ustomer SAS, handrails were added to
the bottom of carry-on bins to provide a
grip for flight attendants during
turbulence, The window frames used on
the Super 80 were developed from the
larger DC-IO, as were the sturdier
honeycomb-shared floor panels,
As always, the exact configuration of
the cabin in each aircraft evolved to suit
the airline, For instance, the MD-80
series was designed with two seats on the
left and three on the right, but because of
the gcliley placement, Swissair had
reversed sides, putting two seats on the
right and three on the left. Another

79

option
was a
modular
lavatory,
introduced on some models, The operator
could take the lavatory into the
aeroplane in pieces and put it together inaircraft. Likewise it could be taken out for
repairs, a big saving in maintenance costs
to the airline,
Seating arrangements and number of
galleys on the MD-80 family are optional
to
meet
customer
requirements,
Maximum seating in all MD-80 models
except the M 0-87 is 172 passengers (139
for the MD-87), One lavatory is located
forward of the wing, with two at the rear
of the cabin, A typical single-class
configuration is 155 seats with a 32-33in
(81-84cm) pitch (distance between rows
of scats), three galleys and three
lavatories, For high-density operation, the
aircraft has capacity for 172 scats with
30in (76cm) pitch, one galley and two
lavatories,
The passenger door is at the front of the
cabin, on the right side of the aircraft,
Serv ici ng and emergency ex it doors arc
found at both the front and rear of the
cabin. Two overwing emergency exits are
found on each side, The type also has
three cargo doors,
The aisle, at 19in (48cm) and the
scars, at 17,9in (45.4cm), arc about an
inch wider than earlier aircraft,
including the DC-8 and Boeing 737,
The MD-80 series has two fully

THE FAMILY GROWS: THE MD80 SERIES

Swissair, the launch customer for the Series 80, ordered the aircraft to meet growing environmental
concerns over noise and air pollution. Boeing

automatic, independent, all-electric

cabin-pressure control systems, either of
which makes flying comfortable at
altitudes of up to 37,000 feet
(l1,300m).
Inside the cabin, takeoff is, for the most
part, quiet - certainly more than its
predecessor.

Other Systems
To make the MD-80 series as palatable as
possible for airlines, McDonnell Douglas
made dozens of additional refinements to
accommodate
newly
available
technology, the longer fuselage, larger

Early Super 80s were built alongside DC-9s, as this rooftop photo shows. Boeing

~~ ~ m;r:; ~-~-,

, ..,

t.

' i

passenger-capacity, and customer needs.

At the same time, the company retained
features that made the original DC-9 such
a success.
Like the DC-9, the MD-80 series was
designed for self-sufficiency. An auxiliary
power unit installed in the aft lowerfuselage provides electrical and pneumatic
power for main engine starting on the
ground, electrical power while in flight,
air-conditioning and electrical functions
during ground operations and auxiliary
electrical power in flight. The APU itself
is larger than on previous DC-9s.
Air-conditioning is delivered through
two fully automatic, independent systems
designed for parallel operation but
capable of operating independently. A
recirculating air system introduced on the
series reduces fuel consumption while
providing ventilation for passenger
comfort. McDonnell Douglas engineers
reported that this system saved airlines an
average of 14,000USgal. (52,9961.) of fuel
per year for each aircraft in service.
Recirculated cabin air reduces the amount
of air extracted from engine compressors,
resulting in greater fuel efficiency.
Individual cold-air outlets are provided
for each passenger above every seat.
The MD-80 series has two self
contained stairways to make passenger

.. --

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Above: A DC-9-30 belonging to Mexican operator AeroCalifornia landing at Los Angeles. Chris Coduto
Below: An American Airlines MD-82 catches some sun on final approach into San Jose, California. Chris Coduto

7 f;/ iI'.r

/I'(}

l'

"lllllllllllllttlllllllllllllllll"III/~"~

Above: The MD-87 cockpit features some

technological enhancements over previous models.
Chris Coduto

Opposite top: ATWA MD-83 taxis to the gate.

American acquired TWA in 2001. Chris Coduto

Opposite bottom: Bangkok Air's 717s are painted in

special liveries. Michael Carter

Left: Another colourful and dramatic livery

from Bangkok Air. Michael Carter

'"

'"

A C-9B's fuselage is mated with the wings. Boeing

Above: A Hawaiian 717 comes in from another test

flight at Long Beach prior to delivery. Michael Carter
Below: A 717 in Boeing colours rests on
the ramp. Boeing

Left: Japan Air System uses its MD-90 on domestic

and regional networks. Michael Carter

Below: The Boeing 717 is Boeing's first commercial

airliner with engines mounted on the fuselage.
Boeing

;/17//1'11

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<.

Boeing publicity photograph of the 717-200. Boeing

Overleaf: A 717 on a test flight off the

California coast. Boeing

Below: German operator Aero Lloyd was among

dozens of airlines using the MD-BO series. Boeing
Above: A close look at Bangkok Air's detailed
special livery. Boeing

Right: An Air Canada DC-9-30 lifts off

from Newark. Joe Pries

Below: SAS uses its MD-BOs on European routes.

Flying Images Worldwide Collection

THE FAMILY GROWS: THE MD-80 SERIES

The Propfan Experiment

In the 1980s, McDonnell Douglas experimented with
a new engine design aimed at significantly reducing
fuel consumption. Both Pratt & Whitney and rival
engine-maker General Electric conducted research on
propfan technology - essentially turboprop engines
with a turbojet core driving two eight-bladed, contrarotating propeller sets.
In 1987, Pratt & Whitney and Allison Gas Turbine
Division of General Motors formed a partnership to
demonstrate a propfan propulsion system. The company, named PW-Allison Engines, completed two
years of ground and flight demonstration tests of the
engine's 20,0001b (9,1 OOkg) of thrust over two years.
While it achieved success during numerous test
flights and met all test objectives, the programme's
high development costs and improvements in new,
higher-bypass conventional turbofans, put an end to
further development. If successful, the propfan would
have replaced the type's original JT8D-217 engines.
Most certainly, the sight of massive blades churning
just outside the passenger cabin created a fear factor
that probably contributed to the demise of the programme.
Long before the unducted-fan experiment. Douglas
studied a turboprop-powered version of the DC-9 as
part of NASA's aircraft efficiency programme The
contract Douglas received, at the time of rising energy
prices in' the late 1970s, showed the potential for
improving the operating efficiency of future transports. The evaluations considered replacing the DC9's two turbofan engines with turboprops, offering
significant fuel savings. Another proposal would have
fitted the engines on the wing instead of on the aft
fuselage.

loading and unloading easier, reducing

ground time at airports that have minimal
round-support equipment. The forward
airstair is stored beneath the cabin floor. It
is electrically operated, illuminated, and
has non-skid surfaces and handrails. The
MD-80 also carried over from the DC-9
the rear, or ventral, stairs. Although more
modern airports didn't require the use of
rear stairs as much as when the DC-9 first
entered service, there were, initially, a few
flirports served by the MD-80 series that
still required stairs at terminals without
jetways: The rear stairs help to expedite
hoarding and disembarking. They also
provide a convenient way for ground
rews to enter the aircraft without using
the jetway, so, for instance, cleaning crews
;an begin their work while passengers are
still disembarking. (While airstairs were
;ontinued on the succeeding MD-90, the
Imer Boeing 717 does not have them, thus
saving valuable weight.) The stairway can
he controlled from inside the aircraft, or
(rom outside by ground personnel. When

A Pratt & Whitney and Allison project that adapted prop-fan engines for the Super 80 was ultimately
unsuccessful despite improvements in fuel burn. Boeing

The unusual prop fans were tested on just one side of the aircraft. Boeing

81

THE FAMILY GROWS: TilE MD-RO SI:RIES

TilE FAMILY GROWS: THE MD-80 SERIES

McDonnell Douglas workers fitting a

nose section. Boeing

windshield wipers take care of rain, along

with liquid rain repellent in two storage
tanks. Anti-fogging to the three cockpit
windsh ields, the clear-view panels and the
windows above the captain's and first
officer's stations is accompl ished through
electrical conductive coatings within the
glass assemblies.
The cargo compartment and cargo
floors are maintained above freezing. The
front of the forwmd cargo comrarrment is
thermostatically
controlled
to
a
temperature that permits the safe
tmnsport of animals.
For flight controls, hydrauliC systems
0rerate spoilers, flaps, slats, rudder,
landing gear, nosewheel steering, thrust
reversers, brakes and the ventral stairway.
The aileron and elevators are manually
controlled. Other equipment that
controls flight are the previously
mentioned automatic landing capability,
full-span, three-position leading-edge
wing slats, and three spoilers rer wing.
The family also features one under-wing
vortilon fence on each wing for even
greater stabil ity.
The M 0-80 series' pneumatic system,
for air-conditioning and pressurization,
engine starting and ice protection, uses
engine bleed-air or the auxiliary power
unit. The landing gear, similar to the
original DC-9, is a retractable tricycle
type, with steerable nosewheels. The gear
is hydraulically retracted; the nose unit
moves forward and the main landing gear
moves inward. Each gear unit has twin
wheels and tyres, with anti-skid disc
hrakes. A new tyre of tyre was designed to
reduce compression, thereby decreasing
heat build-up and providing longer tyre
life and greater safety. The new tyre is also
less susceptible to cutting and allows for
more landings between replacements.
In the M D-8 1/-82/-87/-88 models, the
standard fuel capacity is 5,840USgal.
(22,1071), increased in the MD-83 (and
made available as an option on the MD87) to 7,000USgal. (26,4981) hy two
580USgai. (2,1951) auxiliary tanks in the
cargo compartment. Refuelling roints are
located in the starboard wing leading
edge, with overwing points available w
adjust for balance.
As McDonnell Douglas was preraring
the first MD-81 for its 1979 public debut,
high fuel costs, inflation and fems of

Above: Super 80s in final assembly. Boeing

rarked in very windy conditions, the aft

airstairs can serve as an additional
rrecaution to keel' the aircraft from
blowing onw its tail.
In an emergency, the MD-80's tail cone
can be jettisoned. When this happens, a
rubber slide derloys automatically. If that
fails, a manual release will detach the tail
cone. The tail cone weighs about 751b
(34kg) and is shared so that it will hit the
ground and rollout of the way for the sl ide
to derloy. Should the cone dror off in
flight, something that has harrened, the
aircraft can continue flying, although
with eXWl drag and fuel consumption.
Ice rrotection is available on the engine
inlets, fuselage strakes, wing leading edges
and tail surfaces. Automatic drainage is
rrovided at all roints in the system where
the accumulation of moisture could be
detrimental. Two electrically operated
Three Finnair MD-80s flank two Garuda DC-9-30s
on the flight ramp in Long Beach. Boeing

82

recession were affecting the industry.

With more fuel-efficient engines and just
two crewmembers needed, the Super 80
had an economic advantage over its chief
rival, the Boeing 727. While the MD-80
series cost more (about $1.5 million in
1970s dollars), rrimarily due to its newer
technology, it held an advantage over the
727 because it could carry roughly the
same number of passengers on longer
sectors, hut with just two reasonably quiet
and fuel efficient engines instead of three
noisier, gas-guzzling ones, and could be
flown without the 72 7's flight engineer
rosition.

First Flight
The M D-80 rollout featured fl ight
attendants from its launch customers,
including Swissair and Austrian Airlines.
A total of ten airlines had ordered ninetytwo Surer 80s at the time of the first
flight, which took rlace on 18 October
1979.

83

The fi rst M D-81 took off from Long

Beach Municiral Airrort, after a 4,500ft
(1,370m) takeoff roll, for a three-hour
flight that would end at the Marine Corps
Air Station in the desert town of Yuma,
Arizona, where the bulk of night testing
would took rlace. The aircraft, now
symbolizing the heritage of two aircraft
makers, signalled the arrival of a new era
for McDonnell Douglas and for the
commercial jet industry in general.
The initi'll flight bore the registration
number N980DC. It was the 909th
memher of the DC-9 family built. It was
followed by the second rrototype
(NI002G, shir number 917) on 6
December 1979, and the third model
(NI002W, ship numher 924) on 29
February 1980.
Desrite flight-test crashes, lawsuits over
the numher of crew memhers on hoard
and production issues, the aircraft was
certified hy the US Federal Aviation
Administration on 26 August 1980, and
was delivered to the first customer,
Swissair, on 12 Sertember 1980.

THE FAMILY GROWS: THE MD-80 SERIES

The first flight bore out predictions

about noise. The Super 80 was found to be
quieter than even the much smaller Lear
jet used as a chase plane to record the test
flight. Those in Yuma who witnessed a f1yover prior to landing reported that exterior
noise levels were noticeably lower than
the noise level of other DC-9 variants.
The first test aircraft, piloted by H.H.
Knickerbocker, the company's chief test
pilot, exhihited stable flying qualities.
Following the initial flight he told Aviation
Wee/< & S/)ace Technology magazine:
In the IUIV-speed regime, I think the aeroplane
is more swhle than the mher DC-9 veroinns. I
helieve the inertia u( the aeropl,1I1e gives the
Super 80 more u( a "hig aeroplane" (eel, and lVe
have seen thi" every time we have stretched
the DC-9. I think thar as the aeroplane has
picked Lip gro~~ weight and ha.., grown in ~izc, it

ha, inherent improved stahility. We certainly

S,IIV th~t during the (irst flight.

The initial mission was limited to lower

airspeeds because of poor weather in
southern California that had also delayed
the aircraft's takeoff and limited the flight

TilE FAMILY GROWS: THE MD-80 SERIES

A Super 80 nearing completion on the final assembly line. Boeing

duration. joining Knickerhocker in the

cockpit was j.P. Lane, the MD-80 series
project pilot. He evaluated the aircraft's
head-up display during the first flight. The
fi rst mem bel' of the M D-80 line was to test
basic fI ight characteristics, incl ud ing
flutter evaluation, flying qualities, hraking
performance, autopi lot and Category Ilia
landing ability with the head-up display.
Lane said after the flight that cockrit
noise levels in the M 0-81 were noticeably
lower than in other DC-9 versions, even
though the flight-test aircraft was not
fitted with the standard rassenger
interior. He attributed this in part ro the
MD-81 's increased fuselage and to the
lower-frequency noise generated hy the
jT8D-209 engines.
Knickerbocker used the
19,250lb
(8,730kg) reserve thrust rating for the initial
takeoff. The original jT8D-209 model has a
takeoff rating of 18,5001b (8,400kg) thrust,
and the additional power would be used
automatically in the event of an engine
failure at takeoff. Gross takeoff weight for
the first flight was 118,0001b (53,524kg).

84

Flight Testing
Fl ight testing and certification of the M D81 had its difficulties, primarily landing
accidents, strikes against McDonnell
Douglas by two labour unions, higherthan-expected lead times for some
materials, including the engines and
landing gear, and a contentious court
battle over the aircraft's two-person
cockpit.
McDonnell
Douglas
kicked
off
extensive flight testing in Ocrober 1979
following the successful first flight. The
first three MD-81s off the production line
served as flight-test aircraft. Originally,
two aeroplanes were to be dedicated for
the effort, but the addition of a third
aircraft -later a much needed commodity
- was needed to help compress the
programme by two months.
A major thrust of the flight-test
programme was the digital flight-guidance
system and the head-up display. All three
test-ai rcraft participated in eval uati ng
rhese systems, which were new to the

1)C-9 family. As part of the MD-81's

.Iutorilot checkout, instrument landing
'ystem tests were conducted using
guidance from a laser tracker. Guidance
data deri ved from the tracker were
uplinked as simulated lLS signals ro the
'lircraft, providing a highly accurate
,lpproach profile for the aircraft to follow.
The second M D-81 was used to proof
load-testing. During static tests, the
.lircraft's wing was deflected up to 63in
(1.6m) from its normal position.
Evaluations of the M 0-81 with a twomemher crew were conducted using the
third test aircraft. These flights took
place in the congested air traffic of the
eastern United States, and were
,tructured on airliner-type scheduling,
Lomplete with simulated equipment
failures. Other test flights
were
conducted in southern California air
traffic, including landings at busy Los
Angeles International Airport. Airline
and
FAA
representatives
closely
monitored flight tests with the twoperson crew, as videotape equipment
recorded
cockpit
activity.
While
McDonnell Douglas designed the MD-80
series
to
be
operated
by
two
crewmem bers, th is arrangemen twas
cha lIenged by the Air Li ne Pilots
Association, which pressed for a threemember crew. Still, flight tests found
that crew workload in the MD-80 was
actually reduced by about 25 per cent
from rrevious DC-9 models because of
the model's more advanced avionics.
On 10 November 1979, eager to
demonstrate the Super 80's claim to be
the quietest jetliner of its time,
McDonnell
Douglas
added
environmental flight demonstrations to
ceremonies introducing the DC-9-80 to
airlines and government officials.
Residents living near the Long Beach
airport were invited as the demonstration
aircraft made a low-level pass over the
runway as well as a simulated takeoff and
a low holding-pattern cruise above. 'We
may change the name of the Super 80 to
Silent 80,' president John Brizendine
exclaimed after the three flights, which
onlookers said were barely audible from
the viewing area.
Prior to the

demonstration, he explained how the

new-generation aircraft was developed
for greater efficiency as well as ecological
compatibility. 'This aeroplane meets the
requirements of the three 'Es' of airline
operations for the future,' he told the
crowd. 'It has advantages of economy,
energy conservation and environmental
benefits.'
From the airport tower balcony, the first
Super 80 off the assembly line measured
72 decibels for a simulated takeoff.

American Airlines saved the MD-80 line with a

unique lease agreement under which the airline
ordered sixty-seven of the aircraft. Today American
operates more than 300 MD-80 series aircraft, by far
the largest number. Boeing

85

Moments later a Boeing 727 taking off

registered 101 decibels. It was boasted at
the ceremony that the Super 80 would
consume 25 per cent less fuel per
passenger mile than the DC-9-30. In one
year, that's 580,000USgal. (219,5001) of
fuel for the same mission.
This marked the start of an accelerated
flight-test programme that involved
doubling-up of flight crews aSSigned to
three the test aircraft and round-the-clock
data processing.

TilE FAMILY GROWS: THE MD80 SERIES

THE FAMILY GROWS: THE MD80 SERIES

Flight Test Accidents

Two major accidents marred an otherwise
successful
test
programme.
These
accidents, involving two flight-test
aircraft, resulted in the FAA withholding
its certification of the aircraft until the
causes of both accidents could be
determ ined. In hoth cases the agency
established that the causes were not
related to clilY inherent deficiencies in the
aircraft.
The first accident involved a hard
landing at Edwards Air Force Base,
alifornia, on 2 May 1980, resulting in
the separation of the tail structure from
the rest of the aircraft. The fuselage
buckled forward of the main landing gear,
and the nosewheels were shattered. One
crewmember was slightly injured.
The accident occurred during tests with
the First production MD-81 to establish
the minimum runway length needed by
the aircraft in commercial operations.
This involves measuring the distance
covered from an aircmft height of 50ft

(ISm) to a full stop on the runway. High

sink rates are inherent to this type of test
because of the need to get the aircraft on
the ground as quickly as possible and
begin applying brakes. In this landing,
however, the sink rate was even higher
than planned - about 16 feet (5m) per
second rather than the desired 8 feet
(2.5m) per second. The actual rate,
attributed to pi lot error, was beyond the
design limits of the aircraft, 10 feet (3m)
per second.
Rather than take the time to repeat
the test on another aircraft, Douglas
elected to have the M 0-81 certi fied
initially to a longer minimum field
length based on earlier flight tests. Over
time, minimum runway lengths for the
model were reduced by about 1,000ft
(300m). During the first few months of
operation, airlines flying the MD-81
had to use longer runways than they
would normally need, or carry fewer

passengers or less fuel than normal

when operating into shorter fields. This
was changed shortly after the typ
entered revenue service.
The accident investigation found that
the tail section broke away because the
impact of the landing exceeded the
aircraft's structural limits. The National
Transportation Safety Board blamed the
accident on the pilot's failure to stabilize
the approach as laid out in the
manufacturer's flight-test procedures.
ontributing to the accident was the lack
of a requirement in the rrocedures for
other flight-crew members to monitor and
callout critical flight parameters. In
addition, McDonnell Douglas's flight test
procedures for demonstrating the M D-81's
landing performance 'involved vertical
descent rates approaching the design
limits of the aircraft,' the NTSB said. The
board noted that procedures used in
certification tests differ from those used

A model of the MO-87 during wind tunnel testing

showed the redesigned extended tail cone, which
became standard on all MO-80 series aircraft after
1986. Boeing

during normal airline operations, and told

lhe FAA the revised rules should reflect
'landing distances more representative of
the way the aircraft is operated during air
l,trrier services'.
The aircraft made an extremely hard
landing, which separated the entire
l'mpennage from the rest of the airframe,
huckling the fuselage midway from rhe
wing to the nose, and damaged the nose
landing gear. The entire empennage II1cluding aft stairway, vertical and
horizontal stabilizer and tail cone separated from the aircraft just behind the
point where engines are attached. The
separation occurred at the time the
'lircraft hit hard on its main landing gear.
When the aircraft hit the runway, the

Alitalia ordered the Super 80 in 1982, eventually building its European network around

Below: The cockpit of an Alaskan Airlines MO-83.

the dependable twinje!. Boeing

Chris Coduto

86

87

THE FAMILY GROWS: THE MD-80 SERIES

THE FAMILY GROWS: THE MD-80 SERIES

The accident occurred after more than

700 hours of flight testing on the
programme, including 364 hours with the
aircraft that crashed. It provided an
unexpected - but unwanted - assessment
of the aircraft's structural integrity. Major
damage was confined to the tail section,
the forward fuselage and the nose gear.
The main gear did not collapse despite
the stress it experienced during the hard
landing. Although the wing tanks carried
nearly a full fuel load, no leaks were
evident, and the overall wing structure
did not appear to be affected. As the
airframe continued down the runway after
the empennage separated, the engine
th rust reversers sti II functioned as the
flight crew brought the aircraft to a stop.
The company later announced that the
accident was the fault of the flight crew, and
not connected with any aircraft malfunction.
McDonnell Douglas said in a statement:
Survivability of the Dash 80

[0

this extremely

Testing the emergency evacuation slides is a key component of aircraft certification.

hard landing was excellem and is a tcstimony

An MD-80 is shown. Boeing

[0

forward and aft fuselage flexed downward

as the gear compressed. Witnesses
reported that the empennage then began
breaking away from the aircraft,
separating upward as the rest of the
airframe rebounded into the air. The
Super 80 then pitched over, and while the
main gear was off the runway, the nose
gear impacted, causing a wrinkle in the
forward fuselage. The nose gear did not
collapse but its two tyres burst, the wheel
flanges broke and the gear assembly was
ground away to the wheel axle as the
aircraft moved down the runway.
Although
the aircraft sustained
significant structural damage, none of the
five McDonnell Douglas crewmembers or
the two FAA representatives on board
was injured seriously. One FAA flight
engineer, who had been standing in the
cockpit area to observe the landing,
suffered a fractured ankle. J.P. Lane,
McDonnell Douglas's Super 80 project
pilot, was flying the aircraft at the time of
the accident, and FAA pilot Donald
Alexander was in the right seat. As a
result of the accident, the flight schedules
for the remaining two test aircraft were
stepped up to help compensate for the loss
of the number-one aeroplane.

thc s[rucwral intcgrity of thc aircraft.

Landing performance tcsts arc very demanding

and the mlerances within which the crcw must
operatc are very small. They do not rcprcscnt
the manncr in which thc aircraft is flown undcr
normal airline opcrating conditions.

Amazingly, the aircraft was later repaired

and returned to flying status as the
company's test plane for the digital
automatic-flight control system.
The second Super 80 flight test
accident occurred 19 June 1980 in Yuma,
Arizona, during a simulated hydraulic
failure on landing. The pilot lost
directional control when he reversed
thrust and the aircraft skidded off the
runway, collapsing the landing gear and
substantially damaging the aircraft's
structure.
During the test in Yuma, the MD-81
was not usi ng wi ng slats or flaps and
touched down at about 200mph
(320km/h) - considerably faster than
the normal speed of about 140mph
(225km/h). Again, the investigation
found no evidence of any pre-existing

structural or systems malfunction. The

crew landed during a simulated total
hydraulic failure - no hydraulic pressure,
no flaps or slats, no anti-skid system, no
rudder boost and no nosewheel-steering
controls. The purpose of the test, which
must be performed satisfactorily only
once, was to demonstrate that the
aircraft could be flown and landed safely
with
all
the
hydraulic
systems
inoperative.
Because
of
the
unavailability of flaps and leading-edge
slats, the landing touchdown was made
at the relatively high speed.
The aircraft began to veer to the left
when it landed. The crew applied the
right brakes in an attempt to correct the
drift. That caused the tyre assembly in
the right landing gear to blow. The
aircraft then veered to the right, at
which ti me the pilot appl ied the left
brake to gain control. The tyres on the
left also blew. By then the crew had no

The first MD-87"s fuselage is joined with wings. The aircraft is 17ft 5in (5.3m) shorter than
the four other MD-80 series models. Boeing

~~~~~~

~~\\\

<.,

Employees work on the first MD-87 fuselage

in 1986. Boeing

88

control and the aircraft went off the

runway, coming to rest in sand. The nose
gear and the right main landing gear
broke from the plane before it came to
the rest and the left main wheel
collapsed into its wheel well. On board
were McDonnell Douglas engineering
test pilot Fred
Hamilton, FAA
engineering test pilot George Lyddane
and McDonnell Douglas flight engineer
J. Felix. No one was injured. Lyddane,
the FAA's project pilot for the Super 80
certification programme, was flying the
mission when the crash occurred.
When the aircraft began drifting to the
left after touchdown, Lyddane tried to
correct this by applying the right rudder.
Without hydraulic power to move the
rudder, pushing on the rudder pedal
results in trim tab control deflections
that in turn move the rudder. With the
drift to the left continuing, Lyddane
applied full right rudder-pedal deflection

89

THE FAMILY GROWS: TilE MD-80 SERIES

THE FAMILY GROWS: THE MD-80 SERIES

SIZE COMPARISON
MD-87 VERSUS MD-80

I.
I.

I.

130.4 FT/39.7 m
:
147.9 FT/45.1 m - - - - -

107.8 FT/32.9 m

""ry

130.5 FT/9.29 m
~

A size comparison between the MO-87 and other members of the MO-80 line. Boeing

Legal Challenge

in the cockpit, while attempting to tap

the right hrake gently. lie also moved the
left throttle from reverse thrust to
forward thrust idle, and momentarily
increased reverse thrust on the right
engine. At about the same time,
Hamilton, who was sitting in the right
scat, turned on the aircraft's aux iIiilry
hydraulic pump to provide at least partial
hydraul ic power for nosewheel steering.
In the meantime, Lyddane's application
of the right hrake, combined with the
fact that the aircraft was fast, light and
had an inoperative anti-skid system,
caused the two tyres on the right main
landing gear to hlow out, and the axle
froze when the wheel itself struck the
runway. The combination of asymmetric
braking and asymmetric thrust stopped
the leftward drift of the aircraft but
caused it to swerve to the right.
A ppl ication of the left brake caused the
two tyres on the left main gear to blow
out, but did not slow the swerve to the
right. The test aircraft left the runway to
the right, at a nearly 90-degree angle. As
it sank into the sand beside the runway,
the nose gear and right main landing

To test the Super 80 in real-life

conditions,
McDonnell
Dougla,
employed high-density pilot workout test,
to certify the two-person cockpit. After
rece ivi ng some cri ticism from the pi lot
union that earlier pilot workload tests had
been flown on the West Coast of the
United States and were not representative
of continued
high-density
traffic
operations, the company based an 8ircraft
at Atl811t8'S Hmtsfield International
Airport for nine d8ys of testing. The test,
were broken down into three pilot group,
flying three d8ys e8ch. Each cockpit team
consisted of company and FAA pilot,.
Their actions were monitored by a closed
circuit television camera with a wideangle lens and infrared for night
operation. For the first two days of the
three-day cycle, the aircraft was flown
each day from A t1anta to Charlotte 81111
Richmond, then to Philadelphia, New
York's LaGuardia Airport and on to
Boston. The return trip to Atlanta wa,
made with a stop at Washington's Dulle,
International Airport. The daily flight
schedule accounted for six hours of flight
time and nearly fourteen hours of duty

gear separated from the aircraft and the

left main gear collapsed. The aircraft
came to rest with the fuselage and left
Wingtip resting in the sand, rhe fuselage
nearly parallel to the runway but facing
in the opposite direction from its
position on touchdown. There was no
fire or fuel spill.
To add insult to injury, one of two
large c ra n es hired to ra ise the a irc ra ft
and move it away from the runway
broke, its boom falling across the top of
the fuselage just ahead of the bulkhead,
shearing the fuselage down to window
level.
As a result of the accidents, the Air
Line Pilots Association asked the FAA to
hold up certification until problems
discovered in flight testing were resolved.
The same pilot, using the third MD-81
test aircraft, successfully repeated the test
on 21 August 1980. The FAA revised the
procedures for the test prior to the repeat
demonstration, permitting usc of the
brake anti-skid system and placing
primary reliance for stopping on the
brakes rather than on engine thrust
reverse.

90

time. The remaining two pilot groups

then flew the same schedule.
During the nine days,
various
emergencies and abnormal procedures
were given to the cockpit crews as they
might happen in flight, including engineout landings, electrical and hydraulic
failures and even pilot incapacitation.
Test results found that pilot workload on
the new aircraft was significantly reduced
over earl ier DC-9 models. Th is made it
even more difficult for potential operators
to be convinced of ALPA's point of view
that the MD-80 should be flown only
with three-person crews.
This argument - essentially a W8Y to
create more pilot jobs even though pilots
themsel ves agreed a two-person crew
would work the best - led to legal
wrangling that delayed Super 80
certi fication.
The political and philosophical debate
ver the virtues of a three-member crew
vs. two members divided the normally
unified ALPA. Pilots within the union
questioned
the
need
for
three
rewmembers, feeling that the aircraft
auld be flown safely and efficiently by
nly two pilots. Since McDonnell
ouglas launched the Super 80, calling it
a stretched version of carl ier DC-9s,
ALPA had adamantly opposed its
ertification as a two-person aircraft. The
union considered the MD-8! an all-new
aircraft, unrelated to its immediate
predecessor, the DC-9-50, which ALI)A
aid would be the last of the two-person
aircraft. ALPA's argument centred on the
need for a third pair of eyes in the cockpit
amid projections of more crowded skies in
the future.
But as certification for the aircraft
neared, pilots of several airlines expressed
views supporting the two-person position.
hey felt that increased competition in
the US market, combined with a sluggish
~conomy, threatened pilot work security, a
problem that would be compounded if the
union continued to insist on the addition
o( a third pilot for the new aircraft. Others
pointed out that DC-9s had been flown
safely for fifteen years without a third
rew member, and that a third crew
member would be a distraction because he
or she would have very little to do.
Also expressing early doubt about the
,tircraft was Europilote, then known as the
I:uropean Organization of Airline Pilots
\ssociations. The group said it was
'oncerned about certification of the M D-

81 with a two-man crew; that this would

be 'to the detriment of the safety of the
European travelling public.' The group
even claimed th8t, without a three-person
crew, the MD-80 series' sales potential in
Europe would be seriously jeopardized.
The number of pilots wasn't ALPA's
only concern. In late 1980, the union
considered 8 strike to protest certification
of the M D-81. A lawsuit at the time
accused the FAA of eight charges
pertaining to the certification process,
including:
Improper reliance on the equipment,
testing, personnel, data, analysis and
conclusions
of
the
aircraft
manufacturer.
Exclusion from the certification process
of interested representatives from the
publ ic.
Arbitrary and unjustified rejection of
proposals for aircraft modification.
Ignoring demands on the flight crews.
Inadequate
investigation
of the
accidents involving test aircraft.
Concealing
of
critical
safety
information.
ALPA also claimed four tests it
considered essential were not conducted
prior to issuing the MD-81's operating
certificate. A LPA's stance was so
influential that two US carriers, Hawaiian
Airlines and Southern Airways, delayed
orders (or the aircraft until the issues were
resolved.
Among other things, ALPA claimed,
the flight testing and evaluation did not
involve routes with difficult workloads for
pilots. The union charged:
There w,,, "pp"rendy linle or no rigorous
te,t ing of the crew, under truly advcrse
conditiom. There w"s apparently very linle
flying under difficult weather conditions
there were only

<l

few night 1<ll1dings

the

plain fact is th"t ALPA memhers fly more

difficult segments and trips every day and facc
more

real

emcrgencics

th'1I1

thc

FAA

manufacturer tc;ting for the Super 80.

This legal action eventually would be

dropped.
Another problem was manufacturing.
Prior to certification, McDonnell Douglas
intensified its work on the MD-8! in an
effort to reduce programme delays caused
in part by material shortages and by two
lahour strikes. Originally, the type had

97

been scheduled for first flight in Mayor

June 1979. Much of the programme
slippage stemmed from the three-monthlong United Automobile and Aerospace
Workers Union strike at McDonnell
Douglas facilities in 1978. The walkout
resulted in a cutback of production line
activity for the DC-9 and DC-IO
programmes, and it slowed initial MD-81
work. This was compounded by a strike by
the
International
Brotherhood
of
Electrical Workers Union the same year.
Although that walkout did not involve as
many company employees as did the
UAW strike, it did affect workers in some
key MD-81 activities. The UAW strike in
particular affected work on the aircraft
mock-up and development.
Scheduling was furthcr complicated by
rapidly increasing lead times for materials
and by growing workloads at some of the
mach ine shoJls con tracted by the
company. On top of that were the usual
problems typically cxperienced when
introducing a new aircraft model.
To counter these delays, McDonnell
Douglas took several steps aimcd at
accelerating the pace of thc programme.
One action was to move thc fi rst tlVO M D81 models from thc DC-9 assembly line to
a special area of the Long Beach assembly
building after the basic assembly process
had been completcd. This allowed a
dedicated tcam to continue working on
the new model at an intensificd level. The
company also established a third shift.
In addition, the comp8ny increased the
flight test programme from two fully
instrumented models to three planes - a
move rhat proved bcneficial after the
original two were involved in accidents.
Under the original plan, two M D-80s
were to be fitted with flight-test
instrumentation and a third was to be
used for additional flight evaluations and
for customer demonstrations. All threc
aircraft were instrumented and shared
these duties during flight tcsting.
In 8ddition to extensive focus on the
two flight-test accidents, the FAA also
brought to light 8 third potentially
hazardous incident that occurred during
the flight test programme. This involved a
stall, which occurred in the first flight test
aircraft on 17 December 1979, ncar
Blythe, California. The aircraft was being
flown by a company flight crew to
evaluate both a stall-warning system
speed-schedule and thc accompanying
stall handling characteristics of the

THE FAMILY GROWS: THE MD-80 SERIES

aircraft. After the stall pitched the aircraft

downward, the crew pulled up to avoid
the mountains below, clearing the peaks
by about 2,000ft (600m) after having lost
about 7,000ft (2,100m) during the stall.
The aircraft returned to Yuma with no
damage.
Despite these issues, the FAA certified
the MD-81 on 25 August 1980 following a 1,085hr flight-test programme
- with a two-person crew, like all previous
DC-9 models. Certification had been
expected a month earlier, but the FAA
delayed the step because of the two
accidents. Not willing to drop the issue,
ALPA filed a lawsuit on the same day
asking the court to review the process
used to certify the Super 80. Despite those
charges, the FAA dismissed the
contention that the aircraft coulJ not be
flown safely with less than three

crewmembers in the cockpit. The type

certification award was accompanied by
an unusually lengthy justification that the
aircraft would be safe for operations.
The final test prior to certification was
the same simulated hydraulic system
fa iIure land ing that had ended ina crash
months earlier. Donald Armstrong, head
of the aircraft's certification study team,
said testing of the Super 80 was 'by far the
most comprehensive evaluation ever
performed on an aircraft'. FAA engineers
and others had spent some 30,000 hours
on the certification of the type in addition
to actual fI igh I' testi ng.
FAA Administrator Langhorne Bond
told reporters his decision to certify the
aircraft was based on recommendations

THE FAMILY GROWS: THE MD-80 SERIES

from FAA employees and outside

consultants. 'I have specifically considered
their evaluation of the crew complement
issue,' he said, 'and concur in their
findings that two-crewmember operation
of the DC-9-80 will provide a high level of
safety rightfully demanded by today's
travelling public.' He added that there
were no discernible differences in the
safety records of the DC-9 and Boei ng 73 7,
which both have a two-pilot crew, and
those of aircraft with a third person in the
cockpit. Besides, there was simply no room
in the cockpit for three crew members, and
massive restructuring would have been
required on the Super 80 for a third pilot.
Boeing also released a study at the time
showing that two-crew planes such as the

The 130-passenger MD-87 combines newer cockpit technology with the family's proven
track of success. Boeing

MD-80 Nicknames

With its long, sleek body and thin wings, the MD-80
series has, over the years, collected a number of
whimsical nicknames. Here are some of the monikers
used by pilots, ground staff and passengers:
Mad Dog
Mighty Dog
Skidbuggy
Gucci Jet
Super Snake
Stubby
Lawn Dart,
Noodle,
Flying Cigarette

The most common nickname is

based on the letters Mand Dfor
McDonnell Douglas.
Another reference to its initials.
This name was given to the MD80 for its occasional tendency to
skid on the runway.
Refers to the aircraft's California
heritage.
An American Airlines term for its
MD80s.
Aterm used to describe the MD87, the shortest offshoot of the
MD-80 family.
For its long, thin look.

737, DC-9, BAC-l1, Fokker F28 and the

aravelle 'are superior to three-crew
,1eroplanes in terms of safety'. Bond told
ongress the day before the aircraft was
rmally certified that 'I have found that
the DC-9-80 is capable of being flown
~afely with two crew members'.
McDonnell Douglas president John
Brizendine accepted the FAA certificate
rom John Mattson, the agency's Western
director, during a brief ceremony in Long
ach on 26 August 1980. The certificate
was technically an amendment to the
nriginal DC-9 type-certificate awarded to
I)ouglas in November 1965.
'The DC-9 Super 80, as all DC-9s have
heen, is designed to be operated by a crew
ll( two,' Brizendine said. 'The aeroplane is
Icsigned from the ground up for that. We
Irc satisfied it's safe and the FAA is
lLisfied.' He reiterated that the MD-80
red a 40 per cent reduction in crew
workload and that, with its safety fearmes,
I sLringent certification process concluded
I lwo-person crew was appropriate.
ertification was significant in that a
llccessful challenge by ALPA over a 1'1'.10,'crson cockpit could have set the stage for
f"lure battles over certification of the
l\l1cing 767 and 757, and Airbus A310,
Icw-generation transports that were
lcaring production at the time - both
\ nh two-person crews.
he certification programme received
IHlch industry attention since it was the
IISL major commercial aircraft to undergo

92

the certification process following the

crash of an American Airlines DC-I0 at
Chicago in 1979, which lost one of its
engines on takeoff. So while MD-81
flight testing and certification didn't
differ significantly from programmes
conducted for previous DC-9 models, the
FAA required more complete and
detailed documentation. Since the MD81 was more than a simple stretch of the
DC-9, the FAA required special
attention to several issues during the
certification process, including the new
d igi ta I fI igh t-gu idance system, the headup display and the automatic reservethrust system.
With certification, the FAA found the
MD-81 surpassed the most stringent noise
requirements. In fact, the Super 80 was
the first short- to medium-haul transport
to meet Stage 3 noise regulations. While
the FAA set a maximum level of 100
decibels measured as perceived noise
level, the aircraft on landing was shown to
be 93.3 decibels The Super 80 also
bettered the standard for sideline noise
(measured next to runways), registering
94.6, compared with the standard of 96.2.
The takeoff noise was 90.4, compared
with the federal standard of 90.6. The
Super 80 was only required to meet the
less stringent standards of Stage 2, which
would have allowed noise levels almost
twice as high in some operations. Testing
for noise consisted of 100 fI yovers
measuring sound levels with different
engine power settings and aircraft
weights, with the FAA monitoring the
tests and reviewing data.
With certification in hand, McDonnell
Douglas continued to aggressively market
the aircraft, saying in advertisements that
the Super 80's operating costs per seatmile were lower than any aircraft in its
class, and that it offered 20 to 40 per cent
better fuel efficiency, and that its noise is
just one-fifth of comparable aircraft at the
ti me.
At the time of certification, McDonnell
Douglas had eighty-seven firm orders from
twelve airlines, with twenty-eight
conditional orders and options under
negotiation. At the time, McDonnell
Douglas was building five aircraft a
month. Certification - along with
approval for a two-person flight crew opened the doors to additional sales. 11'
also meant the fi rst M 0-81 could be
delivered the following month to launch
customer Swissair.

93

A few tests sti II had to be done after the

aircraft was certified. One was the
minimum air-distance landing test that
resulted in severe damage to the fi rst M 081. Until the test was successfully
completed in the fall of 1980, MD-80s in
commercial service had to operate to
longer minimum runway lengths than
originally planned, as has been previously
mentioned. Also remaining to be
completed was certification of the aircraft
for Category lila automatic landings. This
was expected to have been finished by the
time of certification of the aircraft, but
delays in some facets of the aircraft's
d igi tal automatic fI igh t-gu idance system
development had precluded on-time
certificarion of the autoland capability.
The FAA also noted in its certification
summary that some failures in the
computer software of the flight guidance
system were not verified to be detectable
by one or more of the various monitors.
11' wasn't until July 1981 that the issue
su rrou nd ing a two-person crew was
finally settled for good. A presidential
Worldwide Suppliers

It takes a world to make an aircraft. Parts were provided from 250 suppliers, just as other DC-9 models
relied on other nations for manufacturing support
from throughout the world. About 25 per cent of the
first MD-80 models' struc!ure (wing, outboard flaps,
ailerons, tail stub, floors, empennage and rudderl
were the responsibility of McDonnell Douglas's plant
in Toronto, Canada. Company plants in Tulsa, Oklahoma; Melbourne, Arkansas; and Huntington Beach,
Torrance and Compton, California, also played key
roles. Major international suppliers for the MD-80
series over the years have included:
Aeritalia, Italy - fuselage panels
Hawker de Havilland, Australia - elevator
Saab-Scania, Sweden - inboard flaps and vanes
Swiss Federal. Switzerland - inboard slats
CASA, Spain - emergency exit doors
China - main landing gear doors (later assembly of
entire aircraftl
Major US suppliers have included:
Reynolds Metals Co. - most of the skin panels for
the wings
Rohr Corp. - nacelles
Goodyear Aerospace - lyres
Pneuma Corp. -landing gear (with France's
Messier-Hispano-Bugatti)
Calcar - pylons
Ahost of other suppliers provided instruments and
specialty equipment, including material used for the
flight deck.

THE FAMILY GROWS: THE MD-80 SERIES

THE FAMILY GROWS: THE MD-80 SERIES

Z. New, more powerful and fuel-efficient Pratt

& Whitney engine, are hou,ed in redesigned

and acoustically-insulated nacelles. Matched
with the aerodynamically efficient new
wing, rhey give you sca['lnilc costs well
belo\\' thme of any jetliner no\\' Oying, and
give your passengers remarkable quiet.

3. The DC-9 Super 80 sound is expected

to

affect hut one-fifth the nearby community

areas

affected

by

current

jetliners

of

comparahle si:c - a solution to a community

relation> prohlem I

4. The classy look of the DC-9 Super 80 is in

parr due to a new wing, redesigned for
greater fuel capacity and greater lift to help
your airline

01' more people

to more of the

places they want to go.

task force concluded that the Super 80,

as well as other aircraft entering the
market, could be flown safely with two
pilots, and that implementation of a list
of suggested improvements to the FAA's
certification procedures could ensure
proper certification of those new jets.
The determination by the three-member
panel,
chaired
by
former
FAA
administrator John McLucas, was in
direct contradiction to ALPA, whose
threat of a strike prompted White House
appointment of the task force. The task
force said the FAA's certification of the
MD-81 for two-person crews 'was proper
and in compliance'.
In the end, delays affected deliveries
of the first twenty or so MD-8Is,
involving a handful of airlines,
including Swissair, Pacific Southwest
(PSA) and Austrian Airlines, which
had to either delay new services or defer
the retirement of some planes.
Deliveries to Swissair began in
September 1980. As the launch carrier,
Swissa ir ordered fi fteen Super 80s wi th

Japan's lDA (later Japan Airline System) was the first Asian operator of the MD-87, which is designed for
routes with less traffic than other members of the family. Boeing
options on five more. Austrian Airlines'
order for nine plus three options was
also instrumental in the October 1977
decision to go ahead with aircraft
production. Pacific Southwest was the
first US carrier to take delivery of the
jet, and was the biggest early customer
with twenty aircraft on order and six
options. In using the MD-81 to replace
727s, the California carrier (later
absorbed by USAir), found the aircraft
saved about $1 million a year in total
cost over the 727, mostly in fuel. PSA
found the Super 80 to be 40 per cent
more fuel-efficient than the 727. Other
early customers for the aircraft were
Republic, Japan's TOA Domestic
Airlines, Hawaiian Airlines, Austral
Lineas Aereas, Aeromexico, GATX
Leasing, McDonnell Douglas Finance
Corp., lnex Adria Airways, Air
California, Midway and Polaris Aircraft
Leasing Corp.

94

Production
Strictly speaking, the DC-9-80 could be
considered as only the latest derivative in
a remarkable line of progressively larger
and more advanced DC-9s. But the Super
80 was more than that. There were so
many innovations incorporated into the
aircraft that McDonnell Douglas could lay
claim to introducing the first jetliner to
enter commercial service in the I980s.
With the Super 80 III service,
McDonnell Douglas promoted it to
airlines in advertising that appeared in
industry magazines and newspapers, The
ads focused on four key points:
I. Many pas,engers think the hcst pent of the

DC,9 is th<-1[ its fivc,across scats arc as \vidc

as those on wide-eahin jetliners. And our
new widc-Iook cabin helps passcngcrs feel

e\'en more comfortable, never squishcd in a~

on othcr standard-hody jetliners.

Despite the new model's many attributes,

it entered the market at a difficult stage in
the industry. Although quieter and more
'ue! efficient than other medium-range
jets on the market at the time, recession"rone airlines did not have the money to
buy as many as McDonnell Douglas had
hoped to sell. That made it more
hallenging to recoup the $200 million
(in late-1970s value) spent in research
and development funds.
The company's Douglas Aircraft
division, which had not recorded a profit
since Douglas was taken over by
McDonnell in 1967, had been counting
nn the Super 80 to help turn earnings
.\round. It also figured that the technically
sophisticated aircraft would help to restore
I he company's image, which was tarnished
hy the 1979 crash of a DC-lOin Chicago,
(me caused by faulty maintenance.
McDonnell Douglas's hopes for the new
.\ircraft also were threatened by the plunge
In airline earnings. That put some carriers
In the position of selling planes, not
hllying them.
With the fi rst del ivery com pleted, the
focus turned to producing the new model
,'ven as older DC-9s were still coming off
the assembly line. Super 80 production
lias integrated into the existing DC-9-30,
10 and -50 assembly lines, Despite all its
Iinprovements, the DC-9-80 was sti II 80
per cent common to its DC-9-50
1'1 edecessor.
he company had projected a market
lor about 300 of the aircraft. Blit with
llntinued
advancement
and
1111[lrovements, plus derivatives to satiSfy
the increasingly complex needs of
llstomers, the MD-80 series went on to
,,1\ four times that many, a testament to

the type's popu lari ty, econom ics and

response to market needs. Four other
models would be introduced after the
MD-81 over the course of a decade. Just
like the DC-9 before it, this new line was
offered as a family to better appeal to
customer nexibility, 'Airlines like a family
concept,' explains Callaghan, the retired
Douglas
engi neer.
'It
provides
commonality in parts and maintenance
and for pilot training. The airlines like it
for those reasons. It also gives them the
ability to use the same family of aircraft
for different route structures,'
Starting with the baseline DC-9-81,
McDonnell Douglas quickly introduced
the DC-9-82 for improved 'hot and high'

performance, and the higher gross-weight

DC-9-83, offering greater range. First
known strictly as the DC-9-81, DC-9-82
and DC-9-83, all three versions were redesignated as the MD-81, MD-82 and
MD-83 in June 1983. (The MD-80
designation is a generic description for the
series and does not apply to a specific
model type, Only the later M 0-88 is
officially designated by the FAA as 'MD88.')
One of the Super 80's first victories was
a thirty-aircraft order from Alitalia in
1982, the largest commercial jet order to
date for McDonnell Douglas, in terms of
dollars. The order helped to stabilize
layoff-plagued employment levels at the

How American Airlines Saved the MD-80 Series

While McDonnell Douglas was certain it had a winner

with the Super 80, the airline industry's financial turmoil in the late 1970s and early 1980s led to disappointing initial sales. In fact. the timeframe was one of
the worst droughts ever for commercial jetliner orders,
During the first two years of the MD-80 family's service
life, the company had delivered sixty-two aircraft but
recorded just 127 firm and conditional orders, and none
by a major US carrier. The company's board of directors
was growing impatient with the Super 80, and authorized the selling price to be dropped to the breakeven
point just to get the programme moving,
The airlines, coming out of a recession, were too
broke to pay for new planes. And McDonnell Douglas
faced an evaporating production line and a tarmac full
of 'white tails' - aircraft without markings because
they didn't have owners. It took an ingenious deal to
get production going again, a financial agreement that
would revamp the Super 80 and, arguably, save the aircraft from extinction.
In early 1984, American Airlines was desperate to
upgrade its aging fleet. The airline's legendary chief
executive, Robert Crandall, had considered re-engining
American's 80eing 727s. McDonnell Douglas stressed
the competitiveness of the MD-80 series, which, at
about the same base price as the 727, was at least 20
per cent less expensive to operate. Crandall bit but
wasn't ready to commit. Then the company came to
him with an offer he could not refuse.
Instead of selling the new planes, the aircraft maker
oHered to lease them to the airline - a five-year lease
on twenty MD-82s, with an option of a thirteen-year
extension, in a fly-before-buy deal that McDonnell
Douglas hoped to convert to sales later. American did
not have to pay any money down and, for a small
penalty, could return the aircraft with thirty days'
notice at a cost of less than $2 million per aircraft.
With lease payments about the same as paying interest on a brand-new plane, American had an easy and
inexpensive way to upgrade its fleet. But there was
one catch. Under the lease, McDonnell would get a
slim share of the profits if the aircraft attained a high
rate of productivity while operating for American.

95

Engine maker Pratt & Whitney also shared in the

unique deal in an amount equal to the value of the
engines in comparison with total aircraft cost - about
20 per cent.
The arrangement required adding only the cancellation liabilities to the carrier's balance sheet, rather
than the full cost of the lease. For McDonnell Douglas
this deal meant steady production rates, which eliminated the heavy costs of cutting output and rebuilding
it later, a move that may have led to the programme's
cancellation - or even the end of the company's commercial aircraft production. At the time of the lease
agreement. only three Super 80s were coming off the
production line per month - hardly a profitable venture.
Under this arrangement American Airlines placed a
$1.35 billion order for sixty-seven MD-82s. American
also took options for an additional 100 aircraft, pushing
the potential sale over the $3 billion mark. The agreement led to the first delivery to American in May 1983.
American used the MD-82s on short- to medium-range
routes throughout North America, replacing some of
the airline's oldest Boeing 727s. The leased MD-80s
turned out to be 37 per cent more fuel eHicient than
the three-engine 727.
This unprecedented method of leasing that many aircraft, a first in aviation, had major implications for the
airline industry, where cash-poor carriers sought cheap
ways to modernize their fuel-guzzling fleets, and for the
aircraft industry, which had been struggling to get new
orders. After determining how good an aircraft it was,
American ordered more, eventually operating more than
300 MD-80 series aircraft - by far the largest in the
world. Similar deals were later reached with TWA, AIitalia and Finnair, further strengthening the MD-80 line's
customer base with big names in aviation.
TWA agreed to lease fifteen aircraft for delivery in
1983 and 1984. The arrangement enabled the airline to
add new planes to its fleet as it retired older, less fueleHicient jets without incurring long-term debt. TWA's
lease, along with American's ground-breaking deal.
jump-started the MD-80 line, Had those orders not
come thorough, McDonnell Douglas was looking at a
backlog of only seven aircraft by the end of 1982.

till

THE FAMILY GROWS: THE MD-SO SERIES

MD-80 Terminology

The MD-BB is the only model of the MD-BO series that

is designated as such. The earlier models are officially designated DC-9-Bl/-B2/-B3/-B7. This is indicated
on aeroplane data plates near the cockpit, although
the Federal Aviation Administration allows the MD
designator to appear in parenthesis in official paperwork. For example: DC-9-Bl (MD-B1).

Long Bertch plant. Alitalia became the

twentieth airline to operate the Super 80,
and the ninth to order the type in 1982.
The deal also stretched-out production of
the model from 1984 to 1986, ensuring a
longer-term future for the M 0-80 series
and continued interest from other
airlines. Alitalia would go on to build its
domestic and regional network based on
the MD-80 family.
Like many other new commercial aircraft
programmes, the M0-80 series started off
slowly, despite the Italian order. 'Airlines
saw it wasn't selling well,' Callaghan says.
'McDonnell Douglas wasn't doing well
financially, so their opinion was "l'm not
going to buy it". That feeds on itself. But
then the company had an idea.' McDonnell
Douglas approached American Airlines,
offering a chance to try the MO-80 family
on a lease. If the airline didn't like it, it
could return the aircraft. But if airline
officials did like it, as McDonnell Douglas
hoped, American would order more, jumJlstarting production. 'That turned it
around,' Callaghan says. 'One major order
and it worked.'

THE FAMILY GROWS: THE MD-SO SERIES

in August 1981. A second version of the

MD-82 was certified in mid-1982 with
improved JT8D-217 A engines and
higher maximum takeoff weight, which
provided a range increase with a full
payload of UJl to 575 miles (925km),
bringing the aeroJllane's range with
maximum payload to 2,300 miles
(3, 700km). A later version extended
range to 2,762 miles (4,445km),
providing charter operators with a hightech, low-noise twinjet caJlable of
reaching Mediterranean resort areas and
the Canary Islands from northern
Europe.
Republic Airlines, at the time the
largest operator of the DC-9 family, took
delivery of the first MD-82 on 5 August
1981. The M 0-82 has a gross weight of

147,0001b (66,678kg), compared with the

MD-81's gross weight of 140,0001h
(63,504kg).
Initial deliveries of the JT8D-217Jlowered MD-82 went to Republic and
Aeromexico in August 1982. The MD82 was later delivered to such carriers as
Alaska Airlines, Alitalia, ALM,
American Airlines, Austrian, Avianca,
hina Eastern, China Northern,
Continental
Airlines,
Crossair,
Taiwan's Far Eastern Air Transport,
Finnair,
Korean
Air, Meridiana,
Midwest Express, SAS, Spanair and
TWA.
With 575 copies produced bctwcen
1981 and 1997, the M 0-82 was the
most popular member of the MO-80
series.

Tail Cones

Among the few external visual differences between

different MD-BO models is the tail cone, the piece at
the end of the fuselage, below the tail. The end of
the fuselage was originally designed as a pointy
end, but was modified in later models into a
smoother, wedge-like tail cone also known as a
beaver tail.
Wedge-shaped tail cones provide a 1.5 per cent
gain in fuel efficiency because this newer tail cone is
more aerodynamic, producing less drag. DC-9s and
older MD-BO models. including the -Bl, -B2 and -B3,
all had rounded tail cones, while MD-B7s, -BBs, -90s
and the Boeing 717 all have the wedge-shaped tail
cones. Beginning in 19B6, McDonnell Douglas
switched to wedge cones, and retrofit modifications
were made available for older models so airlines
could take advantage of the new design to reduce
drag and save fuel.

Tail cones provide for an additional emergency exit.

In an emergency, passengers can enter the tail cone
area through an emergency door and pull a cord that
pops open the tail cone and inflates a slide. The MDBO series has two ways to exit through the tail cone. In
a minor accident, the stairs can be used. In an emergency where the slide is needed, the door must first be
in the armed position. When the handle is turned, it
releases a catwalk from the ceiling, which slams down
over the stairs, revealing a walkway to the tail cone.
Passengers then follow the arrows to a red handle, and
pull back on it. This releases the tail cone to the side of
the escape path and inflates the slide.

MD-83
The extended-range MD-83 (DC-9-83)
was first announced on 31 January 1983.
The MD-83, the next most popular
member of the growing line, flew for the
first time on 17 December 1984, with
enhanced JT8D-219 powerplants, and
with additional new fuel tanks fore and aft
f the centre section of the aircraft. This
increased the weight of the plane, so the
floor, wi ngs and undercarriage were
strengthened to cope with the increased
weight. The passenger capacity was the
same as the M 0-81 and MD-82.
Deliveries to launch customer Alaska
Airlines began on 19 October 1985.
ther operators of the M 0-83 have
included Aero Lloyd, Aeromexico,
American Airlines, AOM, Austrian,
BW1A, Centennial, Crossair, Edelweiss
Air, Finnair, SAS, Spanair, Sunway,
ranswede and TWA.
On 14 November 1985, a Finnair MDmade the longest ever M 0-80 series
night, covering 3,920 miles (6,308km)
'rom Montreal to Helsinki in seven hours
twenty-six minutes. This model was also
the first in the family to be used on a
regularly scheduled transatlantic night. A

Swedish airline, Transwede, used the type

on service between Stockholm and Fort
Lauderdale, Florida, with stops at Oslo
and Gander, Newfoundland. Five MD-83s
built in China were completed in 1993.
A total of 260 MD-83s were built
between 1985 and 1999.

The Chinese Connection

MD-87
On 4 December 1986, Douglas initiated
night testing of a new, shorter variant, the
MD-87 (DC-9-87). With an overall
length of 130ft Sin (39.75m) - slightly
longer than the DC-9-30 - the MD-87
was specifically designed to serve routes
with lower traffic at a capacity sized
between the DC-9-30 and the MD-81
through MD-83 models.
Seating between
107 and 139
passengers, the M 0-87 incorporated all
the structural, technological and avionics
improvements of the MD-80 series but
represented a more direct replacement for
the DC-9 in terms of passenger capacity.
As a reversal of the trend to stretch the
DC-9 and M 0-80 series, the M 0-87
combines
the
advanced
features
introduced on the MD-80 series into a

Just seventy-live MD-87s were built between 1987 and 1992. This one is shown in
McDonnell Douglas house colours. Boeing

MO-80 series have two diHerent styles of tail cones. The

flat, wedge-like shaped tail cone (rear) was introduced
in 1986 and made available as retrofits to enhance fuel
eHiciency. Chris Coduta

MD-82
A total of 134 MO-8Is were built between
1980-1994, selling the stage for another
successful model. The MO-8l was
followed by four other M 0-80 series
aircraft, each looking the same - with the
exception of the shorter M 0-87 - but
offering various weights, ranges and
slightly different JT8D-200 engines.
The MO-82 (DC-9-82), the second
version of this JloJlular (amily, was
announced on 16 April 1979, before the
M 0-81 even entered service. Powered by
higher-thrust JT8D-2l7 engines for better
performance at airJlorts in hot-weather or
high-altitude conditions, the MD-82 was
designed for increased Jlayload while
keeJling the same cabin size as the MD-81.
This variant's first night was on 8
January 1981, and was certified by July
of that year, enabling it to enter service

96

17ft Sin (5.3m) shorter fuselage. The MD87 was the first in the series with EF1S,
with two night-management control
systems, rtnd hertd-up display (HUD) as
standard equipment. EFIS, the forerunner
to the all-glass cockpit found on today's

97

The MD-BO family's success drew attention from the

People's Republic of China's Civil Aviation Authority.
After purchasing two MD-B2s in 19B4. China proposed a plan to co-produce the aircraft with McDonnell Douglas in Shanghai. Within months of this
unique collaborative effort - during the throes of the
Cold War - the Long Beach facility began readying
parts and subassemblies for shipment to China.
An agreement was signed on 12 April 19B5, for
Shanghai Aviation Industrial Corporation to assemble
twenty-four of the twenty-six MD-B2s ordered by
China. By 1990, ten additional aircraft were assembled in China. Eventually, thirty-five MD-BO series aircraft assembled in China were operating in that country. The first Chinese-assembled MD-B2 flew on 2
July 19B7, and entered service on 4August. Shanghai
Aviation Industrial Corporation assembled the aircraft
and made its tail and landing gear doors. Another Chinese company, Chengdu Aircraft Industrial Corporation, assembled the nose sections, for MD-BO series
aircraft built both in China and the United States.
A19BO contract to produce 200 landing gear doors
marked the first time an American aircraft maker had
asked the Chinese to make parts and laid the groundwork for future manufacturing collaborations.

THE FAMILY GROWS: THE MD-80 SERIES

THE FAMILY GROWS: THE MD-80 SERIES

Despite higher seat-mile costs due to a

shorter fuselage, SAS and other
customers urged McDonnell Douglas to
build the MD-87. The company
launched development on 3 January
1985, following orders from Finnair and
Austrian in December 1984. The model's
first flight took place on 4 December
1986, with FAA certification coming on
21 October 1987 (hence the name MD87). The first MD-87 was delivered to
Finnair on I November 1987, although
the airline no longer operates the type.
MD-87 sales were limited, and mainly
to traditional McDonnell Douglas
customers, incl ud ing Iberia (twentyour), SAS (eighteen) and Japan
Airline
System
(eight).
Smaller
perators have included Finnair, Aero
Lloyd, Aeromexico, Austrian, Spirit,
Reno Air, Vanguard and American
Airlines. A total of just seventy-five
MD-87s were produced between 1987
nd 1992.

production jetliners, upgraded the cockpit

from mechanical gauges to electronic
ones.
Its Pratt & Whitney JT8D-217C
engines are about 2 per cent more
efficient than the -217 A model. The MD87 also features the cruise performance
improvements introduced
in lateproduction MD-80s, including the
extended low-drag tail cone, fillet fairing
between the engine pylons and fuselage
and low-drag flap-hinge fairings. The
model also has a I(t (JOcm) higher tail to
compensate for its shorter fuselage.
The MD-87, like the subsequent MD88, has a significant amount of advanced

MD-88
The final member of the MD-80 family
was the MD-88, the only model in the
family with a type certificate different to
its predecessors. The MD-88 was certified
as the MD-88 (as opposed to DC-9-87 for
the MD-87) because its more modern
avionics and other upgrades were enough
to c1~ssify it as an entirely different
aircraft model.
The M 0-88 combines the airframe and
engines of the MD-83 with the EFISequipped cockpit and more modern
cabin interior of the MD-87. All of the
major improvements implemented into
the MD-80 line over its production run
were incorporated into the MD-88,
particularly avionics. The MD-88
combines power from the most fuel
efficient and quietest JT8D model, the
-219, with EFIS cockpit displays, a flight

A schematic of the MD-88 cockpit, whose cathode ray tubes and other electronic equipment replaced the
many analogue gauges found on earlier family members. Boeing

The MD-88 was the final version of the MD-80 series. Its advanced cockpit ensures that the type will
continue to fly for years to come. Boeing

composite materials to help reduce

aircraft weight. These materials are used
on the wing spoilers and ailerons, rudders
and tabs, inboard wing trailing edge,
wing-root fillet, tail cone, floor panels,
overhead baggage compartments, cargo
compartment liners, and galley and
lavatory components. Available as
options were extra front and rear cargo
compartment auxiliary fuel tanks to
extend range.
AI though shorter deri vati ves of ex isti ng
models are typically less efficient th~n

tretches - they carry the same systems

and engines but a shrunken fuselage, and
hence can carry fewer revenue-producing
passengers McDonnell
Douglas
promoted the MD-87 as costing less to
operate, being able to fit lower market
demand routes, and providing airlines
with the ability to swap a smaller aircraft
during off-peak times while continuing
family commonality. 'Meet MD-87, the
th ri fty,
dependable,
peop Ie-popu lar
answer to your complete fleet needs,' a
company sales brochure touted.

LI

LI

nno

nIJ

The MD-80/MD-90 Family

MD-81

MD-82

MD-83

MD-87

18 Oct 1979
13 Sep 1980

8 jan 1981
5 Aug 1981

17 Dec 1984
19 Oct 1985

4Dec 1986
1 Nov 1987

Republic

Alaska

Finnair

Delta

W jT8D209
-- -IP&

P&WjT8D-217

P&W jT8D219

P&W jT8D217

172

172

P&W JT8D219
172

147ft lOin (45.0501)

147ft lOin (45.05~ ~ft 4in (39.7501)

160,0001b
149,5001b
(67,810kg)
m,575kg)

First flight
First delivery
~tomer

~vissair

~ines

Max. seats

Length
Max. gross
takeoff weight
Number built
Final delivery

172
J47ft lOin (45.0501)
140,0001b
(63,500kg)
134
20 jun 1994

149,0001b
(67,810kg)
575 (35 in China)
17 Nov 1997

I-

MD-88
15Aug 1987
19 Dec 1987

139

260
28 Dec 1999

_.

I-

- ;J..
23 Mar 1992

MD-90
22Feb 1993
24 Feb 1995
Delta

IAE V2500
172
152ft 6in (46.5 101)

147ft lOin (45.0501)

160,0001b

168,0001b

m,575kg)
150

m,575kg)
114 (2 in China)

8 Dec 1993

Delivered 21 Dec
1999, but not accept

Customer

I--

japan Air System

management system, onboanl windshear

detection system and a higher use of
composites in its structure. EFIS and the
fI igh t
managemen t
system
were
retrofitted into other members of the
MD-80 series.
The MD-88 offers a redesigned cabin
for 142 passengers (14 first class and 128
coach seats), a wider aisle and redesigned
overhead bins. The first flight of this final
MD-80 series model took place on 15
August 1987. It entered service with
Delta Air Lines, which ordered 125 of the
type on 5 January 1988, out of its hubs in
Atlanta, Dallas and Cincinnati.
MD-88s have served such airlines as
Aerolineas Argentinas, Aeromexico,
Air Aruba, Aviaco and Midwest
Express in addition to Delta. A total of
150 MD-88s were built between 1987
and 1993.

U-Land Airlines

TWA

---

98

t-

SAS

ed until Feb 2000

Delta

Saudi Arabian

99

THE FAMILY GROWS: THE MD-80 SERIES

THE FAMILY GROWS: THE MD-80 SERIES

TWA. the first Douglas customer with the DC-1. operated DC-9-30s. -40s and -50s and was the last customer for the MD-80 series. Shown is the 717 in the airline's
colours. Ralph Olsen, Flying Images Worldwide

provides passenger comfort. It's a rugged

plane - airlines beat it up ten hours
every day. The seat-mile costs are good.
We built an aircraft that gave airlines
the ability to make money and stay on
schedule.'
Above: Cockpit of a Delta Air lines MD-88.
Chris Coduto

End of the Line

Leh: A close-up of the MD-88 cockpit shows the
advantages of digital technology. Boeing

Did the MD-80 family exceed sales

expectations? 'Oh, by a million miles,'
recalls Callaghan, the retired engineer.
'We ended up with really impressive
numbers. But that was no surprise. For the
DC-9, Douglas predicted ISO would be
sold. We actually produced 976. The MD80 just continued that success.'
'No one in their wildest dreams would
have envisioned a thirty-year production
line,' Callaghan says of the DC-9, from its
mid-1960s debut to the last M 0-80 series
delivery in 1999. 'I don't think you'll find
anyone who would have believed it would
go so far.'
What made the sleek aircraft so
successful? Callaghan says some of the
same elements that made the DC-9 a hit
played a role in the successor. 'The MD80 series is reliable, efficient and

100

espite its success, a number of factors "rom new competitors to Boeing's

cquisition of McDonnell Douglas eventually led to the end of MD-80 series
production. The company also had a
newer, longer version of the aircraft in the
works - the MD-90.
In December 1997, shortly after its
merger with McDonnell Douglas,
Boeing announced its decision to drop
he MD-80 line, along with the MD-90
nd tri-jet MD-11 once orders were

fu lfi lled. An April 1998 order from

TWA for twenty-four MD-83s kept the
production line open until December
1999, extending the line just a little
longer.
By the time new-technology aircraft
such as the Airbus A320 family and
Boeing's Next Generation 737 family
entered the market in the 1990s, the
MD-80 series was seen as a much less
advanced aircraft. In addition to being
more modern, competitors had better
range and fuel efficiency. The MD-80
series also did not offer commonality.
While the A320 and new 73 7s each were
part of a family, the MD-80 was an
orphan. And while the MD-90 was seen
as a replacement for the M 0-80 series, it
simply didn't catch on with airlines that
had previously ordered the M 0-80.
In the end, the MD-80 series simply ran
its course, a proud workhorse in service

101

with more than sixty airlines around the

world. With a fine record of efficiency and
comfort, all but a handful of MD-80s
remain in service in 2002.
Today it remains the most successful
Douglas commercial transport since the
DC-3, even more popular than the DC-9
from which it was derived. Since its first
flight in 1980, the MD-80 family has
logged thirty-four million hours of
revenue service, transporting two billion
people a total of thirteen billion miles
(twenty-one billion kilometres) for more
than sixty operators.
A total of 1,191 of these aircraft were
built between 1980 and 1999 The final
delivery went to long-time Douglas
customer Trans World Airlines on 28
December 1999. McDonnell Douglas
produced as few as five of the aircraft,
in 1980, and as many as 139 in both
1990 and 1991.

MD-90

CHAPTER SIX

MD-90

I'

In the autumn of 1989, Douglas

announced that the company would begin
producing yet another new generation
twinjet transport - the M 0-90, the largest
member of the DC-9/MD-80 family.
Based on a new modular assembly
technique, this new model would be a
slightly stretched and re-engined version
of the MD-80 series with an upgraded
fl ight deck and redeSigned passenger
cabin.
Despite these enticing improvements,
the MD-90 would also be the least
successful member of this otherwise
highly successful aircraft family, both
because of new competition from Boeing
and Airbus and also Boeing's subsequent
decision not to continue its production
beyond 2000 following the company's
takeover of McDonnell Douglas.
The most unique aspect of the M 0-90and its most distinctive visible difference
from earlier cousins other than the longer
fuselage - was its larger engines, the new
V2500.
Designed
and
built
by
International Aero Engines, a venture
between legendary jet-engine makers
Pratt & Whitney and Rolls Royce, along
with Japan Aero Engines and Germany's
MTU, the engines combine state-of-theart noise suppression technology with
exceptional fuel efficiency and lower
emissions. The same V2500 engine was
also being used on a new single-aisle
aircraft model being introduced by Airbus
Industrie at the time, the A320 family.
(Engines for the Airbus twinjets have the
designation '-AS' for Airbus - V2500-A5,
for example.) At 25,000-28,000Ib
(11,350-12,700kg) thrust, the V2500s are
the largest, heaviest and most powerful
engines to be rear-mounted on an airliner.
Callaghan, the retired McDonnell
Douglas engineer, says the new engines
once again played a key role in the MD90's inception. 'The MD-90 was another
quantum leap in engine technology,' he
maintains. 'It's got a 30 per cent increase
in fuel efficiency. And at the time, noise
again was an issue worth considering.'

With bigger and more powerful engines, a

stretch of the aircraft was possible to carry
more passengers. 'It's an extraordinarily
quiet aircraft,' Callaghan says. 'When
sitting forward of the wing, you don't have
the sense that the engines are on.'
Launched on 14 November 1989, the
MD-90 first flew on 22 February 1993.
(The name MD-90 was originally given to
a succession of unbuilt DC-9 derivatives,
including the unducted-fan model.) By
the time the variant was certified by the
FAA on 16 November 1994, it had flown
1,906 flight-test hours in 1,450 flights.
The first MD-90 (designated the MD-9030) was delivered to launch customer
Delta Air Lines on 24 February 1995, with
service entry I April 1995 on the DallasNewark route.
The initial M 0-90 was the 2,094th
copy of the DC-9/MD-80 family.
European certification for the model was
ach ieved on 16 October 1996. The
aircraft entered service in Europe with
SAS on 11 November 1996. Delta
ordered fifty of the type initially, but larer

took delivery of just thirty-one. Other

customers for the type have included
Saudi Arabian Airlines (twenty-nine),
Japan Air System (sixteen), China
Northern Airlines (eleven), China
Eastern Airlines (nine), UNI Airways of
Taiwan (nine), SAS (eighr), Reno Air
(three, later operated by American
Airlines), KTHY (three), Great China
Airlines (one) and Heliopolis Airlines
(one). Several other operators have had
and continue to operate MD-90s in their
fleets. A total of just 114 M D-90s were
delivered to fourteen airline customers,
including two built in China.
Structurally, the MD-90 is similar to the
MD-80 series. Its fuselage is 4ft 6in
(1.45m) longer than the MD-88,
lengthened ahead of the wing to
compensate for the extra weight of the
engines, allowing seating for an extra two
rows, or ten passengers, in a two-class
configuration. Beyond the stretch, it has
the same wing as the MD-80 line, and the
same enlarged tail surfaces as the much
shorter MD-87. Inside, the MD-90

The MD-90 was first envisioned as a 100-120 passenger version of the MD-80 series. Boeing

features larger overhead baggage bins than

its predecessors, better lighting and a
lighted, full-grip handrail on the bins.
Also available are drop-down screens for
entertainment in the passenger cabin. The
MD-90 also offers new vacuum lavatories,
new electrical and aux iI iary power
systems,
an
upgraded
d igi tal
environmental control system, lightweight
carbon brakes with digital anti-skid
system, and significant improvements to
the aircraft hydraulic system.
The M 0-90 was designed to be
technically
and
environmentally
competitive by incorporating many costeffecti ve technologies. It offers an
advanced flight deck, including EFIS, a
full-flight management system (FMS), a
state-of-the-art inertial reference system
and LCD flat-panel displays to monitor
engines and systems. Also included in this
upgrade were a fuel-recirculating system
that uses engine heat to warm up cool
fuel, FADEC (Fully Automatic Digital
Engine Control), and an all-new
electrical power system. Other new
systems in the aircraft, compared with the
M 0-80 series, include variable-speed
constant-frequency electrical generation,
a new auxiliary power unit to provide
greater engi ne-starti ng power and 8,000
hours of life, carbon wheel brakes with
ligital anti-skid, centre-wing de-icing
system using warmed fuel, and new
nvironmental control system.

Specifications - MD-90
Powerplant:
MD-90-30: Two 25,0001b (11 ,350kg) International Aero Engines (IAE) V2525-D5
MD-90-50: Two 28,0001b (12,700kg)IAE V2528-D5
Weights:
Empty 88,0001b (39, 916kg) (MD-90-30); 91 ,9001b (41 ,685kg) (MD-90-501
Gross 156,0001b (70,760kg) (MD-90-30); 172,0001b (78,245kg) (MD-90-50)
Maximum landing 142,0001b (64,41 Okg) (MD-90-30); 150,0001b (71,21 Okg) (MD-90-501
Dimensions:
Length 152ft 6in (46.5m); height: 30ft 7in (9.3 m); Wingspan 107ft 8in (32.87 m); Wing area 1,209sq It (112.32sq m);
fuselage diameter 11 ft 1Din (3.61 m); tailwing span 40ft 2in (12.24 ml; tailwing area 314sq ft (29.17sq ml
Performance:
Cruising speed 504mph (812kml; landing speed 139mph (224km/h)
Ceiling 37,000 feet (11 ,300m)
Range 2,400 miles (3,850kml (MD-90-30); 3,480 miles (5,600kml (MD-90-50)
Takeoff 7,1 05ft (2, 165m) (MD-90-301; 7,990ft (2,435m) (MD-90-50)
Landing 5,250ft (1 ,600m) (MD-90-30); 5,480ft (1 ,670m) (MD-90-50)
Passenger Capacity:
One class 172; Two class: 153
Cabin:
Width: 10ft 4in (3.14m); height: 6ft 9in (2.06 m)
Fuel capacity:
5,840USgal. (22,1041) (MD-90-30); 7.620USgal. (28,84511 (MD-90-501

The MD-90 has an overall length of

152ft 7in (46.55m) and a wingspan of
107ft lOin (32.87 m). The fuselage
provides cargo volume of 1,300cu ft
(36.8cu m). Long-range cru isi ng speed is

The MD-89 was another name given to a proposed derivative of the MD-80 series that eventually would be
known as the MD-90. Boeing

-.

102

103

Mach 0.76, or about 500mph (810km/h)

With a takeoff thrust of 25,0001b
(11,350kg), the MD-90 can use runways
as short as 5,000ft (1,500 m) on a typical
550-mile (885km) operation with a full
passenger load. At the maximum gross
takeoff weight, the MD-90 requires only
7,100ft (2,165m) of runway.

MD-90

It was the first DC-9 derivative large

enough to be a realistic aircraft to replace
aging ISO-seat Boeing 727s. Among the
quietest jetliners in the sky, the MD-90
can carry 153 passengers in a two-class
configuration, or 172 passengers in a
single class in the same five-abreast layout
as its predecessors. Like the rest of the
original Douglas twinjet family, the
baseline MD-90-30 was available in
several variants. A longer-range version,
the MD-90-30ER, debuted in September
1997. It offers increased takeoff weight
and an optional 565USgai. (2,1391)
auxiliary fuel tank forward of the cargo
hold, along with the strengthened wing
structure, undercarriage and flaps to
handle the additional weight.
While the MD-90-30 has a maximum
gross takeoff weight of 156,OOOIb
(70,760kg) and can carry 155 passengers
in a typical mixed-class configuration,
about 2,400 miles (3,860km), the MD-9030ER increases the maximum gross
weight to 166,OOOIb (75,296kg) providing
a range increase to 2,500 miles (4,020km)
or, with the additional fuel tank, to 2,750
miles (4,425km).
A nother varian t, the M 0-90-50,
provides 805 miles (1 ,295km) more range
than the MD-90-30 with the same
payload. The maximum takeoff weight
was increased to J 72,5001b (78,245kg).
This version also features strengthened
wing, fuselage, tail surfaces, landing gear
and brakes; provisions for up to
1,780USgal. (6,7381) of additional fuel;
and V2528 engines with 28,OOOIb

(12,700kg) of thrust, or 3,0001b (1,350kg)

more than other MD-90s. A third version,
the MD-90-55, is similar to the MD-90-50
but has an extra pair of doors in the
forward fuselage section to allow for a
maximum 187 passengers in a charterclass configuration.
The modular assembly process was
developed to enable the MD-90 to be
built on the same assembly line as the
MD-80 series, but in about half the time.
1nterchangeable, standard-sized fuselage
sections, common to different models of
the MD-80 or MD-90, were built up as
major subassembl ies and then brought
together with other segn,ents to make the
unique MD-80 or MD-90 models as they
moved down a shared line in Long Beach.
In addition to providing a more efficient
production line, and so reducing costs and
lead times, the modular approach offered
Douglas the flexibility it needed to
quickly
incorporate
emerging
technologies.
As with the MD-80 series, McDonnell
Douglas offered China the chance to
assemble the MD-90 in addition to
making key components for the aircraft.
An assembly line was established in
Shanghai to produce the M 0-90. Itwas
envisioned not only to replace the MD-80
but also to provide China with an aircraft
that could be built and operated there.
Chinese-assembled models were given the
name MD-90-30T Trunkliner to denote

MD-90

their intended use on China's domestic

trunk and regional airl ine routes. They
were identical to MD-90s produced in
Long Beach, save for a slightly different
landing gear design. A co-production
agreement for forty aircraft was signed
between
McDonnell
Douglas and
Shanghai
Aviation
Industrial
orporation. Twenty aeroplanes were to
be assembled in China with the
remaining twenty to be built in Long
Beach. The number of aircraft produced
in China was reduced to just two (for
hina Northern Airlines) following
Boeing's decision in November 1997 to
phase
out
MD-90
production.
Subassemblies on the type hail from
around the world, from Europe's Alenia,
Dassault and CASA to Chengdu Aircraft
Industrial Corporation and Shanghai
Aviation Industrial Corporation in
hina.
From the pilot's perspective, the main
difference between the MD-80 series and
the MD-90 is the newer cockpit and the
MD-90's hydraulically assisted pitch
control, which makes flying easier. The
MD-80's yoke only moves control tabs on
the flight surfaces, giving the aircraft a
heavy feel. With the hydraulically
assisted pitch control on the MD-90, the
controls are more balanced and require
noticeably less trimming. And with the
new engines, the MD-90 also has a lot
more power.

The MD-90 featured a fuselage stretch and new-generation V2500 engines from
International Aero Engines. Boeing

704

Models That Never Were

For a time. McDonnell Douglas considered a model
called the DC-9 Super 90. which would have had a
shorter fuselage length than the MD-80. capable of
carrying up to 120 passengers. The aircraft was envisioned to be about the same length as the DC-9-40.
but would have included all of the MD-80s's advanced
systems.
The company had considered other variants for the
second half of the 1980s. models that were never
built:
A combi model. capable of carrying aircraft and
cargo on the main deck.
A freighter version with either existing Pratt &
Whitney JT8D-217A engines or new CFM56-3s.
A Super 85. with the same capacity as the MD-80
but with CFM56-3 engines.
A charter variant. with a shortened fuselage. powered by CFM56s.
A 100- to 11 O-passenger model that would have
been called the Super 30. with an even shorter
fuselage. It would have used the DC-9-30's wing.
(This proposal would be the closest - at least in
size - to the eventual MD-95 design before it
became the Boeing 717.) The Super 30 was seen as
a strategic move to counter Boeing's new 737 -300
on both sides of its capacity - one larger and one
smaller.
The unducted-fan version that would have used
turboprop engines instead of turbofans.
In those days. Douglas also was looking at stretching
the MD-80 in a project that ultimately led to the
MD-90.

Pilots flying the MD-80 series can be

qual ified to fly the MD-90 after a brief
training session and initial operating
experience flights. Many pilots who fly
both aircraft prefer the M 0-90. The
aircraft is smoother and lighter on the
controls. On the other hand, although the
MD-90 is longer and heavier than its MD80 predecessors, it still has the same wing
s the M 0-80 line, which decreases
aerodynamic performance. With a full
ircraft and when the flaps and slats are
Lip, pilots often have to fly faster speeds
below LO,OOOft (3,OOOm) to maintain a
lean manoeuvring speed.
Delta Air Lines, the type's launch
ustomer, originally wanted to use the
MD-90 to replace its vast number of
Boeing 727s, but its initial aircraft
performed below expectations, leading to
flight cancellations and mechanical
delays. Among the issues were software
problems that affected engine controls,
broken aux iI iary power un i ts and
malfunctioning FADECs - problems that
drove up maintenance costs.

Delta Air lines. the launch customer for the DC-9-l0 in 1963. was also the first
customer for the MD-90. Boeing

Besides performance issues, Boeing was

coming out with similar-sized NextGeneration 737 models, advanced
versions of the wildly successful 737 line.
This was on top of Airbus's popular A320
model. There certainly was not enough
room in the marketplace for three
commercial aircraft models in the 150passenger range. The MD-90 failed to
break even for McDonnell Douglas,
perhaps a symbol of the once mighty
manufacturer's economic condition. With
cash running out and employee numbers
cut, airlines didn't have the confidence to
invest in :'In aircraft being built by a
struggling company. The death knell
came when Boeing acquired McDonnell
Douglas in 1997. With two competing
families of aircraft, Boeing decided to shut
down production, taking no new orders
after 1997.
Some of the M D-90's lack of success can
be attributed to timing. The model was
produced and sold during a downturn in
the airline industry. Even if airlines were
in a buying mood, they chose either an
established aircraft already in their fleet,
or in widespread use, or an all-new aircraft
(as opposed to the M D-90's upgrade of an
older version). Since few were sold and
production was quickly halted, spare parts
are difficult and costly to obtain. The cost
to maintain an MD-90 fleet is relatively
expensive compared to aircraft with a
larger installed base.

705

Once the merger was accomplished,

Del ta swapped ex isti ng M 0-90 orders for
737-800 models. Eventually Delta's MD90s will be removed from the fleet since it
is inefficient to operate a type with so few
numbers in a fleet that includes similarsized 737s and M D-88s.
The last MD-90 was delivered in
February 2000 to Saudi Arabian Airlines,
which ordered twenty-nine models with a
flat-panel cockpit display similar to that
of the larger MD-Il. (The first MD-90
flight deck was similar to the MD-88s, but
later it was revised to be similar to the
MD-11's six-screen layout.) The last MD90 sat in Long Beach from the end of
December 1999 until the airline could
secure financing. Saudi's MD-90s came
with a lot of extras. While the average
MD-90 seats 150 passengers, Saudi's fleet
has 121, with 18 first-class seats and 103
in economy class. The airline, today the
largest MD-90 operator, also ordered
special galleys and entertainment systems
with in-seat and overhead monitors.
With so few aircraft built - McDonnell
Douglas initially envisioned demand for
800 of the type - parts have, as mentioned
before, become harder to find. And with
little commonality, the MD-90 is difficult
to keep in a fleet. Nevertheless, the model
will continue to fly for many years, just
like its predecessors, most likely with
airlines that already have a lot of
MD-90s in service.

BOEING 717

CHAPTER SEVEN

Boeing 717
When Boeing took over McDonnell
Douglas, it was faced with a dilemma:
which, if any, Douglas models would
continue under the Boeing name? The
MD-80 and MD-90 series were ultimately
discontinued, for fear that they would
compete in the same market with Boeing's
own popular 737 Next Generation series.
The widebody MD-II also was shut down
because the three-engine giant was a slow
seller in an era of large twinjets.
Production of these models wound up in
2000. (The last MD-80 series model was
delivered in December 1999, the last MD90 in February 2000 and the final M D-Il,
a freighter version, in February 2001.)
That left just one McDonnell Douglas
holdover, the M D-95, as the sole survivor.
First announced at the Paris Air Show in
1991, the MD-95 was designed to seat
about 100 passengers in the growing
market for regional aircraft. Boeing

recognized that this aircraft could

efficiently fill a niche and, following the
merger, renamed the MD-95 as the
Boeing 717-200 to bring it into line with
the Boeing nomenclature. The 717 (the 200 designation leaves room for smaller or
larger derivatives) continues the nearly
forty-year heritage of building twinjets in
Long Beach. It is also the only
commercial aircraft currently produced by
Boeing with a T-shaped tail and engines
mounted on the fuselage.

Design and Development

The MD-95 was originally proposed as a
replacement for the many aging DC-9-30s
in service, one that would be combine the
approximate fuselage length of the MD87 with MD-83 wings and MD-90
avionics powered by upgraded Pratt &

Specifications - 717
Powerplant:

Two 18,500lb (8,400kg) Rolls-Royce Deutschland BR715 engines

Weights:

Empty 67,1241b (30,447kg)

Gross 11 O,OOOlb (49,895kg)
Maximum landing 1OO,OOOlb (45,359kgl
Dimensions

Length 124ft (36.4ml: height 29ft 1in (8.86m): wingspan 93ft 4in (28.47ml: wing area: l,OOOsq ft (93sq ml: tailwing
span: 36ft lOin (11.23ml
Performance

Cruising speed: 504mph (812km/h or .77 MachI: landing speed 139mph (224km/hl
Ceiling 34,200ft (10,420m)
Range l,647miles (2,645kml (106 passengers)
Takeoff 5,500lt (l,675ml
Landing 4,650ft(1,417ml
Passengercapac~~

One class 117: Two class 106

Cabin:

Width 10ft 4in (3.14m): height 6ft 9in (2.06ml

Fuel capacity:

3,673USgaL (13,90511

106

Whitney JT8D-218 or Rolls-Royce Tay

650/670 engine models.
McDonnell
Douglas
originally
anticipated a programme launch in late
1991, first flight in July 1994 and
deliveries from October 1995. But by early
1993, development stalled. A proposal to
base MD-95 manufacturing solely in
China was dropped. The aircraft's future
hinged on the dwindling financial
resources of its parent.
In February 1994 McDonnell Douglas,
in an effort to move the programme
along, announced it had chosen an
entirely new engine - the BR 715,
produced by BMW-Rolls-Royce (now
known as Rolls-Royce Deutschland), a
venture that combines two great names
in engineering.
Later that year,
McDonnell Douglas used a modified
former Eastern Airlines DC-9-30 as a
static
airframe
around
which
development would continue. The MD95-30, the initial production version,
would have a 3ft (lm) longer fusel:1ge
than the DC-9-30, along with substantial
technical improvements - enough,
McDonnell Douglas hoped, to meet its
forecast for 300-500 MD-95 sales.
The new model became available to
airlines in 1994. Although McDonnell
Douglas had said it needed at least
seventy firm commitments to go ahead
with production, ValuJet (now AirTran
Airways) became the launch customer
on 19 October 1995, with an order for
fifty aircraft plus fifty options. The MD95 was originally designed for long-time
customer SAS. Engineers wanted to
make the plane slightly longer than the
DC-9-30 to allow for a better balance
around the centre of gravity to
compensate for the larger engines. SAS
wanted the aircraft to have the same
dimensions as the DC-9-30, and
McDonnell Douglas agreed to comply.
SAS wanted to become the launch
customer in the spring of 1995 with
thirty-five orders. Instead it became the
launch customer for the Boeing 737-

Above: The Boeing 717 features an all-new,

spacious interior. Boeing

600, with similar capacity. After losing

interest from SAS, engineers further
refined the MD-95, adding 19in (48cm)
to the fuselage to help give it better
balance. When ValuJet showed interest,
the model was lengthened an additional
8in (96cm) to allow for an extra row of
eats. The cockpit was based on the
MD-90, but a six liquid-crystal flat
panel display in the cockpit was an
ption that later became standard
equipment.
It was to be the only order before the
merger with Boeing. While the future of
the MD-95 looked bleak and many
industry analysts questioned the viability
f the aircraft, Boeing saw its potential
value (perhaps seeing the need to replace
hundreds of aging original DC-9s7) and
decided to continue production following
t he merger, keeping commercial aircraft
production alive in Long Beach, albeit at
a slower pace.
Boeing relaunched the aircraft on 8
nuary 1998, as the 717-200. In its final
nfiguration, the 717 features, in
,lddition to the new engines, a fuselage 4ft
9in (1.45m) longer than the DC-9-30
model, or slightly shorter than the MD7, along with a wing based on the DC-930, an advanced, EFIS fl ight deck, and a
abin interior similar to the MD-90.
Boeing 717 customers have the options of various
mterior configurations.

107

BOEING 717

BOEING 717

The 717 benefits from more than thirty

years of design experience on the DC-9,
MD-80and MD-90. Boeing combined the
best features of proven Douglas twinjets
with new technology and Boeing touches,
but only where it increased reliability and
lowered operating costs. By keeping
things simple and minimizing component
parts - just like the original DC-9 engineers contributed to the type's low
maintenance costs by eliminating any
unnecessary parts or systems.

Design Details
The 7 j 7-200 features several structural
refinements over its predecessors. In
addition to new engines, an updated flight
deck, modern systems, a new interior and
enhanced
performance,
other
improvements include new hydraulic
corrosion control and electrical systems,
and
better
air-conditioning
and
pressurization systems.
The 717's new interior design provides a
higher level of comfort than any other
short-haul aircraft, including more space
and wider seats, greater storage bin
volume, and the largest windows of any
aircraft in its class. It's also quieter than

The Boeing 717 was rolled out to cheering employees on June 10 1998. Boeing

The 717 programme began under

difficult circumstances. The merger forced
an extensive review of the aircraft, and the
subsequent elimination of the MD-90,
which would have served as a sister-ship for
the 717, limited the aircraft's commonality.
Yet Boeing liked the jetliner's appeal to
customers seeking a high-cycle (a takeoff
and landing is one cycle), short-range
aircraft for regional orerations.
Although slow to sell initially, the 717
is popular with its operators, primarily
because it is so economical and fuelefficient. Besides AirTran, other early
customers for the type include American
Airlines (which took over TWA's orders
after it bought the airline), Hawaiian
Airlines, Midwest Express, Bavaria
International
Aircraft
Leasing,
Pembroke Carital, Aerolineas Baleares
and Turkmenistan Airlines. Other
operators
through
leases
include
Bangkok Airways, Qantas AirLink
(purchased from Impulse Airlines),
Olympic Aviation and Wuhan Airlines.

In its final configuration, the 717-200

can carry up to 117 passengers a distance
of more than 1,600 miles (2,575km) at
speeds of 504mph (81Ikm/h) at
34,200feet (10,400m). The aircraft is
124ft (36.4m) long, with a wingspan of
94ft 4in (28.47m).
Boeing projects the 100-seat aircraft
market at about 3,000 aircraft over twenty
years, as airlines and leasing comranies
replace and expand their fleets to meet
market growth, stricter environmental
rules and passenger preference for highfrequency jet service. The 717 is equally
adept as a new aircraft or for replacement
of older, less efficient aircraft.
The 717-200, priced at between $31
million and $35 million, is designed
specifically to serve the short-range
airliner market, one that demands low
operating costs and high dispatch
reliability. It is ideally suited for the
short-haul, high-frequency market,
which requires an aeroplane that will fly
efficiently on short-range routes, turn

708

any of its earlier family members. Boeing

says more than half of the 717's cabin is as
quiet in cruise as a 747's business class.
The 7 J7 can hold 106 passengers in twoclass arrangements (with two rows of firstseating
in
a
two-by-two
class
configuration) or 117 in a one-class
configuration
(with
the
family's
trademark
two-by-three
seating
throughout). The 717 is also available in
an expanded business-class seating
configuration for 11 I passengers.
Inside the passenger cabin, overhead
bins arc as large as those found on 747s.
Bulkheads arc movable to adjust seating
depending on class of service or to
reconfigure the cahin to meet demand. Its
backlit handrails and reverse bell-curve
ceiling provide indirect, inviting light.
Passenger windows arc wider than other
airliners. With its spaciousness and its
ahility to take off quickly, it's an economy
aircraft with a luxury feel.
Its new cahin design was created with
input from more than 500 airline
executives. It features wider and deeper
overhead haggage bins, full-grip handrail
throughout the length of the cabin, and

optional video monitors that dror down

from passenger service units on both sides
of the cabin at every third row. The 717's
cabin door, like the rest of the DC-9
family, is located behind the flight deck
on the left side. Emergency exits are found
on the oprosite side of the cabin door plus
two above each wing.
Just Iike its predecessors, the 71 7 is
designed for simrliciLY and ease of
maintenance.
For example,
flight
attendants have the ahility to change
light bulbs, a task usually left for
mechanics
during
scheduled
maintenance.
The 717 flight deck, operated by a crew
of two, was designed to meet future air
traffic
con trol
requ irements.
It
incorporates the industry's most modern
and proven avionics technology, used in
other new Boeing models. The large
screen-dominated flight deck is similar to
larger aircraft in the Boeing line-ur,
including the 777. Launch customer
AirTran was among the airlines that
helped to design this twenty-first century
cockpit. Six large liquid-crystal display
screens showing everything that pilots

The 717 flight deck offers some of the most advanced technology. including six screens that
dominate the layout. Boeing

around quickly at airport gates and

make between eight to twelve flights
reI' day.
Operating predominantly in markets
averaging little more than 300 miles
(480km), the 717 actually has a range of
1,600 miles (2,575km), so it can fly <'III day
with minimal refuelling time. The 717
does not need long runways or extensive
ground facilities to serve its routes, greatly
expanding the number of airports that can
benefit from jet service - just as the DC-9
did decades earlier. Like the DC-9, the 717
can operate without airport jetways. Tugs
also arc optional since the 717 can reverse
out of the gates on its own power, a
procedure called powerbacking. Airportfriendly features include optional stairs for
the forward cabin door, waist-high cargo
doors giving easy-to-Ioad baggage and
cargo space, and refuelling stations thar
can be reached under the wing without
ladders or steps. (Unlike the DC-9, MD80 and MD-90, however, it does not havc
rear ventral stairs.) Boeing says an airlinc
can turn a 717 around - prepare it for its
next flight - in just twenty-three minutes.

709

BOEING 717

need to know have replaced the DC-9's

varied array of analogue instruments. Two
global positioning systems (GPS) and two
additional inertial reference systems
(IRS) help to provide precise aircraft
location information. Other safety
enhancements include a system that
predicts windshear, Enhanced Ground
Proximity Warning (EGPWS) and
Category
lila autoland capabi Iity.
Optional features include a Category [lib
system for zero-visibility landings, and
FANS (Future Air Navigation System)
capability.
Pilots from many airlines helped to
develop a cockpi t that wou Id be as
modern well into the future as it was the
day it was introduced. The six screens that
dominate the cockpit offer pilots a clear
view of navigation, flight management
and systems data. Glareshield-mounted
controls enable the crew to fly the aircraft
automatically with only push-button and
thumbwheel
inputs.
A
simplified
overhead control panel with four liquidcrystal displays replace thirteen gauges,
meters and switch panels formerly on the
MD-80 family. The aircraft's computers
can work flaps and help the plane land
automatically.
The 717 final design differs from the
original MD-95 design in more than a
dozen ways. Boeing incorporated different
auxiliary power unit, generator system
and hydraulic pumps into the original
MD-95 design.
ompared to the MD-80, which uses
engines designed in the 1960s, the 717
was designed from the outset to be as
environmentally friendly as possible.
The 717's two BR 715 engines each
produce between 18,500 and 20,OOOIb
(8,400-9, 100kg) of thrust. [n the
standard model 717, the engines are fed
by a fuel capacity of 3,670USgal.
(13,8921). The higher-gross weight
version of the 717 offers additional fuel
capacity: 4,400USgal. (16,6551). The
BR 715 produces substantially less noise
and emissions, and burns less fuel, than
powerplants of earlier 100-seat aircraft,
notably the JT8D powering DC-9s or the
JT8D-200 series found on the MD-80
series.
Elevators and ailerons are manually
actuated via cables. The rudder is powered
hydraulically with manual reversion. The
aircraft has double-slotted flaps, full-span
two-position leading-edge slats and wingmounted spoilersjspeedbrakes.

BOEING 717

At 37,OOOft (l1,300m) cruising

altitude, fuel burn is 3,800USgai.
(14,3851) per hour. Cruising altitude
ranges from 19,000 to 37,000 feet (5,80011,300m). Maximum takeoff weight is
118,0001b (53,524kg), but to make it to
37,000ft, weight needs to be reduced to
95,0001b (43,09 [kg).
Total fuel capacity is about 24,5001b
(l1,1l3kg) - about 5,0001b (2,268kg) for
takeoff and climb, leaving 16,0001b
(7,257kg) for cruise and descent, plus
about 3,5001b for reserves or 1,587kg. At
that rate, the 717 can stay in the air for
four hours twelve minutes, not including a
forty-fi ve-m inute reserve.
With its flexibility, the 717 enables an
operator to create route structures and
schedules that will appeal to high-yield
business travellers, who look for frequent
flights throughout the day. Like the DC-9
before it, the 717 is also helping small
airlines introduce jet service. It is the
perfect starter jet for those previously
operating turboprops or small regional jets.
Boeing marketing official Rolf Sillge
says:
Hub and spoke, point to point, the 717-200
can

handle

any

com hi nation

of route>,

including secondary cities. A nd you can turn

this aeroplane lan'ival at gate to dcrmrture (rnm
gatel in less than thirty minute>, which i> a re,J!
plus for

meeting demanding short-range

schedules. Its self-sufficiency conrrihute> to the

717's quick turnaround, which mean> it can
spend more time in the air earning its keep.

[n May 2000 Boeing announced further

efficiencies, as it had lowered the 717200's standard takeoff and landing
weights, giving the aeroplane new
competitive performance that translated
into improved operating economics for
airlines. Maximum takeoff gross weighr
decreased from [[4,000Ib (51,710kg) to
1l0,0001b (49,895kg) while maximum
landing weight declined from 102,0001b
(46,365kg) to 100,0001b (45,359kg), even
as the model's original pre-flight range
increased by 57 miles (91.7km).
This was all made possible by better
aeroplane performance during testing.
The 717's fuel burn declined by 8 per cent
from pre-first flight estimates, or about
2,0001b (907kg), and its empty weight
dropped 1,4501b (658kg). In sum, the
717 -200 uses 10 per cent less fuel and is
5,0001b (2,268kg) lighter than originally
predicted, thus lowering operating weight

770

and so saving fuel costs, as well as

navigation and landing fees, which arc
based on weight.
The [OO-seat short-haul market has
long been a strong foundation for both
large and small airlines around the world.
The 7 [7 -200, building on the success and
durability of the DC-9 family, provides
operators with a modern, efficient
aeroplane to address this crucial market
for the twenty-first century.

Rollout and First Flight

The first 717 rolled out of the Long Beach
facility on 10 June [998 during a lively
ceremony before a crowd of several
thousand cheering employees and guests
in Long Beach. 'This is a proud moment
for Boeing,' said Harry Stonecipher, then
president and chief operating officer. 'The
717 is one of the world's newest
aeroplanes, and it truly represents our
theme today of "Bringing People
Together".' Stonecipher told the crowd
that people from aerospace companies
and sixteen international supplierpartners have come together to introduce
the aeroplane. 'And starting next year,' he
added, 'people from many regions will
come together as they travel aboard the
new Boeing 717 for the first time.' The
aircraft, in Boeing's colours, came into
sight led by a local high school drill team.
The first flight of the new baby Boeing
took place on 2 September 1998, before
thousands of cheering employees,
customers and suppl iers who gathered at
Long Beach Municipal Airport. The
initial mission was delayed, primarily due
to problems with its new BR 715 engines.
They suffered from cracking in the third
stage of the high-pressure compressor and
requ ired a redesign of the fan
conta in men t system. The fi rst fl igh t
lasted four hours and seven minute~,
ending at Boeing's test centre in Yuma,
Arizona. Project pilot Ralph Luczak
commanded the aircraft, with Tom
Melody as co-pilot and Will Gibbons a~
the flight-test engineer. They evaluated
aircraft performance and basic systems,
checked handling qualities, engaged thc
autopilot and operated the data system.
The second 717 flew on 26 October
1998, with a third on 16 December [998.
The aircraft was certified a year later, on I
September 1999. The first 717 was
delivered to AirTran on 24 Septemhcl

]999. The first 717 entered service on 12

October on the Atlanta-Washington
(Dulles) route.
Five 717s were used for a 1,900-flight,
2,OOO-hour test and type-certification
programme. Three of the planes were fully
instrumented. A fourth, the customer
production model, had a complete airline
interior for functional and reliability
testing. A fifth 717, painted in Boeing
colours, performed at the Paris Air Show
on a ten-day European tour in June 1999.
All the aircraft completed flight testing in
August 1999. The 717 was certified on 1
Seprember 1999, about two months later
than expected. It was the first aircraft to
be awarded a certificate under the new
joint
FAA
and
European
JAA
oncurrent
and
Cooperative
ertification arrangement.

An Efficient Aircraft
The environmentally friendly 717 brings
full-size jetliner comfort, low operating
costs and high schedule reliability to

short-haul markets worldwide. Airlines

benefit from its high dispatch-reliability.
The aeroplane consistently operates with
a record in excess of 99 per cent for ontime departures, enabling airlines to meet
rigorous schedules and high daily
uti Iization.
Even though fewer than 150 7] 7s were
in service by mid-2002, operators say
they arc impressed with its moneysaving efficiencies. Boeing projects the
717's fleet dispatch reliability to be 99.5
per cent, which means that all but five
in one thousand of all 717 flights will
leave their gates without mechanical
issues.
Despite its young age, the 7[7-200 is
already proving its worth. Launch
customer AirTran, an American discount
carrier, says its 717s are using less fuel
than the DC-9s they are replacing, even
better than the airline or Boeing had
projected. The relatively light 717 also
translates to lower air-traffic control and
landing fees. Boeing contends the 717

has the lowest ownership and operating

trip costs of any short-haul, 100-seatrange aircraft, including the Fokker 100,
Airbus A318 and Avro RJI00.
In its first year of service for launch
customer AirTran, the 717's performance
exceeded the airline's expectations in fuel
efficiency,
avionics
and
customer
satisfaction. The airline's then-chairman,
Joe Leonard, said at the time:
The 717 has helped us to save millions of
dollars in fuel costs in its first year of service.
We anticipated

18 per cent belter fuel

efficiency versus the

increased efficiency. I n a time of skyrocketing

fuel costs, we feel very fOlTunate to have
invested

in

such

an

efficient

and

technologically advanced aircraft.

Florida-based AirTran is building its

business plan around the 717, and wi II
eventually replace all DC-9-30s in its fleet
as it receives a new 717 at a rate of at least

A 717 lifts off for another flight test, with Long Beach in the background. Boeing

777

OC-9 it is replacing, hut

the 717 is actually averaging 24 per cent

BOEING 717

BOEING717

one per month through 2003. Air Tran

sees fifty-three aircraft in operation by
then, with options for forty-seven
additional 717s. 'This aeroplane means a
new beginning for us,' Leonard says. 'The
717 lowers our maintenance costs by 50
per cent, our fuel burn by 20 per cent, and
if we had an all-717 fleet, we would save
$65 million in one yeaL' The AirTran
717-200 accommodates 117 passengers in
a mixed-class arrangement, with 12 seats
A 717 during flight testing. Boeing

in first class and 105 in economy class.

Two of the airline's planes were used
during 717 promotional tours in Europe
and Asia prior to delivery. AirTran's
purchase of the 717 took place two years
after the company was founded, making it
the youngest airline ever to be the launch
customer for a new aeroplane.
AirTran's 717s fly seven or eight legs a
day with an average fl ight time of one
hour thirty-six minutes. Pilots have found
the aircraft to be easy to fly and operation
of the six liquid-crystal cockpit display has

been nearly flawless. Even flight

attendants have noticed the difference AirTran says cabin staff are bidding for as
many 717 routes as they can. A major
attraction to passengers and flight
attendants is the 717's quiet interior.
Overhead bins have as much volume per
passenger as those on a 747. Cabin air is
100 per cent fresh. The ride is quiet even
in the rear adjacent to the engines. One
AirTran pilot says the aircraft feels as if it's
'coming off a bowspring' after brakes are
released on takeoff. The 717 also has been

~<I'.oE'"'""""",~ >7:>

~~iiiiii:

~O'll.

referred to as a 'DC-9 on steroids'. The

airline says customers have responded
positively to the aircraft's interior and
large carry-on storage bins.
Another early customer was TWA. The
irline chose the 717-200 to replace its
Ider DC-9 fleet. TWA ordered fifty 717s,
with purchase rights for an additional
ifty. Deliveries began in February 2000,
with the first 717 sporting a red ribbon
and bow wrapped around its fuselage.
WA's 717s offered improved range,
yload and economics compared to the
-9, accommodating III passengers in
Ll
two-class configuration, with sixteen
seats for fi rst class. 'The 717 is the kind
f aeroplane that brings further
mmonality
to
an
increasingly

112

Five 717s were used in a 1.900-flight test programme. Boeing

streamlined TWA fleet, provides our

customers
more
comfort
and
convenience, and gives our employees
another important tool to serve those
customers,' TWA's then president and
chief
executive
officer,
William
Compton, said after introducing the type.
A year later, when American Airlines
purchased the soon-to-be-bankrupt-again
airline, the 717's future was clouded once
more. Would a leading airline commit to
the contract held by a struggling carrierone that was essentially given a discount
to help launch the 717 programme? In the
end American said it would honour most
of that contract after it acquired TWA. A

113

different decision would have dealt a huge

blow to the programme. The 717,
struggling in the order books but seen as a
top-rate aircraft, finally had a big-name
airline behind it. Some analysts had
speculated that American might not want
the jet because of the extra costs of using
different crews and maintenance teams to
operate 717s. American ended up
accepting at least thirty 717s - fifteen in
service with TWA at the time of the
takeover and another fifteen of thirty-five
remaining on order. American did not
agree to convert fifty additional purchase
rights, but did commit to evaluating the
model, even though it had a similar-sized

BOEING 717

BOEING 717

DOE~iYC7'17

....................... ,

Hl11...

The bulk of flight testing took place over the desert of Arizona and southern California. Boeing

114

The 717 at its rollout ceremony in June 1998.

Michael Carter

aircraft in its own fleet, namely the

Fokker 100. However, Amercian later
decided to dispose of the 717 fleet as it
simplified its mix of aircraft, further
clouding the future of the model.
Soon after American's takeover of
TWA (operating it as a unit of parent
company AMR Corp.), TWA took
delivery of four 717s on 12 April 2001,
the first time a Douglas/McDonnell
Douglas customer has received that many
aircraft on the same day. The 717s made a
sequenced takeoff and then each
performed low-level fly-bys over the Long
Beach factory before heading to St. Louis
for del ivery.
Hawaiian Airlines joined the 717
ustomer list in February 200l, receiving
the first of thirteen aircraft on firm order.
The rest were delivered by the end of the
year - the fastest fleet build-up of any 717
perator. The airline, which specializes in
hort hops around the Hawaiian islands,

also has options for seven 717s to replace

its fleet of DC-9-50s. Hawaiian configures
its new aeroplanes to carry 123 passengers
- eight in first class and liS in economy.
Paul Casey, the airline's then president
and CEO says:
The 717 is an excellent aeroplane for our interisland mules. The 717 will become the
standard hy which all inter-island travel will be
measured.

Ir

will

bring

>1

never-befnre-

experienced level of dependability, efficiency

and passenger comfort to air travel between the
islands. They will establish Hawaiian Airlines
as Hawaii's premier airline, operating the
quietest,

mOSt

fuel-efficient

and

environmentally friendly aircraft in the skies.

Hawaiian inaugurated service with the

type on 15 March 2001, between
Honolulu and Kahului, Maui. The first
aircraft in the new fleet was christened
'l'iwi.' With the new type, the airline also
inaugurated a new logo and colour
scheme.
Hawaiian announced its selection of

775

the 717 in September 1999 to replace the

DC-9-50s that provided reliable service
between the islands since 1975. The
slightly shorter cabin provides less coachclass seating (liS passengers versus 125
on the longer DC-9-50s), but efficient
engines make the 717 much more
economical to operate. Lower operating
costs and high schedule reliability
ultimately lead to increased overall
operational performance.
Midwest Express, another niche airline,
announced plans in 200 I to add the 717
to its fleet, replacing a sizable amount of
DC-9s, including one that is the secondoldest US-registered commercial jet still
flying in the United States. The airline,
known for top-notcl, in-fl ight service
catering to business travellers, ordered
twenty-five 7l7s with purchase rights for
an additional twenty-five aircraft, valued
at $750 million. The investment does not
include an additional $l4 million for
special seats, galleys and other equipment
aimed at preserving its renowned service.
'The 717 is an excellent fit for Midwest

BOEING 717

BOEING 717

The 717's Rolls Royce Deutschland BR715 engines are the most visual clue
to the model's identity and its dominant feature. Boeing

Express, allowing us to continue offering

the products travellers have come to
expect,' airline chairman Timothy
Hoeksema explained at the time. 'We
conducted extensive research and found
out how very important our signature
two-by-two seating is for our customers.'
Midwest Express offers single-class service
featuring two-across leather seats,
fine food served on china and chocolate-

chip cookies baked right onboard.

Hoeksema pointed out that the 717
was 'designed for the short-range, highfrequency routes we typically fly. It uses
advanced technology - resulting in
improved dispatch reliability, as well as
sign ifican tI y lower operati ng costs than
our current fleet in terms of both fuel
efficiency and maintenance.' The 717s
- configured to seat just eighty-eight

776

passengers - will provide for fleet

growth and eventually replace sixtyseat DC-9-10s and eighty-four-seat DC9-30s The airline also has MD-80
series aircraft in its fleet. Delivery of
the new 717s will begin in February
2003 and are expected to continue into
2006 at a rate of one aircraft every
other month.
The first European customer for the
jetliner was Bavaria International Aircraft
Leasing Co. The Munich-based company
ordered five aeroplanes, the first two of

which were delivered to Olympic Aviation

of Greece, which is using the aircraft on
regional routes with thirty-four seats in
business class and seventy-one in coach.
Olympic was the first carrier outside the
United States to operate the 717.
Another lessor, Pembroke Capital of
h'e1and, ordered twenty-five 717s, with
options for twenty-five others. Its first
operator was Impulse Airlines of
Australia, which briefly used the aircraft
to stir up competition on routes linking
major cities Down Under. The short-lived
airline was swallowed up by competitor
Qantas in May 2001 and soon thereafter
began operating as QantasLink, linking
such cities as Melbourne, Sydney,
Adelaide and Hobart with up to eleven
cycles a day.
Aerolineas Balaeres of Madrid ordered
three 717s, with seventeen options. The
subsidiary of Spanair uses the plane to
connect key Spanish cities. The first
operator of the 717 in Asia is Bangkok
Airways, which is leasing the fleet from
Pembroke. Another Asian customer,
Turkmenistan Airlines, received its first
717 in July 2001 - becoming the eighth
717 operator - as part of a three-aircraft
order to modernize its fleet. It's the first
airline in the former Soviet Union to buy
a Boeing aircraft. Turkmenistan operates
the 717 on domestic routes.
By the end of 2001, fewer than 200
aircraft were on firm order and Boeing was
producing five 717s per month. Despite
the seemingly slow start, when comparing
early 717 sales to such aircraft as the 737,
MD-80 and 757, the 717 is in the middle
of where those top-sellers were at the
same stage of development.
The current version, the 7 I 7-200, is
available in basic and high gross-weight
versions. Boeing has also considered a
horter version, the eighty- to eighty-sixpassenger 717-100, and a 120-seat
variant, the 717-300. The 717-100
would compete with a swarm of new
regional jets for a share of the boom ing
market for short-range, high frequency
travel - the fastest-growing segment in
commercial aviation.
Until the possibility of shrinking the
717 was considered, a boundary - roughly
aircraft in the 100-seat range - separated
Boeing and Airbus from makers of
regional jets such as Bombardier of
anada, Embraer of Brazil and Fairchild, a
US-German collaboration. With this
market booming, particularly in the fifty-

seat aircraft market, Boeing began

exploring the possibility of shrinking the
717-200, launching both marketing and
engineeri ng stud ies.
The 717-100 would have a key
advantage over its smaller competitors
seating fifty to seventy passengers: larger
overhead bins, more cargo space and a
wider fuselage, amenities that make up for
any additional costs over smaller regional
aircraft. The 717-100, if it is ever built,
would offer airlines already operating the
717 -200 a common cockpit and other
features, countering the 717's biggest
deficit: it is not part of an aircraft family
currently in production. One estimate
calls for up to 300 717-100s to be built by
2010.
By shrinking the 717-200 to create the
-100, Boeing would remove a five-frame
fuselage section in front of the wing and a
three-frame section behind the wing.
Engineers had initially planned to remove
four frames in front of the wing and four
aft. The latest design calls for the wing to
be moved slightly forward. This allows the
existing 717-200 tail section to be used on
the smaller version, saving an expensive
redesign.
Boeing says there has been strong
interest for a 717-100 from European and
Asian carriers. But in the United States,
the 717-100 would fall under so-called
airline union scope clauses over how and
where regional jets can be used. Pilots of
regional jets make significantly less
money than pilots who fly bigger aircraft.
Yet the 717- 100 would basically be the
same plane as the larger -200, so airlines
would have a difficult time paying those
pi lots less money.
In December 2000, Boeing announced
it had deferred a formal launch decision
on a shortened 717, which would put the
aerospace giant in direct competition for
the first time with regional jet
manufacturers. Boeing continues to study
the risks and rewards of venturing into a
market where it has no experience.
Boeing also is eyeing a stretched version,
the 717 -300, seating 125 passengers (roughly
the size of the DC-9-50) - another example
of the aircraft family's tendency to stretch to
meet airline demand. With the 717-100, 200 and -300, an airline would have an
arsenal of new, fuel-efficient aircraft - all
with common cockpit and systems - to adapt
to market needs. For instance, the same
route can be flown with all three models,
depending on passenger demand throughout

777

the day, so additional capacity could be

offered without adding more flights.
To transition from DC-9s to 717s, pilots
undergo a thirty-five-day conversion course,
with twenty-five days spent in computerbased training. The 717 also has the
advantage of minimal transition training
from MD-80 types. Pilots say thar taking off
in a 717 feels like a catapult shot as the new
engines help the aircraft reach cruising
altitude more quickly. Despite the extra
power, the engines burn 2,000-2,100Ib
(900-950kg) offuel per hour, compared with
3,0001b (l,360kg) for the DC-9.
With a flight management system to
improve fuel efficiency and reduce pilot
workload, crews are able to set the
aircraft's autothrotrle at the beginning of
the takeoff roll and never need to touch
another engine control until selecting the
thrust reversers after landing.
With such efficiency, the 717 actually
helps to improve an airline's bottom line.
Maintenance costs alone are 45 per cent of
those on the DC-9. Spare parts inventory is
lower, so there's no need to keep extra
aircraft sitting around as a backup.
Compared to the DC-9, the 717 has 40 per
cent fewer parts in the environmental
system, 60 per cent fewer avionics parts and
the electrical system has only 20 per cent of
the components of the older aircraft.
Total operating costs of the 717 are less
than half of the DC-9. Even after
factoring in the capital costs of
acquisition, 717s help AirTran achieve 7
to 9 per cent lower seat-mile costs. For an
airline like AirTran, total savings could
amount to tens of millions of dollars a
year - the potential difference between a
profitable year and one in the red.
The Original 717
This is not the first time Boeing has used the name
717 to designate an aircraft.
When Boeing renamed the MD-95 the 717 in 1998.
it struck aviation historians as peculiar. The model
number 717 was originally assigned in 1956 to the KC135 Stratotanker aerial refueller. a 707 look-alike that
continues to serve with the US Air Force. The 717 was
also to be the name of a shorter-range 707, but that
was later changed to the Boeing 720.
In the 1950s Boeing began assigning a set of numbers to each of its product lines - 600 for missiles.
700 for commercial jets, and so on. Every significant
initiative in a series was assigned a number. even if it
was just a sketch. When the 707 came out in 1954,
the marketing people decided they liked the sound of
'707' so much that every 700-series jet would end
with the numeral 7.

BOEING 717

Questioning the 717

Should the 717 have been built? lndustry
watchers will continue to pose this
question - at least until it records sizeable
sales. To many, the 717 is an oddball in
Boeing's fleet. It sure doesn't look like a
Boeing, whose current line-up has engines
mounted under the wing and not on the
fuselage. It's the only current Boeing
aircraft with a Ttail. And it's also the
only commercial model assembled outside
the Seattle area.
Strictly from a capacity point of view,
the 717 competes with Boeing's own 737600, the smallest - and slowest-sell ing version of the four-model NextGeneration 737 series, which seats 110120 passengers. Why would Boeing want
to produce an aircraft with similar seating
capacity?
While sceptics point to this apparent
contradiction, Boeing defends the 717 as
an aircraft uniquely suited for a specific
niche: a short-haul, qu ick-turnaround,
multiple daily-segment workhorse - a
market once dominated by the DC-9 and
the 737-200. The 737-600, though made
by the same company, has a different
mission: longer routes that require less
capacity. In addition, the 737's wings are
larger and less efficient on short-haul
flights, and the aircraft is heavier than the
717.
Regional jet manufacturers - those
making smaller jets that began to flourish
in the last half of the 1990s - already offer
100-seat aircraft, but Boeing points out
that none of them can compare with the
durability, cargo capacity or passenger
comfort of a full-size airliner like the 7l7.
Plus, the aircraft has too many seats and is
too expensive to be considered a true
regional jet.
Still, Boeing hopes airlines will see
the 717 as a money-maker. They have
learned from the success of regional jets
that a smaller aircraft with morefrequent schedules can win lucrative
market share. With better schedules
comes more high-yield business-fare

traffic. By employing smaller aircraft on

a route, an airline will have fewer seats
to fill, avoiding the need to offer lower
fares. Thus, overall yield will increase,
beefing up the operator's bottom line.
The 717 also helps because an airline
can generally make more money on
short, high-frequency flights than longrange journeys.
While initial sales have been painfully
slow, Boeing provides some intriguing
numbers that support the decision to
build the 717. Aircraft flying short-haul
trips averaging 360 miles (575km) are
rapidly aging. Boeing estimates that the
717 can replace more than 1,900 aircraft
currently in service with some 250
operators worldwide - aircraft that are
either a maintenance burden or no longer
meet stricter international noise and
emissions regulations. The biggest market
is North America, followed by South
America and Europe.
Boeing hopes its initial marketplace
acceptance provides an extra advantage
in the competitive regional jet market.
Many comparably sized models from
makers of regional jets, including
Bombardier and Embraer, are still in
development as of 2002. The 717 also
has an advantage over rival Airbus
Industrie's smallest aircraft, the A318,
which is to enter service in 2003, five
years after the 717's first revenue flight.
As a double shrink from the A320, the
A318 is heavier, and therefore less
efficient, than the 717. But - much like
Boeing offers the 73 7-600 even though
it has the same capacity as the 717 the A318 is designed to fI y long, th in
routes while the 717 is best suited for
short flights and multiple hops every
day.
The 717's ultimate success depends on
what aircraft airlines choose to replace
older 73 7s and DC-9s. About 80 per cent
of these aircraft are expected to go to
smaller operators, and more than half of
the potential customers are expected to
have limited maintenance capability. By
integrating sales packages, including

778

financing, training and support services,

Boeing says it has a strong sales advantage
over its rivals.
Airlines already operating DC-9s
have no problem integrating the 717
into their fleet. There are only minor
differences in flight attendant training,
and aircraft handl ing soon becomes
familiar to DC-9 veterans. One of the
717's disadvantages, however, is its
lack of cockpit commonality with any
ex isting aircraft. Cross-cockpi t trai n ing
can save an airline millions of dollars a
year, a big reason for the success of the
larger Boeing 757 and 767 family or the
Airbus A320 line. Boeing counters
that cockpit commonality isn't as
important for this type of aircraft,
which can be operated on its own for
shuttle-type operations. While the lack
of cockpit commonality may sway some
airlines away from the 717, early
customers point to its operating
efficiencies as overriding positive
factors.
One key to the 717's success, then,
may be to develop a family of aircraft,
the shorter and longer versions discussed
earlier, that would provide operators
with an aircraft family, complete with a
common cockpit - an important element
in pilot training - and identical parts, a
factor that reduces maintenance costs. A
final verdict on the market success of the
717 family won't be determined for a
decade or so as older aircraft are retired
and additional 717s enter the market.
But as the quietest aircraft seating more
than 100, and among the most efficient
and economical aircraft in the skies, the
717 is sure to catch on, especially among
current DC-9 operators. Once airlines
see how the 717 performs after several
years of service, more are likely order
the baby Boeing.
In early 2002, Boeing reiterated its
support of the 717, despite slow sales.
The company said it was 'confident that
it can produce 71 7s at a low rate for a few
years as the airlines regain their health
and get back in this market'.

CHAPTER EIGHT

Powerplants
The selection of engines for an aircraft is
a vital design consideration. As discussed,
the availability of engines and their
technology can greatly influence the
design - and ultimate success - of an
aircraft model. The importance of engines
is not lost in the industry. There is a
saying at engine maker Pratt & Whitney:
'Without engines, aircraft are just
Winnebagos with wings.'
This aircraft family is powered by four
engine models, each with sub-variants
that reflect continual improvement and
enhancements. While airlines can choose
from different engine makers on many
other type of aircraft, engines for the DC9/M D-80/M D-90 and 7 I 7 line are
exclusive.

JT80 for the OC-9

The DC-9 is powered by the successful
]T8D engine made by Pratt & Whitney,
the Connecticut-based engine maker with
more than seventy-five years of leadership
in aviation propulsion. More than 12,000
]T8D engines have been built since 1964,
powering such aircraft as the Boeing 727
and 737-100 and -200 in addition to all
variants of the DC-9, amassing more than
half a bi Ilion hours of reliable service. The
JT8D entered service in February 1964 on
the Boeing 727 and began powering the
C-9 in revenue service in December
1965.
The ]T8D, when combined with the
later ]T8D-200 model that powers the
MD-80, was for decades the most popular
modern commercial engine ever made quickly being overtaken, however, by the
FM56, made by General Electric and
necma, that powers all 737-300 to -900
eries as well as about half of the Airbus
20 family.
While no longer in production, the
T8D continues to be the workhorse
werplant for the airline industry. More
han 350 operators sti II use the ]T8D to
wer more than 4,000 aircraft - nearly a

third of the world's commercial fleet. The

]T8D became exceedingly popular
because it met the rigorous requirements
of short- to medium-range airliner service
with hourly takeoffs and landings. The
eight variants that make up the ]T8D
family cover a thrust range from 14,000 to
17,4001b (6,350-7,900kg). This made
possible continued growth in aircraft
payloads, increased range, shorter takeoff
distances and higher rates of climb to
reduce noise levels. The ]T8D was already
in service on the Boeing 727 and
Caravel Ie when it was selected for the
DC-9. Using an existing, proven engine
was a more effective option than
designing a new engine for the aircraft.
As mentioned previously, several
considerations led to the choice of placing
the engines on the aft fuselage. The
location improves climb performance by
eliminating drag developed with wingmounted engines at the intersection of
the wing and engine pylons during takeoff
and initial climb. Aft engine-mounts also
permit a cleaner wing leading-edge and
provide for a flap uninterrupted by jet
exhaust openings, leading to better lift.
And with nacelles located close to the
fuselage, asymmetric thrust is reduced
with one engine out. This reduces the
aircraft's minimum control speed and
improves takeoff performance in the
event of an engine failure.
Aft-mounted engines additionally allow
the wing to be closer to the ground. As a
result, the landing gear and stairs can be
shorter and therefore lighter in weight.
Excellent maintenance accessibility is an
important benefit derived from the short
landing gear and low profile of the DC-9.
The ]T8D engines are installed in
nacelles, one on each side of the fuselage.
The nacelles are supported from
horizontal pylons by vibration-isolating
side-mounts. The demountable engines
have been designed for maximum
commonality between the right- and lefthand units. The only major components
that are not common are the nose cowls

779

How Engines Work

Aircraft engines are immensely complicated machines

based on a simple premise. An engine performs four
major tasks with air - it sucks, squeezes, burns and
blows. Air is sucked in by a rotating set of fan blades
and compressed in several stages until it enters a
combustion chamber under pressure. Here, heated by
jet fuel. the air, bursting to expand, rushes out
through turbine blades, which are rotated at high
speeds by the rush of hot air. Fan blades at the front
of the engine generate the thrust an aircraft needs to
take off. The fans are essentially giant propellers that
pull the plane through the air.
The contribution of an engine manufacturer is
greater than that of any other aircraft supplier, and
many aspects of engine technology are even more
daunting than the design of the airframe itself. Some
areas in the engine must withstand temperatures of
5,400F (3,OOOCj during flight. Some parts travel at
supersonic speeds, while others must survive hours of
high-frequency vibrations.
Powerplants for twin-engine aircraft, including the
DC-9 family, face the additional demands of having to
achieve flawless reliability; this is achieved through
high-quality design and impeccable maintenance. The
amazing thing about jet engines is that they manage
to run hour upon hour, at various atmospheric pressures and temperatures, and at extreme rotational
speeds, with rarely a single problem.
and starter ducts. A two-piece split cowl
can be opened quickly for easy access to
all engine components, further enhancing
ma in tai nabili ty.
Fuselage-mounted engines enhance the
effecti veness of thrust reversers, hel pi ng
the aircraft slow down after landing. The
interaction between the flaps and the
reverser exhaust-gas pattern found with
wing-mounted engines is eliminated. The
DC-9's
powerful
reversers
are
hydraulically powered for rapid, positive
actuation, in particular helping to stop on
wet or icy runways. Thrust reverser
elements on each engine consist of two
deflector doors at the rear of each engine.
They open up vertically when in use,
directing the exhaust air over and under
the nacelle, The reverser can be activated
in under two seconds. When stowed they
form the aft-most part of the nacelle.
Engines can be changed in less than forty-

POWER PLANTS

POWER PLANTS

JT8D-IJ-IA
(DC-9-10)

Baseline engine

--

Performance Comparison: JT8D vs. JT8D-200

Improving the JT8D Models

I-

JT8D-7/-7A
(DC-9-20. DC-9-30)

JT8D-II

JT8D-9/-9A
(DC-9-30)

(DC-9-30. DC-9-40)

JT8D-lS
(DC-9-30,

JT8D-17
(DC-9-S0)

JT8D-9
14,500

JT8D-17
16,000

JT8D-209

Ta keoff rh rust (I b)

Revised burner can

Bypass ratio
Fan diameter

1.04
39.9in (1.0Im)

1.05
39,9in ( 1.0 lcm)

Length

120in (3.04m)

174
49.2in (1.25m)
154.lin (3.9Im)

(DC-9-40, DC-9-S0)

Air-cooled first
turbine vane

disks, blades and stators

Improved turbine

Strengthened diffuser

blades and vanes

case and low-turbine shaft

I-

Revised aerodynamics in

A ir-cooled first
turbine blade

- I-Improved cooling

Additional cooling in
first turbine blade
Strengthened diffuser

for first turbine vane

case, low-turbine
Coating added to
blades

Louvered inner outlet

Improved material in

Louvered outer

shaft, disks
Improved material in

duct

first turbine disk and

outlet duct

vanes

f-

second turbine vane

Increased cooling

Revised combustion chambers

~vised fuel control

and pump

.-

Increased flow in fuel

nozzle, fuel pump and
manifolds

five minutes. The JTSD has a forward fan

with an integral full-length fan discharge
duct and a single mixed-exhaust nozzle. It
has a thirteen-stage compressor, a ninecan annular combustion chamber and a
four-stage turbine.
Two completely separate fire detection
systems are provided in each nacelle.
Since both systems must actuate before a
fire warning is given, this redundant fire
warning system essentially eliminates false
warnings.
There are many basic variations of the
JTSD engine to cover the short- to
medium-range jet transport market. Just
as the DC-9 evolved over its production
life to include enhancements, its engi nes
(llso provided additional benefits over
time, including lower noise, emissions and
fuel burn using redesigned parts and new
technology. While the DC-9-10 was
powered by 12,0001b (5,450kg) thrust
JTSD-I models, the last version, the DC9-50, improved to 16,0001b (7,250kg)
thrust with the JTSD-17 model.
Although far noisier than later JTSD-200
models, Douglas initially touted the JTSD
as a neighbour-friendly powerplant. Noise
Specifications - JT8D
Thrust 14,000-17,400Ib (6,350-7,900kg)
Fan diameter: 39.9in (1.01 m)
Length: 120in 13.04m)
Bypass ratio (ratio between primary and secondary air
flow): 1.02-1.08

from the DC-9's engines were quieter than

larger aircraft at the time. [n fact, takeoff
noise perceived by people standing on the
ground 2 miles (3.2 [km) from the point of
brake release prior to takeoff would be SO
per cent quieter than a four-engine jet and
30 per cent quieter than a four-engine
propeller-driven aircraft.
JTSDs in service today meet current
noise regulations, known as Stage 3, with
the help of hush kits, essentially mufflers
that help to reduce sound so the aircraft
they power can continue soldiering on.

18,500

I-

120in (3.04m)

stricter noise and emissions regulations.

In add ition to the basic IS,SOO[b-thrust
JTSD-209, which was certified on 22 June
1979, an improved version, the 20,000Ibthrust (9,070kg) JTSD-2 [7, was certified
in October 19S0 for the MD-S2, with
enhanced -217 A and -217B models to
follow. The JTSD-217 has the same basic
configuration and external profile as the 209 but with a number of parts changes,
primarily in the first turbine section.

The JT8D-200 series. with increased fuel efficiency and improved emissions. is the sole powerplallt for the
MD-80 series. Pratt & Whitney

JT8D-200 Series for the

MD-80 Line
As McDonnell Douglas was developing
the MD-SO series, Prarr & Whitney's
JTSD engines ranked among the most
successful ever built, powering DC-9s,
Boeing 727s and 737s in service with 164
airlines around the world. Proven though
it may have been, it was clear the JTSD
could no longer meet demands for fuel
efficiency, less noise and fewer emissions,
let alone Stage 3 regulations that applied
to new types of aircraft from [979 on.
Pratt & Wh itney, then, faced the prospect
that JTSDs would not be suitable for new
aircraft designs. The alternatives were
either to develop a new engine with
somewhat higher thrust or to modify the
basic JTSD by redesigning the fan section
to meet future requirements.
Prarr & Whitney chose the latter
option, offering the JTSD-200 series
around which the MD-SO series was
designed. The JTSD-200, introduced
exclusively for the M D-SO, offers IS,500
to 21,7001b (S,400-9,SSOkg) thrust. It
builds on the family's excellent reliability
and low maintenance costs while meeting
Specifications - JT8D-200

The JT8D engine was in service with the Boeing

727 when Douglas selected it to power the DC-9.
The engine. together with the later JT8D-200 series.
was until recently the most popular aircraft engine
in the world. Pratt & Whitney

120

Chief among them is the burner can,

which was changed to accept additional
fuel flow, a long wi th better cool ing on the
first turbine blade. The JTSD-200 series
took advantage of technology developed
for the higher-bypass JT9D engines that
powered Boeing 747s at the time .
The JTSD-200 series was horn from the
NASA-directed Quiet Engine project
aimed at quieting the powerplants of all
DC-9, 727 and 737 aircraft. Pratt &
Whitney built six demonstration engines,
known as the JTSD-j 09, that were tested
from mid-1972 to mid-I97S. The
prototypes would become the JTSD-209 a re-fanned and larger version of the
standard JTSD that would make the MDS1 the first aircraft to comply with Stage
noise standards.

Thrust 18,500-21.700Ib 18.400-9,850kg)

Fan diameter: 49.2in 11.25m)
Length: 154.1 in (3.91 m)
Weight: 4,5001b (2,041 kg)
Bypass ratio: 1.74

121

I'OWERI'LANTS

Two -109 engines were flight-tested on

two modified DC-9-30s for eighty-one
hours on forty-nine flights, during which
engineers determined noise abatement
goals were successful. While the
programme ultimately did not lead to reengining hundreds of Boeing 727s, 737s
and DC-9s, the programme did rave the
way for a better engine on the Surer 80
and technology that would go on to
develor even quieter engines.
Design work for a refined version of the
-109 began in 1974, and the first
develorment engine was tested in May
1976. The JT8D-209 has a single-stage fan
8.7in (22cm) greater in diameter than the
40.5in (103cm) diameter of the standard
]T8D. The JT8D-209 retained the sevenstage high-pressure compressor, burner and
high-pressure turbine section of the earlier
designs, to which were added the new fan,
a new six-stage, low-pressure comrressor,
and a new low-pressure turbine. The
JT8D-200 series has nine combustion
chambers, as do earlier models, but the
nozzles and combustors were redesigned to
reduce emissions. The comrlete engine
was packaged in a new nacelle 9in
(22.86cm) wider than the DC-9's nacelle
and 5ft (1.52m) longer. Overall length of
the nacelle is 21ft llin (6.67m).
There was some concern early in the
nacelle design phase that the larger
nacelles might create a deep-stall airflow

problem over the horizontal stabilizer of

the DC-9 tail. To avoid this, the engine
pylons were shortened from 16.7in
(42cm) to 8.05in (20cm), bringing the
engines as close as possible to the sides of
the fuselage.
The larger fan diameter, 49.2in (1.25m)
versus 39.9in (1.0 1m), for the standard
JT8D, increased the bypass ratio from
1.02 to 1.78, reducing both fuel
consumption and noise levels. (Bypass
ratio is the ratio between primary and
secondary air-flow. The higher the ratio,
the more efficient the engine.)
To reduce noise, the air inlet and
exhaust sections of the engine nacelle
were
lined
with
sound-absorbent
materials. In addition, the larger turbofan
increases the volume of unheated air
moving through the byrass section of the
engine, reducing its exhaust velocity, and
thus reducing the engine's noise.
The first flight of the JT8D-209 engine
took place in March 1977 on one of the
two McDonnell Douglas-built YC-15s. In
the test aprlication, <I single -209 replaced
one of the four conventional JT8Ds for a
fifty-hour flight test rrogramme in which
the engine rerformed well. A JT8D-209
was also flight-tested on a Boeing B-52
bomber leased by Pratt & Whitney from
the US Air Force. This ninety-hour test
programme evaluated engine performance
in a wide range of flight conditions and

I'OWERI'LANTS

studied engine operation, stress levels,

structural loads and vibrations. These
tests were in addition to thousands of
hours of testing in test cells and on flighttest aircraft. In all, the engine was tested
during 5,500 hours on six engines,
including a high-time engine with 1,450
hours and 13,000 endurance cycles over
two years.
The combination of engine and nacelle
modifications added 2,5001b (I, 134kg) of
weight over standard JT8Ds, hut tests
concluded this was offset by increased
thrust and improved fuel consumrtion.
The JT8D-209 has a sea-level thrust
rating of 18,5001b (8,400kg) with an
additional 750lb (340kg) of reserve thrust
automatically available in the event of an
engine failure on takeoff. This automatic
reserve thrust system provides for an
automatic increase in the thrust of the
orerating
engine
to
ensure
an
uninterrurted takeoff.
The JT8D-217 and -217 A have a sealevel thrust of 20,0001b (9,070kg) with
<In additional 850lb (385kg) of reserve
thrust. The -209 and -217 models have a
high degree of commonality, with most
differences confined to the first-stage
high-rressure turbine and comrressor
section. Any version can be converted
to any other through overhaul. The
JT8D-200 series offers fuel savings of ur
to I I reI' cent over the JT8D-1 7 on the
DC-9, while affording the MD-80
increased range with higher rayload
comrared to previous members of the
DC-9 family. The engine, enginemounted accessories, nose cowl ing and
exhaust nozzle/thrust reverser <lssemhly
me detachable from the rylon as a unit.
Access doors provide for case of
maintenance and servicing of the
compressor section, accessory section
and the burner and turbine sections.
The engine cowling, or cover, include,
sound-absorbent material, largely of
composite construction. Only the nose
cowl leading edge and the rem rart of
the cowl arc of aluminium.
The fuel system for each engine
consists of <In integral fuel tank with a
gravity-fed reservoir and a system
suprlying fuel through two booster
pumrs, located in the reservoir, to the
engine. In addition, a single integral
More than 2,600 JT8D-200 engines have been
produced, logging more than 50 million hours of
service. Pratt & Whitney

122

centre-wing fuel-tank system surrlies fuel

directly into the supply line to both
engines without the use of the crossfeed
system. An interconnect system and
crossfeed valve between the fuel-tank
supply systems permits the use of fuel
from either wing tank to both engines.
Entirely new parts introduced to the
JT8D-200 series showed a marked
improvement in parts life. For example,
the new fan blades can be used for up to
30,000 hours compared with 18,000 hours
for blades in earlier JT8Ds; the lowpressure compressor aerofoils go to 25,000
hours compared with 18,000 hours in
earlier models. New engines traditionally
make airlines reluctant to go straight into
service with relatively untried engines on
new airframes. The JT8D-200 series,
technically a derivative like the aircraft it
powers, was designed from the outset to
retain the low unplanned-removal rate of
its mature predecessor. The JT8D-200 has
nearly 60 per cent commonality with its
predecessor, providing a host of savings for
operators.

A diagram of the inside of a JT8D-200 engine. Pratt & Whitney

Like the MD-80 series itself, the

JT8D-200
was
designed
with
maintainability in mind. The entire fan
stage of the engine and the low-pressure
compressor are replaceable with the
engine in place. The ability to boroscope
- troubleshoot an engine using tiny
video cameras - was increased in the
most critical parts of the engine. The
aircraft's tail cone is removable to permit
access to the oil tubes at the back of the
engine. Changes in the engine,
including the exhaust gas mixer, reduced
peak noise aft of the engi ne more than 7
decibels over older JT8Ds, a big reason
for the MD-80's success, particularly in
serving communities with stringent
noise restrictions in place. By using a
single-stage fan, with optimum spacing
in the front section, fan noise was
considerably reduced. In addition, the
outer case of the engine and some inner
surfaces were acoustically treated to
reduce noise.

123

At takeoff thrust, peak noise with the

JT8D-200 series at 800ft (245m) is 8.5
decibels lower than the ]T8D-I 7, even
though the engine is producing 13 per
cent more thrust. Again, this made it
possible for McDonnell Douglas to claim
in 1980 that the MD-80 would be the
'quietest jetliner' in service. There arc
other benefits with the newer model
engine as well. Compared with the ]T8D17, the -209 model has vastly reduced
emissions of hydrocarbons, carbon
monoxide and
smoke.
Gains
in
suppressing noise and emissions are usually
achieved at the expense of power and fuel
consumption. The JT8D-209, however, is
significantly better in both categories over
the older JT8D. At maximum cruise, the 209 burns about 8 per cent less fuel than
the JT8D-17. These improvements were
continuous in later -200 series engines.
The JT8D-200 series was vital for the
MD-80 programme to achieve required
power and meet fuel consumption and

POWER PLANTS

Comparing ]T8D-200 with ]T8D Standard

Enhancements in the ]T8D-200 model on the MD-80 compared to original ]T8D on OC-9:
]T8D-9/-9A
Baseline

]T8D-209

]T8D-217

Larger, single-stage fan design

High rotor system with new

(Higher bypass ratio)

blades

Larger, improved low

Revised combustion chambers

rOtOr system
Revised combustion chamber
for cleaner combustion
Acoustical mixer

noise targets. Combined with the more

efficient wing,
the engine's fuel
performance enabled the MD-80 to burn
fuel at DC-9-50 levels but with 20 per
cent more passengers.
The MD-80 series entered service at a
time when new engine technology focused
on two distinctive paths: re-fans and new
engines. There were basically two driving
forces behind new engine development at
the time. [nternational environmental
pressures embodied in new noise regulations
began to force the fi rst-generation bypass
engines out of the sky, and high fuel costs
added momentum to the trend.
The principal advantages of re-fanned
engines like theJT8D-200 over new engines
were: lower development, acquisition and
ownership costs; shorter development time;
a large degree of spares commonality with
existing engines; continuity of maintenance
and operating experience; and greater earlycareer maturity. Re-fans are more suitable

for retrofitting to current types or their

developments than new designs, because
these relatively cheap engines can be
matched more economically with existing
airframes. The DC-9-80 was a good
candidate since its aft engine installation
created no airframe or ground-clearance
problems with the larger nacelles needed by
the JT8D-200 series.

POWER PLANTS

While no longer made for aircraft in

production, Pratt & Whitney still
produces JT8D-200s as spare engines and
for a programme that re-engines Boeing
727s. Other applications, including reengining modernized military Boeing
707s, have been successfully tested. More
than 2,600 JT8D-200 engines have been
produced since [980, logging more than
fifty million hours of service.
Today, Pratt & Whitney is focusing on
compliance with more stringent noise
and emissions regulations that will help
to keep the engine in service well into
the twenty-first century. A new
combustor kit, which can be installed on
existing engines, reduces nitrous oxide
emissions by 25 per cent, unburned
hydrocarbons by 99 per cent and smoke
by 52 per cent. These improvements
were made possible by a new fuel nozzle

and burner can system that work

together to optimize fuel mixing and
airflow distribution.

V2500 for the MD-90

The MD-90 is powered by an entirely new
engine, the V2500, made by a consortium
known as [nternational Aero Engines,
which includes Pratt & Whitney, Rolls
Royce, Japanese Aero Engines and MTU of
Germany. The name reflects the Roman 'V'
for the five original partners (FiatAvio of
Italy later withdrew from the programme
but remains a supplier) and the number
2500, an abbreviation of the initial engine's
maximum thrust of 25,000 pounds.
Each of the shareholder companies was
given responsibility for developing and
delivering one of the five engine modules.
Japanese Aero Engines controlled the fan
and low-pressure compressor; Rolls Royce
took responsibility for the high-pressure
compressor and gear box; Pratt &
Whitney had the job of producing the

The V2500 engine powers the MD-90.

Pratt & Whitney
Powerback
DC-9s, the MD-80 series, MD-90 and 717 all have the
ability to reverse from a gate under their own power.
This procedure, known as powerback, can technically
be done with any aircraft that has thrust reversers. It
is most common with rear-engined aircraft. While
convenient if there is no tug available, the procedure
is risky because of potential damage by objects
sucked into the engine, additional noise, safety to
ground personnel, and added wear on thrust
reversers. As a result, powerbacking is a rare
manoeuvre that must be approved by airlines and
often airport authorities.
To powerback on its own, the aircraft's clam-like
reversers are deployed. With the engines in idle, a
small amount thrust is applied until the aircraft
moves, when idle reverse is selected again to sustain
the aircraft's backward movement. When the aircraft
is clear of the gate area, the buckets are retracted
and forward taxiing begins.

Specifications - V2500
Thrust: 25,000-28,000Ib (11,340-12, 700kg)
Fan diameter: 63.5in (1.61 m)
Length: 10ft 6in (3.17m)
Weight: 7,900lb (3,583kg)

124

An Allegiant Air DC-9-50 demonstrates its bucket-shaped thrust reversers. Chris Coduto

combustor and the high-pressure turbine;

and MTU produced the low-pressure
turbine,
Launched in [984 as a competing
engine to the CFM56 on the Airbus A320
family - and thus initially designed to
hang on wings - the V2500 was chosen as
the powerplant for the MD-90 in 1989
and was designated the V2500-D5. (The
D stands for 'Douglas.' The model
powering Airbus models is the V2500-A5
for 'Airbus'.)
One of the engine's most noticeable
features is its fan blades, a good example of
the proven technology contributed by
lAE's partner companies. The engine uses
unique hollow blades designed and
developed by Rolls Royce. These are
manufactured by placing a 3D-machined
piece of honeycomb material between two
sheets of pre-machined titanium. At high
temperatures a diffusion bond is formed
between these pieces of material so that
the finished blade is effectively a single
piece of hollow structure. This lightweight
blade is therefore extremely strong, with a
leading edge that can resist damage from
objects sucked into the engine.
After several design changes to enable
the engine to be mounted on the fuselage,
the V2500 was certified for the MD-90 in

125

1993. Because the engine is shorter and

wider than the JT8D-200, its irdet is 43in
(Lim) behind that of the Pratt &
Wh itney model, provid ing enhanced
passenger viewing through the last three
windows of the passenger cabin.
The V2500 is an important tool in the
MD-90's compliance with noise and
emissions levels. V2500-powered aircraft
are up to 25 decibels below statutory
limits. The low emissions levels of the
V2500, combined with its fuel efficiency,
means that in total it produces even fewer
of the harmful emissions, particularly
nitrous oxides and carbon dioxide, which
are known to add to global warming.
While no longer in production, V2500
engines
for
the
MD-90
were
manufactured by Pratt & Whitney in
Connecticut. Today, the engine powers
more than 600 Airbus jets in addition to
the fleet of [ 14 MD-90s produced.

BR715 for the 717

The 717-200 is powered by two RollsRoyce Deutschland (formerly known as
BMW-Rolls-Royce) BR715 engines. The
engine is rated at between 18,500 and
22,000 pounds of thrust.

POWER PLANTS

Specifications - BR715

Thrust: 18.500-22,OOOlb (8,200-1 O,OOOkg)

Fan diameter: 58in (1.47ml
Length: 19ft 4in (5.9ml
Weight 6,1551b (2)92kg)

The engine offers lower fuel

consumption,
reduced
exhaust
emissions and significantly lower noise
levels than most other powerplants.
The BR 715, derived from the same
family of engines that powers ultralong-range business jets such as the
Gulfstream
V,
is
electronically
controlled, improving engine life and
providing automated fault reporting
and monitoring. The engine has a 58inwide (1.47m) fan blade that resists
damage from foreign objects. The
simple, long-duct nacelle allows quick
access for maintenance.
The engine's core is suitable for highcycle operations. It incorporates a tenstage
high-pressure compressor,
a
low-emission annular combustor with

twenty fuel burners and a two-stage,

shrouded high-pressure turbine. The
BR 715 features a two-stage booster driven
by a three-stage low-pressure turbine. Its
selection to power the 717 was due to its
combination of high performance,
environmental friendliness, low cost of
ownership and low-risk derivative
technology.
The BR715 engine, produced at
Dahlewitz, Germany, helps make the 717
the quietest aeroplane in the 100-seat
class, and features emission levels below
current limits established by the
International Civil Aviation Organization
(ICAO). The 717-200 is more than 22
decibels below Stage 3 worldwide noise
levels. The engine also is 60 per cent
below
limits
for
emissions
of
hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, oxides of
nitrogen and smoke.
The 717's engines produce enough
thrust for ideal takeoff performance while
also
substantially
reducing
noise,
emissions and fuel burn. The BR 715 uses
advanced noise suppression material and a

specially designed combustion chamber to

make this possible.
The engine offers one of the 717's best
visual identification clues. While a 717
may look similar to the DC-9-30, one can
immediately tell the difference by the
engines. The BR 715 engines are c1eancut, with no visible reverser buckets on
the end. The DC-9-30 has much longer,
thinner engine cowlings, with the hinges
for reverser buckets clearly visible.
The larger engi nes on the 717,
compared to the DC-9 family, provides
not only quieter operation but rocketlike performance on takeoff. While
roughly the same weight, the BR 717
provides at least 4,500lb (2,040kg) of
thrust over the JT8D - extra power felt
on takeoff.
The BR 715, like any new engine,
experienced some teething pains
during its first years of service on the
717. Among the problems were
gearbox failures and minor cracking,
which resulted in a redesigned
turbine blade.

CHAPTER NINE

How the Birds are Born

The 717 is produced at a facility that, by
virtue of Boeing's takeover of McDonnell
Douglas, today is significantly smaller
than during the heydays of McDonnell
Douglas. Thousands of employees were
laid off between t997 and 2001, and old
buildings were slated for demolition.
Splitting Lakewood Boulevard on the
perimeter of California's Long Beach
Municipal Airport, the former Douglas
plant sits mostly idle today, a mere shell of
the facility that assembled the DC-9, MD80 and MD-90. Scores of shuttered
buildings, tattered and weathered on the
outside and empty on the inside, remain.
The bu ild ing
that once housed
production of the widebody DC-tO and
later MD-II is now little more than a
giant storage centre for machinery,
awaiting its fate.
Besides the 717, Boeing's Long Beach
facility is home to the C-17 military cargo
transport and assorted space programmes.
But there is little left of the commercial
programmes that helped to develop the
site into one of the largest manufacturing
centres in southern California, where
15,000 aircraft have been produced over
the years, including 2,281 DC-9s, MD-80s
and MD-90s. Empty alleyways, rusted
hangar doors, broken lights - all will be
razed. Only Building 80, where the 717 is
assembled, a few office buildings and the
delivery ramp will remain. The ramp
provides access to the airport, where test
flights originate and delivery to customers
takes place.
The only visible remnant of the
Douglas heritage is a giant neon-lit sign,
visible from nearby Highway 405, also
known as the San Diego Freeway, that
states 'FLY DC JETS' - a concession
Boeing made to the community that
embraced Douglas. Today, the proud
facil ity that produced the world's secondbest selling aircraft family has a new

The Future of long Beach

What was once the sprawling home of Douglas Aircraft has become the largest commercial development
project in Southern California in years. With production
ceased for all but the 717 and the C-17 military transport, Boeing, in 2000, announced it would begin to
bulldoze acres of empty hangars and factory space,
rusted from years of neglect and lack of business.
Although Boeing had planned soon after its merger
with McDonnell Douglas to move some manufacturing
to the site from Seattle, including the 737, the company eventually decided the costs were simply too high.
Ever since Douglas merged with McDonnell Douglas
in 1967, there hasn't been much money to spruce up the
facilities. Largely unchanged since the 1960s, they would
have required Boeing to invest millions of dollars to renovate. Since the decision not to continue production of the
MD-80 series, MD-90 or MD-11, Boeing realized it was
simply not efficient to own such a large facility.
To cut costs and raise cash, Boeing sold the landa highly desirable piece of property, considering
Southern California is fully developed - in February

The first DC-9 is prepared for wing join. The

assembly process today for the Boeing 717 is quite
different. Boeing

726

727

2000 and said it would bulldoze nearly half the facility and convert it to commercial use. It was the
region's largest land redevelopment plan and a welcome addition to the area's shrinking industrial space.
Boeing foresees the land will accommodate light
industry and manufacturing as well as some retail
stores. All buildings west of Lakewood Boulevard
were shut down by 2001, leaving only the 717 and C17 production facilities and office buildings east of
the renowned street. By 2003 Boeing plans to have
the site ready for development, and completed as
early as 2007.
It's not easy for Douglas veterans to see the historic
Long Beach site shrink. For some, the changes are hard
to take. 'I look at it with some deal of nostalgia and
some sadness that the history of Douglas Commercial
transports is passing, ' says Joe Callaghan, a retired
Douglas engineer. 'It's a real challenge to many to look
at that and think about the activity that went on there.
That was a part of my life and blood, and it's going
to be gone.'

HOW THE BIRDS ARE BORN

HOW THE BIRDS ARE BORN

The first DC-9 is mated with the wing. Boeing

DC-9 fuselages are prepared in this 1960s photo,

Today's assembly process is far less cumbersome.

mission: to produce the 717. A painted

sign on top of Building 80 proudly states:
'HOME OF THE BOEING 717.'
Eventually, the 717 programme will be
housed together on one side of Lakewood
Avenue to make room for a 230-acre
high-tech
business
park
called
PacifiCentre. Today, the Long Beach
facility is home to 10,000 employees, less
than 4,000 for the 717 programme. This is
down from 45,000 who worked for
McDonnell Douglas in 1990.
The facility only assembles and
manages the 717 program me; very little
manufacturing is actually done on site.
The 580,000sq ft (54,000sq m) site vastly smaller than Boeing's other
production facilities - is responsible solely
for joining fuselages and wings with
empennages and noses, plus painting,
flight testing and delivery. Every six days a
new 717 moves from the first assembly
position to final assembly. Unlike other
Boeing facilities, where aircraft are
assembled in 45-degree angles, the 717 is
built nose-to-tail on moving assembly
lines. Two shifts are required to complete
the work.

changes have been adapted from lean

manufacturing methods used by the
automotive industry. It enables 717
assembly time to be reduced by more than
50 per cent compared with earlier MD-80
and MD-90 models assembled in the same
building.
The moving production line is one of
several
initiatives
Boeing
has
undertaken to drive dOlvn the costs of
the 717, including design changes made

to improve manufacturing efficiencies.

With the 717 competing in the same
market as smaller, less expensive
regional aircraft, it is vital that costs
remain low in this price-sensitive, lowmargin business.
The concept for this ground-breaking
aircraft manufacturing process goes back
to 1997, just after Boeing's takeover of
McDonnell Douglas. Survival of the
programme depended on massive cost
cutting and manufacturing efficiencies.
To meet the demand of airlines for
bargain-basement prices for the new
aircraft, Boeing had to attack production
costs, a task compl icated by the large
number of suppliers involved.
The moving production line took shape
in 1998, when the factory moved to a
single-piece flow production method.
This involved simplifying the line, rearranging production into a more
straightforward sequence and reorganizing
support functions, including parts,
inventory and engineering, into a more
logical layout. Suddenly, the oncefamiliar scene of aircraft in their
traditional
slant position
through
Building 80 disappeared. Now, 717s stood
nose-to-tail, moving toward the hangar
door in a single-file line.

The first DC-9's tail cone and tailfin are added after the fuselage is joined with the wing, Boeing

Boeing

At each of several assembly positions

along the moving line, mechanics
complete certain tasks on an aeroplane,
from joining the fuselage sections and
wing to adding control surfaces and
engines or installing the flight deck and
cabin interior - and many more steps
before the aeroplane is painted and
delivered.
The moving assembly line was
implemented in three phases. The first
phase, completed in April 2000, included
the installation of chain drives, tooling
rails and other equipment used to
physically change the assembly floor to
allow for a moving line. The floor was also
converted from multiple production lines
where aircraft are parked slanted to a
single-flow line. Once fuselages are joined
with the wings, each 717 is turned and
placed in the nose-to-tail position and
pulled on the landing gear by motorized
tugs from one work position to the next
down the line.
Phase two, completed in November
2000, involved rolling each aeroplane in
a 'pulsed' mode down the single line on
elevated cradle structures, which are
attached to two under-floor chain drives.
When ready, all the aeroplanes move
together about 160ft (SOm) at the push of

a button, once every six days. This

operation takes just twenty minutes,
instead of seven hours previously, to
move aeroplanes to their next position.
Phase three, completed during 2001,
finished the transition to a moving line.
Today, 717s continuously move during
assembly. Each aircraft moves 141ft

Moving Production Line

Uniquely - at least initially - in
commercial aviation, the 717 is assembled
on a moving production line aimed at
improving productivity and quality while
shortening the time it takes to deliver a
new plane. The moving line and related

(43m). Both planes and workstands

around them move about a half-inch
(20mm) every minute, The line can only
be stopped if assembly work cannot be
completed as planned in a particular
position. The electrically driven chains,
weighing about 66,0001b (30,000 kg) and
2,198ft (670m) long, move in channels
about 3ft (90cm) below ground level.
This process is surprisingly quiet.
The 717 assembly process begins by
installing components in the aircraft
nose on a short, movable line adjacent
to two fixed, parallel positions where the
wings are joined with the fuselage.
Wings, made in Canada and South
Korea, are shipped to the factory, along
with the Italian-made fuselage, which is
delivered by ship from Italy to Long
Beach harbour, where a truck then
transfers the massive shipment to
Boeing. From those two points assembly positions I and 2 - aircraft are
rolled on their landing gear and pulled
by tugs to the start of the stra igh I'
assembly line, which has six production
positions:
rudder,
of ailerons,
Installation
horizontal stabilizer and the de- ici ng
and fuelling systems,
A DC-9 nose is mated with the fuselage. Boeing

128

129

HOW THE BIRDS ARE BORN

HOW THE BIRDS ARE BORN

Left: An MD-80 series fuselage is hoisted in

preparation for wing join. Boeing

Opposite: A 717 on the moving final-assembly line.

The assembly floor. unlike earlier times. is free of
clutter. Boeing

Below: The first MD-83 model. bound for Alaska

Airlines. in the final assembly process. The 717s
assembled in the same building today are lined up
in a nose-to-tail position. rather than slanted sideby-side. Boeing

Installation of flaps, cabin airconditioning, final floor and final

electrical hook-ups, and rigging of flight
control system.
Installation of the auxiliary power unit,
overhead luggage bins, ceiling panels,
door liners and pylon fuel system and
hydraulics.
Engine installation, flight deck, final
wiring
and
cockpit/cargo
line
replacement units.
Engine cowl installation. At this point,
tests
are
conducted
on
radar
components, the auto-flight system and
communication and navigation gear.
The passenger seats are installed and the
cockpit is completed at the final position.
Standard assembly line work is repeated
n each aeroplane to increase efficiency.
Drawings, parts and tools are available in

730

rolling kits, so mechanics have whatever

they need within view and within reach,
almost as if they were surgeons operating
on the new aeroplane patient. Direct! y
by each assembly position are support
teams located in open offices on the
factory floor. They are equipped with
everything necessary to help keep
aeroplanes moving, including employees
who inspect work while it's being done.
Other resources immediately near
each aeroplane include a quick-response
parts fabrication shop, a special team
dedicated to meeting rapid equipment
requests, and a parts receiving and
inventory area.
The 1,140ft (347.5m) assembly line
has few electric cords or parts lying
around. Instead, this equipment has
been moved underneath the 600,000sq
ft (55,750sq m) factory floor. The floor

737

itself is clean and polished. Surprisingly

few workers huddle about each aircraft,
keeping in line with Boeing's lean
manufacturing efforts that limit both
head count and excess inventory and
equipment, key ways to reduce costs for
a program me whose life depends on
cost reduction and efficiency.
The rolling assembly line is helping
to improve quality, reduce costs and
speed up cycle time, which in 2001
stood at five aircraft per month. The
new process has reduced the overall
ti me needed to make a 717 - origi nail y
forty-eight days - down to thirty-two
days. That's better than half of what it
took to produce M D-80s and M D-90s
on the same floor. The best span ti me
for assembling these aircraft was sixtyfive days from the start of fuselage join
through to the paint shop.

HOW THE BIRDS ARE BORN

The Paint Job

HOW THE BIRDS ARE BORN

Worldwide Suppliers
Like other aircraft in the Boeing family, the 717 comes together with the help of

The final step before each shakedown

flight is the paint job - a complex and
vital task that helps to give the aircraft its
iden ti ty.
It takes four days to paint a 717 at
Boeing's Long Beach paint hangar,
Bu iId ing 87, across the tarmac from the
final assembly position. Preparation for
this task begins by backing a completed
aircraft through a corner of the diamondshaped structure, which has a low ceiling
at the front and a vaulted roof that
enables the ta il to fi t at the rear.
Scaffolding is then set up to provide
Opposite: Tails are painted on an elevated platform.

suppliers from throughout North America, Europe and Asia:

Component

Company

Fuselage

Alenia

Location
Rome, Italy

Avionics & pneumatics

AlliedSignal

Torrance, Calif., USA

Propulsion

Rolls-Royce

Dahlewitz, Germany

Interior

Fischer Advanced Composites

Ried, Austria

Flighr guidance

Honeywell

Phoenix, Ariz., USA

Wiring

Labinal

Saint Quentin, France

Taichung, Taiwan

Empennage

Aerospace Industrial Development Corp

Controls

Parker Hannifin

Irvine, Calif., USA

Horizontal stabilizer& pylon

ShinMaywa lndustries

Tokyo, Japan

Electrical system

Hamilton Sundstrand

Rockford, IlL, USA

Wing

Hyundai Space & Aircraft

Seoul, South Korea

Wing

Boeing Canada

Toronto, Canada

Nose

Korean Aerospace

Seoul, South Korea

Movable parts require meticulous attention to

Landing gear

Israel Aircraft Industries

Tel Aviv, Israel

detail. Boeing

APU

Auxiliary Power International Corp.

San Diego, Calif., USA

Wing join

Marconi Flight Systems

Palmdale, Calif., USA

Below: An American Airlines MD-80 series gets its

Nacelle

B. F. Goodrich

San Diego, Calif., USA

markings. Boeing

732

733

HOW THE BIRDS ARE BORN

HOW THE BIRDS ARE BORN

Once again the aircraft is blown dry and

wiped down to ensure all dust and dirt is
removed and the surface is completely
clean. The entire hangar also is rinsed to
ensure a sterile painting environment.
Now it's time for a primer coat. Two
layers of pri mer are appl ied before the
aircraft is ready for its topcoat, or final
paint scheme. Paint in Long Beach is
supplied in a three-part kit consisting of a
base component, catalyst and thinner.
The base component contains the colours
and is resistant to fluids. The catalyst
speeds up the drying time; it takes between
four and five hours for the paint to dry.
Thinner is used to control the paint flow.

Today's Boeing 717s are painted in a building designed for earlier MD-80s. shown here. Properly polishing
each fuselage is vital prior to painting. Boeing

workers with access to the empennage.

First, windows and static ports are
covered. Using an ammonia-based
substance, the aircraft's protective coating
(which appears as green or gold on the
assembly line) is then stripped off. The
coating safeguards the skin from nicks and
scratches during manufacturing and
protects against corrosion. Once the
coating is removed, the aircraft is rinsed
and inspected again. After each finished
717 is dried completely, the entire surface
is roughed up with pads similar to those
used to scrub dirty dishes, a procedure that

helps the paint adhere to the fuselage.

The next step is known as the water
break. Water is sprayed on the top of the
aircraft to form a continuous sheet. If any
surface imperfections are present after the
cleaning process, they will show up as a
break in the sheet of water. If any are
found, they are corrected and another
water break test is performed over the
failed areas.
The aircraft is then sprayed with
Alodine to mildly etch the surface and
provide corrosion protection. The
substance is rinsed off after ten minutes

134

Paint jobs are applied using paint guns.

Once the primary paint dries, stencils are
added to label access doors on the aircraft.
The order of painting is determined by
the patterns and colours that will be next
to each other, to allow for proper masking
and drying. The first colour to be applied
is one that will cover the largest area.
Dark colours are applied over light
colours. Smaller detailed artwork is
painted last.
Finally, the inside of access panels are
painted and closed, and the screws where
the rudder is attached are hand-painted

with brushes less than a centimetre across.

(Rudders are always painted and balanced
before installation.) After painting, all
Boeing and regulatory required stencils
and markings are applied, including the
registration number, and a final check is
made before customer inspection.
Older versions of the family were painted
in a similar, although more low-teel., way.
First designed for the MD-80 series, the
paint shop was built specifically for the
type. The aircraft fits into the building like
a hand into a glove. The building wraps
itself around the aircraft, wasting little

An MD-80 destined for American Airlines emerges from the paint hangar. Boeing

and the exterior is left to dry. The aircraft

is then rinsed again, this time with
deionized water, which leaves no minerals
behind when it dries, and blown dry.
Before masking the horizontal stabilizer,
the upper and lower areas between the
lead ing edge and the elevators are
painted. The areas of the wing behind the
leading-edge slats and flaps are painteJ
before installation with a high-impact
resistant Teflon paint that appears dull.
This paint is used whenever painteJ
surfaces come in contact with moving
parts. The next step is masking the
landing gear, wings and engines anJ
applying a solvent wipe to all composite
surfaces.

135

HOW THE BIRDS ARE BORN

HOW THE BIRDS ARE BORN

Delivering New Aircraft

How are 717s - and aircrah before them - delivered to their customers? They certainly don't have
the range to fly from Long Beach to, say, Australia.
But a combination of extra fuel tanks (in the passenger cabin or the belly cargo hold), an empty aircrah
and strategic fuel stops along the way get new aircraft home.
Here's an example of how a factory-fresh 717
was flown to Australia to join the fleet of Impulse
Airlines (later absorbed by Qantas) on a four-day
delivery flight that skirted the Pacific Ocean:

Covered with a protective coating, another MD-80 is ready for its first flight. Boeing

Long Beach-Seattle
Seattle-Anchorage
Anchorage-Nome
Nome-Petropavlovsk/Kamchatsky, Russia
Petropavlovsk/Kamchatsky-Osaka, Japan
Osaka-Guam
Guam-Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea
Port Moresby-Cairns, Australia
Cairns-Sydney

How does Boeing deliver 717s to far-flung locations

where intermediate fuel stops are not possible?
Here's how Boeing delivered factory-fresh aircrah,
with a range of 1,430 miles (2,300kml, to Hawaiian
Airlines across 2,500 miles (4,020km) of ocean. To
ensure safe delivery, each 717 in the airline's fleet
is fitted with auxiliary fuel tanks fitted in the main
cabin. Aher removing interior partitions and several
seats, stowing them in the baggage hold for installation in Hawaii, the ferry tanks and fuel pumps are
loaded in the middle of lhe cabin, attached to the
seat racks anchored to the floor, over the aircrah's
centre of gravity.
With the tanks in place, fuel is pumped through a
panel on the right side of the fuselage, below the
overwing emergency exit. Four tanks of 250USgai.
(9461) are then filled up (versus nine needed to deliver the earlier DC-9-50s). The 80in (2.03ml containers
are interconnected through a series of hoses and
valves, and eventually each empties its contents into
the 717's centre fuel tank as fuel in the wings is
burned off. Aher a brief test flight to ensure fuel is
flowing properly. the aircraft is delivered to paradise
across the blue Pacific.

"-e.-

-' '"

I/~~~I x'
~1I.?!
~_":::'

;,.

HOME OF THE BOEING 717

The home of the 717 is the same assembly building where Douglas produced DC-9s,
MD-80s and MD-90s. Michael Carter

space and using less electricity and lighting

than all. open hangar. This building was
completed in April 1980, and the first
aircraft to get a full paint treatment inside
was a Swissair MD-81. The length of the
Super 80 necessitated a new building for
painting; the MD-80 was too long to fit in
another building that earlier was used to
paint DC-9s.
The unique feature of the paint hangar
is its shape and construction. lt is Vshaped at the front, with an upper level
at the back. Two huge sections of the
roof roll to the side, dividing the building
down the middle from front to back,
allowing the tail section of the aircraft to
enter the building. The upper level
enables the type's T-tail to be protected
inside while giving workers the space
they need to get to the top of the aircraft.
Moveable roof sections allow the tail to

A 717, in a special livery for Bangkok Air, emerges from the paint hangar. Michael Carter

136

'IJr

137

enter and provide an opening for the tail

section to move into the top level at the
back of the building. The horizontal
stabilizer is above the main roof of the
building as the aircraft moves in and out.
Air going into the building is filtered to
remove dust that could disturb the
smooth finish, and is filtered again as it
leaves the building. Air moves through
the building at 100ft (JIm) per minute
and, before being exhausted to the
outside, goes through a four-storey-high
bank of filters.
New 71 7s are handed over to customers
at Boeing's delivery centre, just off the
tarmac at Long Beach Municipal Airport.
After paperwork is completed and
payment arrangements are finalized, new
aircraft are delivered to their home
airports, with their new owners' pilots at
the helm, ready to enter service.

IN SERVICE

CHAPTER TEN

In Service
The entire aircraft family, from some of
the oldest DC-9-10s to brand-new 717s,
operates in the fleets of airlines the world
over. From the Americas to Australia, this
venerable aircraft line is among the most
common in the skies, transporting
millions of passengers on short hops and
medium-length flights to airports large
and small year after year.

OC-9
The DC-9 can be considered the longest
living jet-age aircraft, in terms of traffic,
takeoffs and passenger count. While some
aircraft still operating may be older there are many DC-3s still plugging away
- no aircraft can beat the DC-9 when it
comes to times flown and passengers
carried.

First Revenue Flight

new kind of flight. Quick and quiet and

comfortable. Smooth and fast.' The
airline played a large role in setting the
parameters of the DC-9. Delta wanted a
rugged and small jet that could profitably
serve small airports, which often had little
of
the
extensi ve
ground-support
equipment that big jets required.
Delta schedulers weren't easy on the
first DC-9-10s. The plane was designed to
be a workhorse, so it was scheduled to
operate seven flights on its first day flying
out of Atlanta. Oliver Dredger, the pilot
who flew Delta's first DC-9 in passenger
service, recalled one episode before the
flight even took off. 'We sat in the cockpit
ready to leave,' he says, 'when a nervous
passenger popped his head into the
cockpit and said with alarm, "This is the
first flight for this plane, and that means
this is your first flight on the plane.'"
Dredger told him he had flown proving
fl igh ts before and that passengers had

nothing to worry about. At 10:45 a.m.,

the shiny plane pulled away from the gate
and took off smoothly for a flight to
Memphis and Kansas City. After Kansas
City, it returned to Memphis and Atlanta.
Then it was off again, to Dayton,
Columbus and Detroit, where it remained
overnight.
'A new era in commercial aviation flew
into being last week on Delta Air Lines'
Flight 529,' Time magazine raved. 'The
DC-9 not only starts the process of
bringing swift jet service to hundreds of
US cities too small for big, long-range
planes but may also prove to be one of the
most efficient in the air.' Early DC-9
pilots told reporters the plane acted like <l
fighter jet and that the cockpit was
remarkably quiet.
N3306L, the first DC-9 in revenue
service, took to the air more than 100,000
times before its retirement from
Northwest Airlines in the late 1990s. No

1.1

"""n, . . . ,

Delta Air Lines was the launch customer for the MD-88, the final version of the MD-80 series. Boeing

WiI

The fi rst reven ue fl igh t of the DC-9 was

the aviation equivalent of building a
paved road where there had only been dirt
roads before. The DC-9 brought jet
service to many small- and medium-sized
cities, which had until then only been
served by propl iners.
The DC-9 made its passenger-carrying
debut with Delta Air Lines on 8
December 1965. The aircraft, registered
N3306L, was number twelve off the
assembly line in Long Beach. Delta had,
by that date, already received numbers
eight and eleven, but they were at first
used for training and publicity. Douglas
retained the rest of the initial dozen for
several months for testing and flight
training. Number twelve's flight took
place two hours before sister-ship number
eleven's.
Delta publicized its new aircraft in fullpage newspaper ads, declaring that
passengers would 'experience an entirely
The rear emergency exit leads into the tail cone,
which can be jettisoned if needed. Boeing

American Airlines is the largest operator of MD-80s, with more than 300 in service. Boeing

738

739

~. 5_...

IN SERVICE

IN SERVICE

A DC-9-l0 in the colours of defunct US

airline Best. Jon Proctor

~~Wllil __

w\l\lllil\

Above: An MD80 in the colours of Hawaiian Air. Boeing

Below: An SAS DC-9-40 awaits its next flight. Erik Frike

other jel anywhere in the world has flown

as often. (The closest competitor was a
Fokker F28.) The plane outlived two of its
four previous owners (Southern Airways
and Republic Airlines) and several of the
early pilots who flew it for Delta Air
Li nes, wh ich owned it from 1965 to 1973.
This one aircraft alone carried more than
four million people, a testament to the
family's durability. Over the years il has
been through forty engines, hundreds of
oil filters, several thousand tyres,
hundreds of air-conditioning filters,
thousands of oxygen masks and more than
two dozen galley ovens.
By the time Delta sold the aircrafl to
Southern Airways, it had logged 33,183
cycles and 21,934 hours. Delta sold the
aircraft and twelve other DC-9-IOs for $30
million in favour of DC-9-30s. The aircraft
was completely refurbished, overhauled
and repainted. 1ts two-class seating was
scrapped for single class consisting of
seventy-five seats. The plane began flying
into a number of small cities, such as
Panama City, Florida, and Alhany,
Georgia. The aircraft was also used on
charter flighls, including one for Elvis
Presley. US troops were transported in the
plane to get between major bases in lhe
region. On I July J979, Southern Airways
merged with North Central Airlines and a

new name - Republic Airlines - came out

of the merger. N3306L joined Republic
with 61,601 cycles and 38,992 fl ight hours.
hanges were made to standardize the
plane with Republic's other jets. Cockpit
instruments, switches and circuit breakers
had to be relocated, and enclosed luggage
bins were installed. The aircraft again was
painted inside and out, new carpets were
laid and new seats were put in. [n [986
Northwest Airlines acquired Republic. At
that time, N3306L had 83,355 cycles and
had flown 55,503 hours. It continued to

add to these numbers before its retirement.

N3306L outlived the predictions of
Douglas's design engineers, who in the
early [960s said the DC-9 would have a
service life of fifteen to twenty years.
Some problems in the DC-9's early days
of service included a shimmying main
landing gear. During landing ~lIld
breaki ng, wheels in the gear wou Id
vibrate, a sound heard throughout the
passenger Glbin. The problem was solved
by adding additional weight to the main
gear. Another problem was noise in aft
cabin, near the engines. Tune dampers
were used to rid that problem.

Typical Routes
All five variants of the DC-9 continue to
serve all kinds of routes of less than [,200
miles ([,900km), in large cities and small.
The majority of today's DC-9s are flown on
the lowest density short-haul route
networks of major and secondary
scheduled airlines, routes of between 290
and 750 nautical miles (470-J ,200 km).
The hundreds of DC-9s that are still flying
today are very different from the inside
than when they first debuted. New seating,
interiors, galleys and other amenities have
been added so that even after more than
thirty years of flying, a DC-9 today will
offer many of the benefits of newer aircraft.
Though largely replaced in Europe, DC9s fly a variety of routes in the Americas,
The Fokker F28. while similar to the DC-9. followed
the Douglas model into service. Jon Proctor

740

147

IN SERVICE

Northwest Airlines' DC-9 Fleet

Northwest Airlines, the fourth-largest US carrier, operates the biggest OC-9 fleet in the world, also giving the
airline the distinction of having one of the nation's oldest
fleets. Over the years, however, Northwest has upgraded
and retrofitted its fleet to incorporate modern interiors
and noise-suppression systems that will enable the fleet
to continue operating for years to come. More recently,
Northwest has updated passenger cabins to reflect 717style interiors -- complete with new walls and overhead
panels, new seats, handrails and overhead bins.
Given the age and constant use of the airline's OC-9
fleet. it's a tribute to mechanics that this classic workhorse remains in such good condition. The OC-9 fleet
suits Northwest's need for medium capacity, high-frequency flights across its base in the US Midwest.
Despite spending millions of dollars to upgrade its oC9s and having to pay more for fuel to feed older
engines, the airline argues that it is still cheaper than
buying new aircraft. With the choice of buying new
planes versus refurbishing the oC-9s and quietening
their engines, Northwest found that it is saving more
than $13 million per aircraft by keeping them in service.
In 1998, Northwest began a $700 million programme
to extend the lives of more than 140 oC-9s by a further
fifteen years. Upgrade programmes included new
avionics systems with weather radar, navigation and
communication systems, along with structural modifications, interior refurbishment and exterior paint.
In 1997, Northwest invested several million dollars
to purchase systems that reduce noise levels onboard
oC-9s. The devices, known as Active Tuned Mass
Absorbers (ATMA), suppress engine tones to a level
barely audible above wind noise, so increasing passenger comfort. The system makes the aging OC-9 competitive with any available aircraft. The ATMA devices

are located near the engine mounts, and significantly

reduce cabin noise in the last six or seven rows. Each
installation took sixty hours during routine maintenance. The project was completed in mid-1998.
Northwest operates mostly oC-9-30s but also a
handful of OC-9-1 Os, oC-9-40s and oC-9-50s. It's interesting to note that Northwest never bought a OC-9
directly from the factory; they were acquired through
mergers or through the used aircraft market, including
some former Alitalia and SAS birds. The average OC-9
in the fleet. with 2,000 cycles per year, has nearly seventeen more years of useful life. One OC-9 in its fleet,
a OC-9-15 model, was the oldest US-registered commercial jet aircraft still in service as of the end of 2001.
Northwest does not plan to phase out its 170-strong
OC-9 fleet until at least 2008. Even by the end of 2004
the airline projects it will have 162 oC-9s in its fleet.
The first to go, by 2002, will be the OC-9-1 Os, originally
acquired as part of the airline's merger with Republic in
the mid-1980s. Having an aging fleet provides the airline
with some flexibility to retire aircraft as a way to reduce
capacity during leaner times instead of having to return
newer, more fuel-efficient airliners. While frequent travellers may be wary of flying in aircraft more than thirty
years old, Northwest counters that they are among its
most mechanically reliable aircraft, resulting in the best
on-time figures of any type in its fleet.
The first OC-9 to enter passenger service with Delta Air
Lines, N3306L, went on to operate nearly 15 million miles
(24 million kml of service, most of that with Northwest.
Northwest Airlines has spent millions of dollars to
refurbish its fleet of DC-9s, including this DC-9-30 on
rotation from the airline's hub in Minneapolis.
Chris Coduta

IN SERVICE

Africa and Asia. Northwest Airlines, the

largest DC-9 operator with 170 in service
as of early 2002, uses them to link its hubs
in Minneapolis, Detroit and Memphis
with cities across the Midwest, South and
East. A nother large operator, Midwest
Express, has reconfigured its fleet to twoby-two business-class seating to make the
most of its renowned in-fl igh t service.
Aeromex ico uses the DC-9 on its
extensive domestic network while many
airlines in Latin America and Africa use
the DC-9 on trunk routes in their regions.
Many DC-9s are being retired every
year, and for some airlines it's a time to
reflect back fondly. When US Airways
retired its last DC-9-30 in August 2001, it
proudly stated that the type served the
airline for thirty-four years, during which
time it flew more than 4.4 million hours
over 4.9 million segments. US Airways,
then named Allegheny, took delivery of
the first of seventy-seven DC-9s in 1967.
Other airlines, including Air Canada and
SAS, retired their DC-9s after worldwide
air traffic fell following the events of II
September, 200 I.
Five DC-9s were built in 1965 but by
1968, the peak year of production, 203
models rolled off the assembly line, many
of those DC-9-30 variants - the most
popular one - that remain in service more
than thirty years later. Of the 976 DC-9s
built, more than half remain in
dependable service at the start of 2002.

Flying the DC-9

With that kind of age on the aircraft, the
experience of flying in a DC-9 today will
vary with the airline that operates it. Seat
pitch and seating configurations all depend
on the needs of the airline, although the
two-by-three arrangement is standard on
the aircraft. Some, like Northwest, have
spent millions updating the aircraft while
other airlines are flying DC-9s that have
been Iittle changed on the inside from the
day they received the aircraft.
With rear-mounted engines, the aircraft
is fairly quiet to ride in when sitting in
front of the wing. Though the DC-9 is
relatively loud from the cabin compared
to more modern aircraft, technological
developments retrofitted into existing
aircraft have managed to quieten cabin
noise substantially. The MD-80 series, hy
contrast, incorporated that technology
from the start, so the noise is bearable
even next to an engine at the back of the

742

~r~~

cabin. In the rearmost seats the ground

running noise of the engines prior to
takeoff and the in-flight noise can seem
high; in older models without noisesuppression technology, it can be difficult
to hear even a seatmate above the noise.
The DC-9's size and sporty look led to
corporate versions, of which several were
bought. Among the most famous was one
for Playboy magazine's Hugh Hefner, a
black DC-9-30 with his company's bunny
logo on the tail. The aircraft's interior
featured a full-size bed, kitchen, meeting
rooms and other amenities. The aircraft
today serves with Aeromexico, albeit with
more standard furn ish ings.
Since the DC-9 was designed for
multiple trips every day, the family has
some of the highest cycle counts. Every
takeoff and landing means wear and tear
on equipment. As a result, the DC-9 has
been under intense maintenance scrutiny.
Besides routine daily maintenance, various
aircraft components are inspected every
105 hours. More thorough inspections are
made at 665-hour and 3,000-hour
intervals. The ]T8D engines are replaced
every 5,500 cycles and new seat cushions
are installed every 3,000 flight-hours.
In the United States, every DC-9 falls
under
the
FAA's
aging
aircraft
programme, which mandates that they
undergo modifications of various parts
after a specific number of cycles or flight
hours. This programme is designed to
detect signs of fatigue. Such parts as the
forward cargo-door jamb, the horizontal
stabilizer and the plane's upper skin are
regularly inspected for any signs for

The first Boeing 717 for TWA was delivered with a ribbon and bow across its fuselage. Jon Proctor

fatigue or excessive wear. Age, though,

should not raise a concern. It's the quality
of the maintenance that keeps even the
oldest planes flying.
In the late 1970s and beyond, FAA
maintenance records showed that DC-9s
had experienced more structural problems
with their fuselage than any other types of
commercial aircraft. From 1972-1979
alone, records show that 1,758 cracks or
defects had been found on DC-9 fuselages.
Again, age wasn't the primary factor; the
fact that they make more frequent landings
than any other type of airliner accounted
for the disproportionate number of body
cracks. Shorter flights mean more stress on
the fuselage, including the forward and aft
bulkheads, the saucer-shaped walls that
separate the pressurized cabin from the tail
cone and other unpressurized areas, and
which expand and contract according to
cabin pressure. Over the years McDonnell
Douglas advised airlines through service
bulletins how to modify or repair
bulkheads.
In 1996, as the US civil aviation fleet
showed signs of aging, the FAA ordered
operators of DC-9s to inspect aircraft for
cracks or corrosion to preclude possible
rapid decompression and structural
failure. The emergency directive affected
562 aircraft, of which 322 operated in the
United States. It was prompted by the
discovery of a 39in-long (99cm) crack in
the upper fuselage of a DC-9-30. The
directive mandated visual inspections of
the forward fuselage upper skin.

743

As the venerable DC-9s - thoroughbreds

among workhorses - aged, many in the
industry looked back fondly at the type as
it approached retirement. In Canada, the
DC-9 was most Canadians' introduction to
jet air travel. As it retired from the airline's
fleet in early 2002, this aeroplane is
eliciting respect and sentimental reflection
among airline executives and ramp workers
alike, in recognition of an aircraft that
represents one of the greatest success
stories in aviation history.
The DC-9, during its more than thirty
years of service with Air Canada, played a
vital role in introducing Canadians to the jet
age and transforming Trans-Canada Air
Lines (Air Canada's predecessor) into an
intemationally respected national flag calTier.
Air Canada had bigger aircraft, jetting to
international locations, but the DC-9 served
the country and its cities, both small and
large, With its dominance in short-hops, the
DC-9 has done more than any other plane to
make air travel an affordable alternative to
rail and bus lines. And Air Canada's early
commitment to the DC-9 proved to be one
of the airline's most astute investments.
Rugged, dependable - and fully paid for years
ago - the DC-9 enabled Air Canada in the
late 1990s to turn a profit with only thirty of
ninety-two seats filled.
Profit: that is a key to why airlines keep
older DC-9s operating. With only
maintenance costs to contend with, they
continue to be a strong source of revenue
for airlines, which don't need to worry
about capital costs.

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MD-80 Series
The MD-80 series built on the success of
the DC-9, operating similar or new routes
to take advantage of its greater range and
capacity. More than 1,180 MD-80s arc
still in service today with more than fifty
airlines, making it one of the most
common types currently in usc. In fact,
somewhere in the world an MD-80 type,
along with earlier DC-9s, takes off once
every fifteen seconds. Orten relegated to
unglamorous, bread-and-butter routes, the
aircraft is among the most overlooked
types simply because it is such a
workhorse.

First Revenue Flight

The first DC-9-81 was delivered to
Swissair on 12 September 1980, two
weeks after the aircraft was awarded its
type certification. Delivery was five
months later than originally planned, and
about two months later than the date
targeted when the MD-81 made its initial
flight.
At the time the aircraft entered service,
it had received just eighty-seven firm
orders, ami twenty-eight conditional
orders and options from thirteen
customers. Although McDonnell Douglas
started deliveries several months behind
schedule, a decrease in worldwide
passenger traffic in 1980 eased the
pressures on airlines (or additional

SAS operated the MD-87 in addition to earlier versions of the DC-9 family. Michael Peliaton, Flying Images Worldwide

The MD-80 series, like the DC-9 before it, offers a rear ventral stairway. Jon Proctor

capacity, and earl y customers were

generally not inconvenienced hy the
delays.
Swissair launched service with the type
on 5 October 1980, on a fl ight from
urich to London. That MD-81 was
registered HB-INC. Later the same week
the airline introduced MD-81 service to
Frankfurt as well, with subsequent
services to France, Portugal and
Scandinavia. When it first took 0(( from

Air Canada was one of the first airlines to take delivery of the DC-9-30, seen here in the airline's old
colours. Michael Pellaton, Flying Images Worldwide

urich, it was the quietest ever reading for

a civil transport at the site, measuring 84
decibels, a fact that pleased residents who
lived near Kloten airport.
At the time of its debut, the MD-80
series was seen as the perfect aircraft to
serve airports sensitive to noise. Although
today the aircraft is no longer in service
with the airline, Swissair initially bought
the MD-80 series specifically for
environmental reasons. The DC-9-S1
then in its fleet was not popular with
residents near airports because of its noise,
so Swissair energetically publicized the

Spanair's MD-80 fleet is being phased out, replaced by the Airbus A320 family. Michael Peliaton, Flying Images Worldwide

:~

China Eastern operates a fleet of MD-80 series aircraft assembled in China. Raphael Sand, Flying Images Worldwide

744

745

IN SERVICE

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Iberia is another MD-87 operator in Europe. Michael Pellaton. Flying Images Worldwide

An Alaska Airlines MD-83 on final approach. The airline was the first to fly the MD-83 variant. Matt Cornell, Aero Pacific Images

l4ir'Tran
g

Midwest Express is replacing its DC-9-30s with 717s. Flying Images Worldwide Collection

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AirTran, the former ValuJet, is replacing its DC-9-30s with Boeing 717s. Flying Images Worldwide Collection

Impulse Airlines was the first airline in Australia to order the Boeing 717. The airline was acquired by Oantas and renamed Oantaslink for regional hops.
Japan Air System is among the few airlines operating MD-90s. Flying Images Worldwide Collection

Peter Sweeton, Flying Images Worldwide

146

147

IN SERVICE

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fact that the Super 80 was noticeably

quieter, both inside and outside. Swissair
also proudly pointed out that the MD-81
was even quieter than the widebody
Airbus A310 on landing and only a little
noisier on takeoff.
At the time, Swissair officials said they
were
pleased
Wilh
the
aircraft's
performance, despite delivery delays.
Noise measurements taken during flight
evaluations at Zurich confirmed the
airline's expectations of significantly
lower noise levels for the model's JT8D209 engines. The engine did have one
problem during its first few days of service:
a second-stage turbine rubbing problem.
This issue never posed a serious risk and
was quickly fixed.
The airline's leadership was impressed
with the first weeks of operation. Armin
Baltensweiler, then Swissair's president,
told Air Transport World:

American Airlines briefly operated the MD-87 after taking over regional carrier Reno Air.
Flying Images Worldwide Collection

A Delta Air lines MD-88 on final approach at los Angeles. Aero Pacific Images

I have been ahle ro talk m pas>cngcrs and cahin

mid us thcy wcrc vcrI' pleased with Swis'air

and flight crews, and gcnerally spcaking I can

this time, and our crcdibility went up in leaps.

say we are vcry pleased. P(1~scngcrs, particularly

Also the aircraft is not noisy inside, and it i,

in first class, like It hccausc

cxtremcly stahlc. I would go so far as [() say thai

Il

has a scpmatc

first-class galley and milet, cahin crcws likc it

for Swissair, thc introduction of the Da,h 81

bccausc it has a rcar galley scparatc frnm thc

could bc thc prc-condition for ma;,tering

main cahin in which thcy prcparc mcal, and

prc;,cnt 'l11d future problems succcssfully -

find it a very acccprahic aircm(t to work in, and

prohlems

pilots like it hccausc it ha' a digital cockpit ami

cnvirOntllClll,

hcad-up display.

in connection

with

noi~c

and

fud price e~c;..llalinn, and the

recession. If thc Dash 8\ did not exist, it would

havc heen invcnted.

He reiterated the airline's prime interest

in the aircraft: noise reduction:
\Xlc wcrc vcrI' tcnsc whcn wc flcw our first Da,h
81 over the official noi,c-mca'Llfing point, at
urich, but wc found with trcmcndou, delight
that we achicvcd a rcduction of 10 dccihcls.
Even the most aggrc~~ivc fjghtcr~ againM noise

Swissair was also impressed with the firsl

few mon ths of M 0-81 service. The
aircraft could carry fifteen
more
passengers than the DC-9-50 without
dispensing with the comfortable fiveabreast cabin layout. A new, large galley
at the back of the cabin could efficiently
erve the economy-class section while the
traditional forward galley was shrunk to
serve on Iy fi rst-class passengers. In
particular, Swissair trumpeted the cockpit
enhancements.
The
dual
digital
autopilots, autothrottles, automatic power
reserve, air data computers, fuel quantity
ga ugi ng wi th con ti n uous read-ou t of
aircraft weight, and head-up display
reduced the captain's workload by 30 per
cent and the first officer's by 8 per cent.
More importantly, Swissair's early service
showed the aircraft could safely and
comfortably be flown by a crew of two.
The MD-80's autopilot and autothrottle
performed well during Swissair's initial
flight experience, although some work

US carrier Allegiant Air operated this former SAS DC-9-20. Michael Carter, Aero Pacific Images

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A Northwest Airlines DC-9-30 poses at Toronto.

Paul Giannico, Pegasus Photography

148

TWA was among the largest MD-80 series operators when it was acquired by American Airlines in 2001, Michael Carter, Aero Pacific Images

149

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Selling the MD-80

Above: Reno Air operated the MD-90 on regional

routes in the western United States. Chris Coduto

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was required to fully refine the system.

Special attention was given to passenger
weight distribution in the cabin during
loading and unloading. With its
lengthened fuselage and heavier engines,
Swissair wanted to ensure that the aircraft
would not tip back on its tail. For the first
few weeks of revenue service, some of the
rear passengers were offloaded through
the aft exit first.
Only a few months into service,
Swissair found the MD-80 made good on
claims of environmental acceptance,
which the company saw as one of the
main justifications of its investment.
Swissair was convinced that it had an
aircraft that would be economical to run
and easy to service because of a high
degree of commonality with earlier DC-9
types. The transition of pilots could
rapidly be achieved, keeping training
costs to a minimum.
Swissair ordered a total of fifteen MD81s, all delivered before the end of 1981.
The 1,000th DC-9 series jetliner was an
MD-81 delivered to Swissair in 1981. The
DC-9 thus became the first twinjet family
to reach the 1,000 aircraft mark. The
original market-total estimate for the DC9 was 400 aircraft, but that number was
ordered in just the first three years of the
programme. (The 1000th MD-80 series
aircraft was delivered on 23 March 1992).
The second M D-80 series customer,
Austrian Airlines, received its first aircraft
in late 1980. The first US flight of the

Left: Swissair was the launch customer for the

MD-Sl.
Flying Images Worldwide Collection

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To help boost initially sluggish sales for the MD-8o,

McDonnell Douglas took the new-generation twinjet
on a flight around the world, marketing the new variant as the 'quietest plane in the world'. The roundthe-world marketing tour took the type to thirteen
cities in Europe, the Middle East and Asia. The threeweek trip was aimed at demonstrating the type's fuel
efiiciency, technology and passenger comfort.
Led by Pete Conrad, the former moonwalking
astronaut who was a senior vice president of the
company, the sales pitch stopped in Europe, India,
China and other Asian nations in the fall of 1982. In
India, McDonnell Douglas pitched the Super 80 as an
ideal replacement for the Boeing 737-200. Although
no sales were made, the jetliner impressed local officials and reporters in New Delhi, who noted the relatively noise-free takeoffs and landings. In China, the
aircraft, dubbed 'Friendship 82', swooped over the
Great Wall of China during a campaign that would
lead to the first sales of a McDonnell Douglas-made
aircraft. Aninety-minute demonstration flight took
100 airline officials, pilots, dignitaries and reporters
on board. The aircraft was painted in the colours of
Muse Air, a Texas-based regional airline that had
introduced the type to its fleet.
Nearly two years after its first flight, eighty-four
MD-81 and MD-82s were in service, having flown
more than 150,000 hours. During that time the fleet
had carried an estimated twelve million passengers
on short- to medium-haul routes in the United States,
Europe, Latin America and Asia. The average MD-8o
flight was found to be about one hour, slightly longer
than earlier DC-9 versions. The fleet at the time averaged nearly seven hours a day flight time, with a dispatch reliability rate of nearly 99 per cent. So while
initial sales may have been slow, the type's performance was off to an excellent start.

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Legend Airlines was a short-lived effort to

provide all-first class service from Dallas Love
Field. Chris Coduto

750

Mexico's AeroCalifornia was a DC-9-10 operator. Ralph Olsen, Flying Images Worldwide.

757

new type took place on 17 December

1980, when Pacific Southwest FI ight 128
took off from San Francisco to Los
Angeles. PSA ordered twenty Super 80s
for delivery through 1982. Few in the
blase crowd of fl iers knew they were part
of US aviation history. The California
airline, which later merged with USAir,
was among the first to recognize the
potential of the Super 80 to address rising
fuel costs and environmental restrictions.
'When we cut the noise level in half, save
more than $1 million in annual fuel costs
and provide a new cockpit with greatly
reduced workload by anybody's
standards we've made great progress
toward alleviating these problems,'
McDonald Douglas president John
Brizendine said during the delivery
ceremony for PSA's first Super 80. The
airline found the new jet to be 20 per cent
more fuel efficient than earlier DC-9
models.

Typical Routes
Like the DC-9 before it, MD-80 series
aircraft fly a variety of short- to mediumra nge rou tes. I ts largest operator,
American Airlines, uses the aircraft to
link its hubs in Chicago and Dallas with
cities throughout the nation. The MD-80
line is the most common aircraft at
Dallas-Fort Worth, one of the world's
largest airports. Another large operator,
Delta Air Lines, uses its MD-88 models as

IN SERVICE

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Right: An Allegiant Air DC-9-50. Chris Coduto

Below: A DC-9-10 awaits its next flight. Chris Coduto

Bottom: A Delta Air Lines MD-88 in the airline's

Above: USAirways retired its DC-9-30s in August

newest colours. Chris Coduto

2001. Chris Coduto

---=~

Left: An American Airlines MD-80 being pushed out

to start a flight from Phoenix. Chris Coduto

Below: Aeromexico operates the MD-80 family on

its domestic and regional network. Chris Coduto

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152

153

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IN SERVICE

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A Continental Airlines MD-80 taxiing in San

Francisco. Chris Coduto

a staple for points along the East Coast

and throughout the Midwest of the
United States to its main hub in Atlanta,
the world's busiest airport. In Europe,
SAS uses its fleet to link Scandinavia
with the rest of Europe. It's also a popular
aircraft among European charter operators
and start-up operators looking for an
efficient jet.
Today MD-80 series operators range
from the largest carriers to new start-up
airlines and charter operators. The
aircraft flies to more than 420 airports
around the world with 4,800 daily flights.
The various MD-80 models have flown
34 billion revenue hours since beginning
service.

A Northwest Airlines DC-9-10 on rotation. The airline has but a handful of the original DC-9s in its fleet. Chris Coduto

Flying the MD-80

Passengers have come to like the model
because it is familiar, comfortable, safe,
and provides five-abreast seating with low
cabin noise, particularly in the front of
the cabin. An airline can option for either
a
two-by-three
or
three-by-two
configuration for the MD-80 series, which
is narrower than other single-aisle
jetl iners. Fi rst class seati ng is offered ina
two-by-two arrangement.

deGH/
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Right: The wedge-shaped tail cone as seen on a

Delta MD-88. Chris Coduto
Below: An Alaska Airlines MD-83 head-on.
Chris Coduto
AeBal, a subsidiary of Spanair, uses the Boeing 717 on regional routes. Michael Carter

'

A Bangkok Air 717 lifts off for a test flight from Long Beach. Michael Carter

754

755

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McDonnell Douglas reported in 1982

that an independent survey of passengers
flying the new airliner preferred it threeto-one to older-technology aircraft it was
replacing. The feedback showed high
marks for the Super 80's quiet, smooth
performance and interior comfort. As for
airlines, they found the aircraft's costs to
be the lowest of any aircraft in its class,
and its fuel consumption per passenger to
be the lowest for any commercial jet at
the time, due to its engines, highercapacity fuselage and larger, more efficient
wings.
From the pilot's point of view, the MD80 climbs fast and turns easily. Because of
the commonality of all MD-80 series
aircraft, the same flight crews can fly all
models, reducing the need for expensive
training. Pilots train in the same
simulators using only minor software
changes. With fewer than four hours of
ground school, pilots can prepare for any
of the MD-80 models, so they can easily
be cross qualified to operate various
models. As few as three simulated
landings in an MD-87 simulator, for
instance, can qualify an MD-81 pilot to
fl y the fam iIy's shortest version.
Maintenance crews, tools, equipment and
manuals are also highly common to all the
MD-80 family, providing increased
productivity and efficiency. Equipment
and supplies used to repair or overhaul
everything from sheet metal to landing
gear and avionics is 100 per cent common
between all models. This commonality
can lead to big savings through reduced
spares inventory.
The MD-80 series, despite a triedand-true recipe for success, was not
without early problems in the field. The
Air Line Pilots' Association reported
several issues of concern. One was
unexpected mode changes, complete
loss of data and other anomalies of the
fl ight gu idance system, problems that
may have been caused in part by coldsoaking of computer or electrical
systems. Reports of fI igh t gu idance
system
ma Ifu nctions
inc Iude
unexpected switching from the takeoff
mode to another mode during the
takeoff roll and from the desired
approach mode to the heading mode
ncar landing decision height. Autopilot
and autothrorrle disconnects during
tu rbu Ience were reported, as were
switching from takeoff mode to climb
mode, causing the autothroule thrust

A DC-9 lifts into the air. Chris Coduto

-':'.

Northwest also operates the DC-9-50. Chris Cod uta

An MD-90 in the colours of charter operator AMC.

156

TWA was the second customer for the 717. Michael Carter

An unpainted 717 prepares for a test flight. Michael Carter

The 717 prototype on final approach following another test flight. Michael Carter

757

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---:=-.

-----. --- -

Hawaiian Airlines is using the 717 to replace its fleet of DC-9s. Michael Carter

IN SERVICE

Turkmenistan Airlines is the first airline in the former Soviet Union to order new Boeing aircraft. Michael Carter

~ Delta
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AirTran was the launch customer for the 717, which the airline says helps to reduce operating costs and improve efficiency. Michael Carter

158

A Delta Air lines MD-90 in the airlines newest colour scheme. Michael Carter

159

1-.

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The MD-90's large V2500 engines are quite obvious.

Michael Carter

computer to put one throttle into idle.

Autothrotrle disconnects were also
noted when climbing through clouds.
Joe Callaghan, the retired Douglas
engineer recalls:
The most challenging problem was that in
certain temperature, humidity and fuelling
conditions, fuel ranks adjacent to fuselage could
get ice on the upper slllface on wings - a halfinch-thick slah of icc. Icc peeled off and would
slick into the powcrpl~nts, causing engine
failures. The fix was thin heater-blankets
installed on wing surface on nXlt of wing. There
were other, more nuisHncc~likc items. Occasional
avionics problems, for instance. We also had
landing-gear shimmy conditions. In certain
conditions, the gear would shake. It turned out to
be a resonance hetween the anti-skid system and
landing gear. That caused oscillation. We spent
some time chasing that down. We re-tuned the
anti-skid system to get rid of it.

Some pilots complained of the location and

illumination of switches and circuit
breakers, which increased the chances of
incorrectly identifying and actuating
switches, especially the emergency light
switch and the ignition override switch,
which are adjacent and identical in shape.
Some pilots also noted the captain's sear

TWA: End of the DC Line

Often airlines buy a new aircraft type from the same
manufacturer. For nearly seventy years, Trans World Airlines built its fleet primarily around Douglas and McDonnell Douglas models, from the DC-l to the final MD-80
series model- an MD-83 delivered in December 1999
that closed out the type's manufacturing run. Even on
the brink of bankruptcy as a struggling shell of its former
self, TWA demonstrated its preference for Douglas models by becoming a launch customerior the Boeing 717.
These two great names in US aviation - Douglas
and TWA - began the relationship on 20 September
1932, when they signed a contract for one prototype of
the new twelve-seat DC-l, with an option to buy sixty
more. After a first flight on 1July 1933, Douglas delivered the first DC-1 the following December. It was the
only DC-l ever built, but went on to be a successful
test aircraft, one flown by TWA's largest shareholder,
Howard Hughes, on a flight around the world. Three
months earlier TWA had ordered the production version, the DC-2. The airline took delivery of the first of
thirty-one DC-2s on 14 May 1934.
TWA later ordered DC-3s, helping TWA become one
of the leaders in the nascent airline industry, and took
on some DC-4s, but then turned to Boeing and Lockheed for other aircraft. Not until 1964 did TWA return
to Douglas with an order for twenty DC-9-1 Os for delivery between March 1966 and August 1987. That order
helped TWA become the first major airline with an alljet fleet. This milestone occurred on 6 April 1967,
when the last Constellation was retired from scheduled service. Although TWA did not order another DC-9
until the MD-80 series, it acquired a number of SerieslOs, -30s and -40s with the takeover of Ozark Air Lines
in 19B6. DC-9-50s entered the fleet in 1993.

760

TWA built up a sizable MD-8o series fleet to replace

Boeing 727s. At a ceremony in Long Beach commemorating the final MD-80 series delivery on 21 December
1999, Bill Compton, then TWP\s president, told a crowd
of more than 1,000 employees, government officials
and other guests, The relationship between TWA and
Douglas Aircraft is a long one and, for me, a personal
one. My father was aTWA pilot on the DC-2, ending
his career flying DC-8s. The first aeroplane I ever flew
as a first officer was the DC-9.' He also piloted many
MD-8os over the years.
The last MD-80 ever built, an MD-83, fittingly was
christened the 'Spirit of Long Beach', the 102nd in
TWA's fleet. TWA's first MD-8o, an MD-82, was delivered on 18 April 1983. The aircraft was perfectly suited
for TWA because it could reach either coast of the
United States from the airline's hub in St. Louis.
With American Airlines taking over TWA's routes
and assets, a takeover that occurred in April 2001,
TWA's MD-80s will push American's MD-80 series fleet
to 376, by far the most of any carrier - and more than a
quarter of the entire MD-8o series worldwide fleet.
American also took over TWA's remaining DC-9-30s,
but said they would be retired by the end of 2002.
Despite its precarious financial position before being
taken over by American Airlines, TWA was, until its final
days, taking delivery of one new aeroplane every ten
days. 'It is fitting that TWA is the airline accepting this
last. historic MD-80 because it is this very airline that
helped the Douglas Aircraft Company define the DC-l,
the aeroplane that helped to pioneer comfortable and
profitable passenger service: Jim Phillips, vice president and general manager of the plant, told acrowd
gathered for the final MD-8o delivery.

height does not allow good visibility of the

horizontal situation indicator and other
instruments when using the head-up display.
Pilots also reported an excessive
number of distracting aural and visual
advisory, caution and warning signals in
the cockpit, especially during normal
operations. Another nit was that
instrument cooling-fans created excessive
cockpit noise when the aircraft was on the
ground. Windshield posts and cockpit
geometry also was found by some to
produce undesirable visibility restrictions,
and distortion in the lower portion of the
forward windscreen was found to make
landing flare difficult to judge, especially
at night in rain and fog.
Some MD-80 pilots reported loss of
rudder effectiveness when using the
reverse thrust. The NTSB report of the
MD-81 flight-test accident in Yuma,
which resulted in the aircraft leaving the
runway after using reverse thrust on
landing rollout, concluded that the flight
test procedure failed to account for loss of
rudder effectiveness that results from the
increased disruption of airflow by reverse
thrust from the more powerful engines.
Also a concern to some flight crews was
the aircraft's loss of nosewheel friction
and authority during turns with
nosewheel steering, making crosswind
and engine-out operations more difficult.
Hydraulic system anomalies reported by

pilots included low-pressure indications

during peak system demands, higher fluidtemperatures than in earlier DC-9s, and
unusual hydraulic system noises. Airlines
also reported limited life of nose tyres,
attributable to the small nose wheel tyre
footprint on the aircraft and the cant of
the nosewheel strut, which lifts one
nosewheel tyre during turns,
There also were cases of thrust
reverser buckets scraping the ground
during landings. Deploying thrust
reversers after the main gear touches
down but without the nosewheel on the
ground can allow the buckets to scrape.
Weight and balance problems included
the possibility of tail tipping under
certain
loading
and
unloading
conditions and a requirement to load
fuel into the centreline tank first.
Despi te these setbacks, which were
quickly addressed and fixed, early Super
80 operators were thri lied wi th the
aircraft. Pacific Southwest chose the
aircraft because no other commercial
aircraft at the time could carry so many
people so cost-effectively - not a bad
selling point in an era of rapidly escalating
fuel costs, levels that jumped 13 7 per cent
between August 1978, when PSA first
ordered the aircraft, and 1980.

Indeed, fuel use was among the

biggest poi nts in McDonnell Douglas's
sales pitch. The three-engine Boeing
727 ruled America's skies during the
1970s, but McDonnell Douglas actively
marketed the Super 80 as an ideal
replacement for the fuel-guzzling rival.
'We think the 727 is on its last legs,' a
company official, W.G. Nassibane, told
the St. Louis Globe-Democrat, in
March 1980. 'It is a fuel hog.' More than
twenty years later, hundreds of 727s
soldier on in commercial service,
although they are quickly being retired.
While McDonnell Douglas hoped to sell
the Super 80 to former 727 customers,
they instead found a new customer base
in airlines that would give the MD-80
series a try. (Many 727 operators instead
looked to the new-generation 757 from
Boeing as a more viable replacement.)
Salesmen banked on the skyrocketing
price of fuel to force the airlines that fly
72 7s to take a closer look at the Super 80,
with two engines instead of three and a
pair of crew members instead of a trio.
McDonnell estimated in 1980 that over a
fifteen-year period the 727 would burn
$23 million more in fuel than the Super
80, based on $1.35 per gallon (35 cents
per litre) prices.

Saudi Arabian Airlines operates the largest fleet of MD-90s, and was the last airline to take delivery of the
type, in 2000. Michael Carter

767

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IN SERVICE

have baby-changing stations. Even the

lighting is different. Passengers entering
the aircraft are met by eight incandescent
lights that can be dimmed against a
mirrored ceiling. In the dark, the
handrails along the overhead bins have
lights that shine out from behind the rails,
casting a bluish glow along the entire
length of the aisle. Passengers in every
class have ready access to window and
aisle seats. The model's spaciousness lends
itself
to
comfortable
seating
arrangements, with wide seats, a quiet
cabin, large windows and 100 per cent
fresh cabin air. With no recirculated air,
passengers feel more refreshed than when
breathing in recycled air.
Common complaints during the first
two years of service include hard seatcushions, uncomfortable first-class seats
and wind noise. TWA went so far as to
repl ace cush ions and adjust fi rst-c1ass
seats to provide for additional room in the
upright position.
Pilots seem to enjoy the aircraft. It
combines the excellent flying qualities of

">

' "tt,,,,,,,,, It, """"" '" """", "'"''''

the DC-9 with superb climb performance

and the added safety of high-tech
electronics and navigation. The 717
accelerates off the runway in a way similar
to the larger 757 or the smaller regional
jets - fast, powerful and quiet.
Boeing delivered thirty-two 717s in
2000, following the first twelve in 1999.
Boeing delivered 49 of the aircraft in
2001, not enough to warrant full
employment, as layoffs continued among
Long Beach employees (as many as 1,200
by 2002).
The in-service fleet is showing constant
improvement in terms of mission
completion and on-time departures.
Dispatch reliability, measured in terms of
departures within fifteen minutes of
scheduled time, hovers at better than 98
per cent. That means just a fraction of 717
departures are cancelled for mechanical
reasons. These figures reveal swift
maturity for an aircraft that had a rough
few months following its service entry.

A China Northern MD-90 at Long Beach. Three of the type were assembled in China. Michael Carter

A Saudi MD-90 on final approach in Long Beach following a test flight. Michael Carter

MD-90

Boeing 717

With just 114 MD-90s produced, the M 090 is the rarest member of this aircraft
family that is no longer in production.
Launch customer Delta inaugurated MD90 service on 1 April 1995, five weeks
after delivery of the first aircraft, on the
Dallas-Newark route.
The highest number of MD-90
deliveries was thirty-four in 1998, while
just three were delivered in 2000, carried
over from production the year before.
MD-90s serve on many of the same routes
the MD-80 series flies. Because of its
excellent capabilities in high-altitude and
hot airports, Delta employs the MD-90
out of its hubs in both Salt Lake City and
Dallas, linking cities on the US west
coast. The type's largest customer, Saudi
Arabian Airlines, flies the MD-90 on
routes throughout the Middle East.
Several airlines in China, where two of
the aircraft were produced, operate MD90s on domestic and regional routes.

The Boeing 717 is primarily used to

replace aging DC-9s on trunk routes or
open service to new cities.
The aircraft's first revenue flight took
place on 12 October 1999, when an
AirTran 717 flew from its hub in Atlanta
to Washington's Dulles International
Airport. During its first few months in
service, the 717 was achieving a dispatch
reliability rate of 98 per cent and betterthan-expected fuel savings. Service
anomalies have included brief problems
with the auxiliary power unit and some
minor non-routine failures of aircraft
equipment.
The 717 flies routes of two hours or less,
including Athens-Madrid, Atlanta-Orlando
and Brisbane-Melbourne. The marketing
effort for the 717 revolves around new
airlines or those looking to upgrade to larger
jets. And while smaller regional jets, with
fifty to ninety seats, have smaller cabins, little
if any in-flight service and no first-class cabin,

762

Most of the mechanical issues cropped up

in the aircraft's first winter, which caused
ice ingestion problems with the design of
the APU inlet, the air-cycle machine and
engine starter. The top break-in problem,
though, was software issues that created
erroneous codes. Boeing developed a
second certification set of software to
solve the problems, which led to false
warnings about engine status, control
column disconnects and flap and slat
positions. The most notorious of the early
faults was the failure of a power
conversion distribution unit, which led to
the failure of the main deck displays on
more than one occasion. The failures,
which forced the crew to resort to standby
instruments, were traced to moisture
dripping into the power conversion
distribution unit, which is located in the
electrical equipment bay beneath the
fl igh t deck. AI though the incidents
resulted in a temporary night-flying
restriction, the problem was quickly

the 717 is a good solution, offering large

aircraft amenities for small-aircraft operating
costs.
On the 717, boasting the most efficient
engines to date, even veteran passengers
say it's the quietest aircraft they've ever
flown on, even in the back near the
engines. It's difficult to even hear the
engines start. Boeing likes to tell stories of
weary frequent fliers - who rarely take
time to note the type of aircraft they're
flying in - take a step back when they
enter the 717. With its new, well-lighted
cabin, the 717 can be mistaken from the
inside, at least aesthetically, for a much
larger aircraft.
The bright interior conveys a spacious
atmosphere. A handrail extends from the
overhead bins the length of the aircraft
cabin, offering stability during turbulence.
Large overhead bins are also a blessing.
They are the same size as those found on
the much larger Boeing 747-400, and
customers can fit in roll-aboard luggage
lengthwise. The three lavatories even

763

IN SERVICE

CHAPTER ELEVEN

Safety
VVbJ""Tran - ~.~ 8 , r.~.".".
N546AT

AirTran was the launch customer for the Boeing 717. Ralph Olsen, Flying Images Worldwide.

solved by changes to the connectors, the

installation of a drip tray over the top of
the box and sealing the flight deck floor.
AirTran uses the 717 to many
destinations from its Atlanta hub,
including points in Florida, the Midwest
and the North-eastern United States.
Hawaiian Airlines' short-haul network
of inter-island routes makes this the
most intensive duty roster for the 717.
Its first three aircraft were averaging
thirteen cycles per day, with an average
ground turnaround time of only twentyeight minutes and dispatch reliability at
99 per cent. The 717 was considered the
ideal aircraft for the airline's short-range
route structure, with no segment longer
than forty minutes. Although outwardly
similar to the DC-9s it replaces, the
71Ts engines are 25 per cent more fuelefficient and have emissions 60 per cent
below US federal standards. The 717

not only meets Stage 3 noise standards

but complies with proposed Stage 4
criteria.
Hawaiian's 717s feature the Future Air
Navigation System (FANS), which
enables the flight dispatcher to transmit
flight plan and takeoff speeds directly to
the aeroplane's Flight Management
System. The pilots can review the flight
plan and, if they accept it, push the 'OK'
button to complete the entry. Its thirteen
717s replace the DC-9-50s in its fleet on a
one-on-one basis.
Olympic Aviation, the regional arm of
Greece's national carrier, was Europe's
launch customer for the 717, introducing
the first of three in January 2000.
Acquiring the 717 was a departure for the
carrier; until then it operated only
turboprop aircraft - an example of how
the 717 can serve as a starter-jet for an
airline wishing to expand. 'The

164

introduction of the 717 was necessary for

Olympic Aviation to stimulate the market
and gain a new share of the regional
sector,' the airline said at the time. It
chose the 717 to execute its businesses
plan, which called for the creation of
a second domestic hub in the northern
Greek city of Thessalonika, serving
twel ve
destinations
that
include
Amsterdam, Berlin, Larnaca and several
Greek islands. The airline says that,
despite Boeing's relative inexperience in
dealing with regional airlines like
Olympic Aviation, it is pleased with the
support it has received, particularly when
trying to help Boeing understand the
needs of regional carriers - dependability,
low operating costs and durability. As a
result of its experience, the airline has
been trying to convince Boeing to sell
more 717s in Europe, where only a
handful operates.

The DC-9/MD-80/MD-90/Boeing 717

family has an enviable safety record.
While every accident is unique, and no
mechanical or structural flaw is common
to any accident involving the aircraft
family, the family has endured a number
of crashes between 1966 and 2001, many
involving fatalities. Appendix 3 shows a
list of accidents in which the aircraft was
damaged beyond repair.
The deadliest crash to date involving
the DC-9/MD-80/MD-90/717 family
occurred on 1 December 1981, when a
newly delivered MD-81 with 173
passengers (the maximum capacity) and
seven crew members on board crashed
into Corsica's Mt San Pietro. The Inex
Adria Aviopromet flight was on a holding
pattern into Ajaccio on a flight from
Ljubljana when it struck the mountain.
The crash was blamed on controller error,
although the crew took too much time to
respond to aural warnings that a terrain
collision was imminent.
Here's a look at five of the family's more
notable crashes:

Alaska Air MD-83,

31 January 2000
No other crash involving a mechanical
failure in the DC-9 family aroused as
much attention as Alaska Air flight 261,
an MD-83. The eight-year-old aircraft
departed Puerto Vallarta, Mex ico, en
route to San Francisco with eighty-three
passengers and a crew of five. While
cruising at 31,000ft (9,500m) on 31
January 2000, the flight crew reported a
problem with the stabilizer trim off the
coast of southern California. The captain
radioed Los Angeles control, reporting
the aircraft, registered N963AS with
26,584 hours of service, was descending to
26,000ft (7,900m) so the crew could
troubleshoot a jammed horizontal
stabilizer.
Soon the crew reported problems
maintaining altitude and told of their
intentions to divert to nearby Los Angeles

International Airport. During the descent

the crew was also communicating with
Alaska Airlines maintenance personnel
in Seattle and Los Angeles to determine
what was causi ng the loss of stabi Iity. As
the crew attempted to diagnose or correct
the problem, the situation rapidly grew
worse, causing the plane to pitch nosedown. While preparing to descend toward
Los Angeles, the crew lost control of the
aircraft completely, and the MD-83 was
seen by passing aircraft tumbling out of
the sky while spinning, nose down, in a
continuous, inverted, corkscrewing roll a well-publicizeJ Jeath spiral.
In the cockpit Captain Ted Thompson
and First Officer William Tansky turned
on the autopilot at 7,500ft (2,300m) after
departing Mexico. The autopilot was
turned off as the aircraft neared its
cruising altitude. The stabilizer trim was
not working properly, so the crew decided
to fly by hand. The glitch was nothing to
worry about. Less than two hours later,
the problems, however, became worse.
'Centre, Alaska 261, we are, uh, in a dive
here,' one of the pilots told controllers.
'We're out of 26,000 feet and we're in a
vertical dive - not a dive yet - but, uh,
we've lost vertical control of our
aeroplane. '
The flight data recorder on Flight 261,
which was recovered after the crash,
showed the stabilizer jammed in the fullup position, which pushed the nose down
and caused the jet to suddenly dive. Still,
even with a jammed, or 'runaway'
stabilizer, the pilots should have been able
to land the aircraft. But four seconds after
the jet's wing flaps were extended in
preparation for landing, the MD-83 began
to fall out of control. 'Mayday,' a
crewmember said. 'We are inverted.'
After an exhaustive study, the US
National Transportation Safety Board
concluded that the horizontal stabilizer
jammed, possibly because of excessive
wear and inadequate lubrication of a
screw-jack assembly in the tail that
controls the movement of the stabil izer.

165

The stabilizer is the wing-like piece on

top of the MD-83 tail that is moved
slightly up or down - 'trimmed' is the
phrase - by the pilots or autopilot to help
keep the plane stable. An aircraft's nose
has a tendency to pitch up or down in
flight because of the aerodynamic forces
on the wings. The controversial screw
jack, found on the bottom of the ocean,
showed signs of wear before being
damaged by the accident. The screw jack
was stripped of its threads.
It was determined that, during heavy
maintenance prior to the crash, the lead
mechan ic had recommended the screwjack assembly be replaced. But it was left
in place after being retested several times
by other mechanics and determined to be
within wear limits. The same screw-jack
design was used on all previous members
of the fam iIy, includ ing the DC-9 and
even the later 717, leading the FAA to
order US carriers to increase the
lubrication of screw jacks to every 650
hours of operation, down from 7,200
hours or thirty months. The screw jack in
question had flown for 8,884 hours
without being checked, according to the
National Transportation Safety Board.
The board also concluded that Alaska
Airlines might not have lubricated the
screw-jack assembly adequately, mixing
two incompatible greases together. That
led to excessive wear and failure. The
emergency Airworthiness Directive from
the FAA affected 1,900 DC-9s, M D-80s,
MD-90s and 717s. Boeing recommended
that all operators of these types check
screw jacks for wear, test the trimindicating system and shut-off controls,
and inspect lubrication of the screw-jack
assembly.
Newspaper reports following the crash
shed light on the Long Beach factory,
then under the ownership of McDonnell
Douglas. In the early 1990s, government
auditors found that employees performed
slipshod work, used out-of-date blueprints
and improperly inspected parts as the
financially struggling company was

SAFETY

scrambling to keep planes rolling off the

assembly line. At the time, the FAA cited
repeated and chronic breakdowns in
manufacturing procedures, although the
agency said the deficiencies posed no
threat to fl ight safety.

Northwest Airlines MD-82, 16

August 1987
Another crash involving the MD-80
series reminded pilots of the importance
of pre-takeoff checklists, a routine list of
several dozen items that standardize
takeoff procedures. On the night of 16
August 1987, a Northwest Airlines MD82, leaving Detroit, Michigan, for
Phoenix, Arizona, as Flight 255, was
cleared to take off. Shortly after rotation
the stall warning activated. The aircraft,
N312RC (built in 1981), rolled left and
then right. The left wing struck a light

pole in a rental car lot. The aircraft

continued to roll to the left, struck a
second light pole and then crashed into
the ground on a road outside the
perimeter of Detroit's Metropolitan
Airport. It slid along the road, struck a
railroad embankment and burst into
flames. A total of 154 people on the
aircraft died, along with two people on
the ground. Only one person, a toddler,
survived.
An investigation determined that the
flight crew failed to use the taxi checklist
to ensure the flaps and slats - which help
give aircraft lift on takeoff - were
extended for takeoff. Contributing to the
accident was the absence of electrical
power to the aircraft's takeoff warning
system, which did not warn the crew that
the aircraft was not configured properly
for takeoff. Wh iIe the reason for the
absence of electrical power could not be

This USAir DC-9-30 crashed in Charlotte in 1994. Chris Coduto

"'~

166

SAFETY

determined, the crash reminded all pilots

of the importance of checking - and
double-checking - checklists.

Aeromexico DC-9-30,
31 August 1986
A DC-9 was involved in one of the most
highly publicized mid-air collisions bringing to the forefront the growing
problems of too much air traffic over
densely populated areas and efforts to
improve air-traffic control systems.
Flight 498, an Aeromexico DC-9-30,
registered XA-JED, was on initial
approach into Los Angeles International
Airport on 31 August 1986, after a fl ight
from Tijuana, Mexico, when a private
propeller-plane struck the DC-9 on the
tail, causing both aircraft to rain down
in pieces onto Cerritos, California.
Sixty-four people on the DC-9, three on
the pri vate plane and fi fteen on the
ground died.

According
to
the
National
Transportation Safety Board, the probably
cause was:
... the limitations of the Air Traffic Control
system to rrovide collision rrotection, through
both

ATC

redundancy.
accident

rrocedure'

and

automated

Factors contrihuting
were

the

to

inadvertent

the
and

unauthorized entry of the Iprivate aircraftl into

the Los Angeles Terminal Control Area and
l1

the limitations of the "sec anJ avoid concept

to

ensure

traffic

separation

under

the

conditions of the conflict.

In the years that followed the crash,

technology advancements were added to
fleets that could warn flight crews of
impending collisions.

Air Canada DC-9-30, 2 June 1983

A DC-9 crash led to the ban on smoking
in lavatories.
Air Canada Flight 797 (C-FrLU) on a
flight from Dallas to Toronto on 2 June
1983, crash-landed in Cincinnati, Ohio,
after fire erupted in an aft lavatory during
the flight. Twenty-three of forty-six
people on board lost their lives. While at
cruising altitude, the three aft-lavatory
flush-motor circuit breakers tripped. The
captain thought a motor had stalled and
waited for several minutes before
unsuccessfully trying to reset them. At the

same time an odour began to waft through

the cabin from the back of the aircraft.
After finding the lavatory filled with
smoke, a flight attendant sprayed an
extinguisher bottle of carbon dioxide,
although only black smoke was spotted.
The pilots decided to begin an emergency
descent, but at the same time the DC-9
started developing electrical problems and
a Mayday was issued. Smoke filled the
cabin during the descent to Cincinnati,
yet the crew was able to successfully land
the plane before fire gutted its fuselage on
the runway.
The NTSB found the probable cause to
be a fire of undetermined origin, an
underestimate of the severity of the fire,
and conflicting information about the fire
to the cockpit crew. Contributing to the
severity of the accident was the flight
crew's delayed decision to begin an
emergency
descent.
Confusing
communications between the cockpit and
cabin crew led the captain to believe the
problem was less severe than it was. At
times the fire seemed extinguished, while
in reality it was slowly spreading to the
interior cabin insulation.
Wh iIe the cause of the fi re was never
determined, the FAA soon after instituted
a ban on smoking in lavatories, and
required that every lavatory have a smoke
detector installed. Years later, an aircraftwide smoking ban was instituted on all
US domestic flights.

167

ValuJet DC-9-30, 11 May 1996

On 11 May 1996, a DC-9-30 (N904Vj),
operated by ValuJet as Flight 592 from
Miami to Atlanta, crashed into the
Florida
Everglades
following
an
uncontrolled descent from 10,000ft
(3 ,OOOm). Shortl I' after takeoff from
Miami International Airport, the first
officer radioed Miami Approach and
requested an immediate return to the
airport because of smoke in the cabin.
During the approach back to the
airport, the aircraft crashed in an
isolated portion of the Everglades, a
large swampland, about 18 miles
(29km) northwest of the airport. The
cause was determined to be an in-flight
fire in the forward cargo compartment.
A shipment of oxygen generators, used
in passenger service units and classified
as hazardous material, was the source of
the fire.
All 110 people on board were killed,
including four crewmembers. As a result
of the crash, oxygen generators and
similar material have been banned from
the cargo holds of US passenger aircraft.
After the crash, ValuJet, stung by bad
publicity, bought a much smaller carrier
called AirTran and renamed the entire
company AirTran Airways, which would
go on to launch the 717.

THE COMPETITION

stalls and poor manoeuvres during normal

flight. The A320 made its first flight on 22
February L987, and entered service with
launch customer Air France in March
1988. Nearly 2,000 of the aircraft are
either in service or on order.

CHAPTER TWELVE

The CODlpetition

Boeing 71 7 Competition
Commercial
aviation
is
intensely
competitive. Nearly every aircraft model
contends with a similar version produced
by another manufacturer. In many cases a
new aircraft is built in response to not
only market needs but also competition.
Here is a brief look at this aircraft family's
primary competitors.

OC-9 Competition
The DC-9's main competitor initially was
the BAC 1-11. The British model entered
service prior to the DC-9, but Douglas was
more focused on making sure the DC-9
beat the Boeing 737-100 into service.

BAC 1-11
The British Aircraft Corporation OneEleven can trace its origins to the
proposed Hunting H.l07 jetliner project
of 1956. When Hunting was absorbed by
BAC in 1961, development continued
on an aircraft using a larger Rolls-Royce
Spey turbofan engine. British United
Airways placed a launch order for this
jet, the first intended for short-haul
routes, in May L96L, opting for ten
aircraft. The first model made its first
flight on 20 August 1963. The first
production BAC-I-Il-200 flew for the
first time on 19 December 1963.
Certification was awarded on 6 April
1965, the same day it entered service,
following a flight-test programme during
which one prototype crashed, killing the
crew. The cause was attributed to deep
stall from the rear engine and Ttail

MD-83 vs. Boeing 737-300 and Airbus A320

MD-83
L47ft LOin (45.1m)

Boeing 737-300
L09ft 7in (33.4m)

107ft lOin (32.8m)

94ft 9in (28.9m)

123ft 3in (37.5m)

111ft 3in (3Hm)

Range

155
2,880 miles (4,635km)

L48
2,913 miles (4,688km)

L50
3, L50 miles (5,069km)

Entry into service

October 1985

November 1984

March 1988

Length
Wingspan
Capacity (two-class)

configuration - a lesson Douglas took

seriously in fine-tuning the DC-9-l0.
Development of the basic 200 Series
model led to the higher-weight Series
300, followed by the -400 for US airlines.
The final model was the stretched -500.
The last UK-built One-Eleven flew in
L982, by which time production was
transferred to Romania, wllere a small
number were built. A total of 244 BAC Ills were built.

Boeing 737-100
In 1965, Boeing announced its intention
to build a short-haul aircraft to compete
with the DC-9 and BAC l-L1. This
aircraft would use two JT8D engines
instead of the 72Ts three powerplants.
The 737 would use a 727 fuselage and tail
unit, amounting to 60 per cent
commonality between the two planes. Its
first flight was on 9 April 1967, entering
service with Lufthansa in February 1968.
Just thirty of the original 737-100 models
were built. The next ster, taken
immediately
after
the
original
announcement, was the development of a
higher-capacity model, the 737-200,
which would go on to become far more
popular.

DC-9-l0 vs. BAC l-ll and Boeing 737-100

BAC 1-11-200

Boeing 737-100

89ft Sin (27.2m)

93ft 6in (28.5m)

88ft 6in (26.9m)

93ft (28.3m)

Range

90
1,265 miLes (2,036km)

89
875 miles (1,410km)

2,556 miles (4,260km)

Entry into service

8 December 1965

6 April 1965

February 1968

Length
Wingspan
Capacity

DC-9-10
l04ft Sin (31.8m)

94ft (28.6m)
103

168

Airbus A320

MO-80jMO-90 Competition
The MD-80 family was initially seen as
not only an updated DC-9, but as a serious
contender to replace the Boeing 727. Ln
later years the M D-80 series' largest
competition in the 150- to L80-seat
market was the Boeing 737-300, a larger
version of the venerable jet with new
engines
and
technology.
Another
adversary was an all-new aircraft from
Europe's Airbus Industrie, the A320.
Airbus launched the ISO-seater in 1983,
but it didn't enter service until 1987, just
as the M D-80 fam ily had matured wi th the
MD-88. The A320's biggest advantage
ultimately was the use of newer, more fuel
efficient CFM56 or V2500 engines.
The 737-300, a larger capacity version
with CFM56 engines, was initiated in
1980.
Modifications
include wing
refinements and a fuselage stretch of 8ft
lOin (2.68m) over the Boeing 737-200.
The 737-300 helped the 737 family
become Boeing's best-selling airliner.
More than L,OOO of the -300 models were
bu iIt. Lt made its fi rst fl ight on 24 February
1984, and entered service in November of
that year with USAir.
The A320, the first single-aisle effort for
the Airbus consortium, offers commonality
wi th larger stablemates and a wide and
roomy passenger cabin. Major elements of
the aircraft, including the horizontal
stabilizer and tail fin, are manufactured
from composite materials. The A320, for
the first time in a commercial airliner,
featured side-stick controls, replacing
conventional control columns, and new
fly-by-wire technology to automatically
protect the aircraft from unsafe speeds,

The 7lTs primary competitors are a new

generation of regional jets with a capacity
approaching 100 passengers. The similarsized Boeing 737-600 and Airbus A318,
as discussed, are similar in capacity but
are designed for longer-haul routes, so
they cannot be considered a competitor
in the same market. Both the 737-600
and A318 are larger on the inside and
out, designed to fly longer routes with
thin traffic. So while a 717 would fly
from, say, St. Louis to Chicago, or
Frankfurt to Munich eight times a day,
the 73 7-600 and A3 18 wou ld fl y from St.

Louis to Los Angeles, or from Shannon to

Vienna twice a day.
The 717 has more interior room, more
cargo and baggage capacity and can fly
higher and faster than most regional jetsexisting or proposed. Another advantage:
the 717 is already being produced with no
large backlog.
Regional jets began with Bombardier's
fifty-seat Canadair Regional Jet. The
regional jet industry quickly blossomed as
airlines saw the value of smaller jets to fly

less travelled routes or to open up new

markets to feed hubs. Soon regional jets
expanded to both ends of the spectrum from thirty to seventy and now ninety
seats, putting them close in capacity to
the 717. The 71Ts competitors in the 90to 100-passenger field are; the Avro RJ100 from BAE Systems; the Fairchild
Dornier 928 Jet; the Embraer 190 model;
and Bombardier's CRJ 900. These models
were being developed in 2002 for service
entry in 2003-2005.

717 vs. Regional Jets

CRJ 900
119ft

Boeing 717

Avro R}lOO

Length

124ft
(36.4m)

lOlft 8in
(3lm)

928 Jet
101ft 6in
(30.9m)

ERJ 190
126ft 8in
(38.6m)

Wingspan

94ft 4in
(28.4m)

86ft
(26.2m)

94ft 3in
(28.8m)

94ft 2in
(28.7m)

(23.2m)

100

95
2,175 miles
(3,500km)

108
2,071 miles

86
1,723 miles

(2,645km)

1,714 miles
(2,742km)

(3,334km)

L998

2003

2005

2004

(2,774km)
2003

Capacity
Range
Service entry

106
1,647 miles

169

(36.3m)
76ft 2in

MILITARY. CARGO AND OTHER USES

CHAPTER THIRTEEN

Military, Cargo and Other Uses

While the DC-9 was designed as a
passenger aircraft, it has, over the years,
found a home in military and cargo fleets
as well. Douglas Aircraft, which spread its
wings by building military transports, also
produced variants of the DC-9 for military
use. Of the 976 DC-9s produced, fortyseven went to mil itary customers,
primarily the US Air Force, Navy and
Marines, while additional aircraft were
acquired second-hand hy the armed
forces.

C-9A Nightingale
As the DC-9 was designed to operate into
airports with little infrastructure, the US
military saw the henefit of this model for
use::ls a versatile flying hospital.
Douglas engineers worked with military
planners to design the C-9A, an aircraft
based on the DC-9-30 airframe that
would be used to transport injured
servicemen and women. In 1967, the US
Air Force placed an order for twenty-one
-9A transports, giving them the name

'Nightingale'. The nickname, a tribute to

famed British nurse Florence Nightingale,
who pioneered improved military nursing
care during the Crimean War, was picked
in a contest by Air Force Lt Col. Anne
Tonne, a former nurse who served during
World War II.
The C-9A was a strategic benefit to
both Douglas and the Air Force. For
Douglas, it provided another derivative of
a successful aircraft line. The Air Force,
meanwhile, was able to tout that it bought
the aircraft 'off the shelf,' saving millions
of dollars in research and development
costs that would have been needed for an
all-new aircraft. While the C-9A
Nightingale is identical to the DC-9-30
from the outside, its interior has been
transformed to provide care to patients in
all kinds of medical conditions.
The C-9A Nightingale was first ordered
in 1967 for the 375th Aeromedical Wing
of the US Air Force Military Airlift
Command. With the higher-thrust JT8D-

9 engines found on the DC-9-40 and a

large cargo door, the C-9A can carry up to
forty patients, two nurses and three
medical technicians in addition to the
two-person crew. The Nightingale has
three entrances: a standard passenger door
with hydraulically operated stairways, the
ventral airstair and a cargo door that is 6ft
9in (2.06m) high and 11ft 4in (3.45 m)
wide, providing a hydraulically operated
ramp to ease the loading of stretchers.
To meet the requirements of medical
airlift missions, Douglas engineers
designed a specialized and flexible interior
for the aircraft. Some of these features
include four-abreast aft-facing seats and
rigidly suspended litters of three or four
tiers to accommodate patients who are
able to sit. A 40in (l.Olm) spacing
separates the rows of seats, providing
enough room for patients with bulky casts.
Other special features include provisions
for oxygen, a medical suction system to
keep patients' air passages clear, an

Evergreen International is among the cargo airlines employing the DC-9.

this one a Series 3D. Jon Proctor

770

isolated special-care section on the righthand forward side of the cabin, stations
for the flight nurse and medical
attendants, a refrigerator for storing
medicine, a medical sink and work area
on the left-hand forward side of the cabin,
and forward and aft galleys and lavatories.
The plane also has a special electrical
system to enable regular hospital medical
equipment, such as respirators and
incubators, to be used. The hospital-type
refinements were developed by Douglas
engineers in cooperation with Air Force
scientists and medical professionals.
The aisles between the outside of the
litter and the sidewall of the aircraft are
27in (69cm) wide, more than adequate for
a nurse to stand upright to care for
patients. This arrangement permits
twenty-seven litters in the main cabin
plus
three
in
the
special-care
ompartment. The two-row litter capacity
can be increased to forty in a four-rowhigh configuration. Air-conditioning,
oxygen, reading lights and nurse call
buttons are provided for each patient.
Seat tracks and litter-support attachment
fittings are permanently installed in the
aircraft.
Rapid
conversion
from
ambulatory to litter is possible in less than
one hour.
The special-care compartment provides
a sealed, completely ventilated area with
pressure and humidity control. To ensure
the patient has uncontaminated air, the
pressure can be maintained slightly above
cabin pressure. Outlet air in the
compartment is disinfected by an
ultraviolet lamp system that kills more
than 99 per cent of the micro-organisms
contained in the air. There is also storage
space for suppl ies and an attendant's seat,
so the entire flight can be made without
opening the compartment.
The nurse's station provides a desk and
cabinets for medical supplies, patient
records and other information; cabinets;
instruments to control cabin lights,
temperature and medical systems; a public
address system; and call lights that flash
whenever a patient signals for assistance.
The loading ramp and large door for
loading patients are hydraulically
operated. The door can be opened from
the inside or from the ramp. At 24ft
(7.3Im) long, the ramp folds up
automatically and is stowed just inside the
door during flight. It unfolds to slope
down to the ground for loading and
un load ing of patients in litters or

ADC-9-1D in cargo configuration for Purolator Courier. Ralph Olson, Flying Images Worldwide

Airborne Express employs dozens of converted DC-9s. this one a DC-9-3D. on its US network, Chris Coduta

ADC-9-3D freighter operated by Australia's IPEC Air Freight. Michael Sweeten, Flying Images Worldwide

777

MILITARY. CARGO AND OTHER USES

MILITARY. CARGO AND OTHER USES

"". . . ITAT1OlII: '11M

FA. ftSTIII..... ~

SfORAGE: U~R8, RAFTS,

P1LLOWI....TC.

AMBULATORY ARRANGEMENT
SPC'AL CARE AREA
WASTE CONTAINER
STORAGe COMPARTMENT

NURSES STATION: FILES

P.A. SYSTEM, MISC. STORAGE

NORMAL 3 HIGH 30 TOTAL;

4 HIGH 40 TOTAL

Above: Schematics of the ambulatory and litter

layouts of the C-9A. Boeing

Opposite: A cutaway illustration shows the

stairway and medical ramp on the C-9A. Boeing

Left: The C-9A design enables nurses to stand next

to patients. Boeing

772

wheelchairs. When extended, the ramp

provides a l7-degree, 54in (1.37m) wide
non-skid surface with rigid handrails. A
weather curtain is provided at the
entrance, and the up-swinging cargo door
acts as a canopy to increase weather
protection. The system also provides a
retractable canopy that can be set up in
five minutes.
In addition to the medical-related
interior fittings and systems changes, the
C-9A has provisions for special Air Forceinstalled navigation equipment and for
use of liquid oxygen in its medical and
emergency oxygen systems, instead of the
compressed gaseous oxygen used in
commercial jets.
The first C-9A was rolled out on 17
June 1968, during a ceremony attended by
hundreds of military representatives that
was highlighted by a fly-over of the first
-9A as the second model emerged from
the hangar. The rollout came just nine

months after McDonnell

Douglas
received a contract for the first batch. Air
Force Maj. Gen. Harry Goldsworthy
accepted the aircraft from Donald
Douglas J r. He marked the occasion by
announcing that the Air Force had placed
orders for four additional aircraft.
The C-9A was conceived as an
aeromedical jet for service in the United
States to speed sick or injured servicemen
to military hospitals. 'When servicemen
coming home from
overseas for
hospitalization arrive in the US, we want
them to continue their journey in nothing
less than first-class transportation ... and
there is no better way to travel than the
-9A,' the keynote speaker, L. Mendel
Rivers, chairman of the US Congress
Armed Services Committee, told the
crowd. Following the rollout, the C-9A
was christened by Elsie Ott Mandot, a
former Air Force flight nurse. She poured
a small pitcher of water over its nose. The

773

water was brought from the Sea of Galilee

to symbolize the aircraft's role as a plane of
mercy.
The first C-9A was delivered to the US
Air Force at Scott Air Force base on 10
August 1968. A total of twenty-three
9As were delivered. A C-9A made history
on 8 June 1980, with a flight that featured
the crew made up of all women on a US
Air Force aircraft - two pilots, a
mechanic, two flight nurses and three
medical technicians.
Today, after nearly thirty-five years of
service, the C-9A continues to be an
indispensable part of the US Air Force's
Military Airlift Command.

C-98 Skytrain II
The US Navy ami Marine Corps operated
twenty-four versions of the DC-9, using the
designation C-98 Skytrain II, as a logistics

MILITARY. CARGO AND OTHER USES

The first C-9A in final assembly. Boeing

MILITARY. CARGO AND OTHER USES

The US Navy's C-9B is a convertible version of the DC-9-30 that can carry cargo as well as sailors. Boeing

This view inside the C-9A shows the aircraft's ability to carry stretcher patients as well as those who can use seats. Boeing

174

The C-9B has a standard cargo door to accommodate pallets. Boeing

175

MILITARY. CARGO AND OTHER USES

MILITARY. CARGO AND OTHER USES

Sll8

UN\\.U

The rear stairway comes in handy when cargo is loaded in the front of the aircraft. Boeing

Once inside. pallets can be moved into position. Boeing

and VI P transport. The C-9B is a special

convertible passenger/cargo version of the
DC9-30. It was named after the R4D
Skytrain, a DC3 variant of which 624 were
made. Naval Air Systems Command signed
the contract for the first five Skytrains on
24 April 1972, and the model made its first
flight on 7 February 1973. The first two
aircraft were delivered on 8 May 1973 to
Fleet Tactical Support Squadron I (Naval
A ir Station in Norfolk, Virginia) and Fleet
Tactical Support Squadron 30 (Naval Air
Station, Alameda, California). All eight
were delivered in 1973. A further six were
ordered in late 1974, with delivery
completed in 1976. A total of twenty-nine
were delivered to the Navy and Marine
orps (five were converted into military
commercial
passenger
use
from
con figurations).
Like the C-9A, the C-9B has the
overall dimensions of the DC-9-30 with
JT8D-9 engines, providing 14,5001b
(6,600kg) of thrust, and an optional cargo

door. This door enables the loading of

military
pallets;
in
an
all-cargo
configuration eight of these can be
carried, for a total weight of 32,4441b
(14,716kg). When loading, each pallet is
first lifted to door-sill height then rolled
forward on to a ball transfer system before
being positioned by roller tracks.
Normal flight crew on the C-9B
consists of a pilot, co-pilot, crew chief and
two cabin attendants. The standard
accommodation is for ninety passengers,
with up to 107 passengers when using
shorter
seat-pitch.
In
a
typical
passenger/cargo configuration, three
pallets are carried in the forward area,
with forty-five passengers in the rear
section. A galley and lavatory are located
at each end of the cabin. In an all-cargo or
mixed passenger/cargo configuration, a
cargo net can be erected at the forward
end of the cabin. In later configurations, a
barrier curtain is placed between
passengers and the cargo section.

176

Normal passenger access is through

forward port and aft ventral doors, each
with hydraulically operated stairs to make
the C-9B independent of ground
facilities. This door enables passengers to
board while cargo is being loaded in the
forward area. Unlike its commercial
cousins, the C-9B features advanced
navigation
and
communication
equipment on top of cockpit upgrades
found on commercial versions over the
years. Three VIP transport versions,
designated the VC-9C, were delivered to
the Air Force in 1976 for service in the
Special Air Missions Wing based at
Andrews Air Force Base. Two additional
DC-9s were procured by Kuwait's air force
under the designation C-9K.

Cargo
Over the years, the DC-9 has also been a
dependable cargo aircraft. All DC-9
passenger aircraft can, of course, carry
cargo in the belly hold, with a volume of

The C-9B in flight. Boeing

177

MILITARY. CARGO AND OTHER USES

A unique view of the C-9B, which is a modified DC-9-30. Boeing

MILITARY. CARGO AND OTHER USES

Several DC-9s are used as private jets. Here is an example of a 1970s interior. Boeing

600-1,000cu ft (16.9-28.3 cu m) and more,

depending on model and configuration. In
addition, Douglas designed several models
specifically as cargo haulers or in mixed
configurations. Both the Series 10 and 30
were offered as cargo versions, with the
Series 40 and 50 later available through
conversion from passenger models.
Early DC-9s were offered in models that
were convertible between cargo and
passengers. The FAA required that DC9lOs with cargo doors have two overwing
exits per side in the event that the cargo,
stored in the front of the cabin, blocked
passenger access to the front doors.
The first DC-9-30F was delivered to
Aliralia on 13 May 1968. This model has
4,313cu ft of cargo space in the main
cabin and under-floor, enabling it to carry
eight cargo pallets and two half-pallets
with a total weight of 40,OOOIb

(18,144kg). The main cargo door

measures 11ft 4in (3.45m) wide and 6ft
9in (2.06m) high.
The DC-9RC (Rapid Change) is a
mixed-mode aircraft that can be used as
all-passenger, all-cargo or a mixed
passenger and cargo configuration. By day,
for example, the model could fly
passengers. At night the seats could be
removed to open the cabin for cargo - a
process that takes an hour and fifteen
minutes. The DC-9-RC is heavier than
the DC-9-30F since the galley, flight
attendant stations, lavatories and other
items have been left onboard. The DC-950 was also offered as a cargo convertible
model known as the DC-9CF or as a
passenger-ca rgo mix.
Freight operators using the DC-9 on
cargo runs include Airborne Express,
International,
Kitty
Hawk,
Ryan

The US Marine Corps also operates a fleet of C-9Bs. Boeing

178

179

Evergreen and USA Jet. The largest

operator is Airborne, with more than
seventy DC-9-30 and DC-9-40 freighters
in its fleet. These rugged aircraft, long
retired from passenger service, continue to
provide reliable service to mid-size
markets across the United States. With
just one or two cycles per day, these hushkitted aircraft will continue to provide
cargo service for years to come.
The DC-9, MD-83 and MD-87 were
also offered as corporate and executive
versions, typically seating fifteen to
twenty passengers, but never more than
a few were reconfigured to corporate use.
Despite its fuel-efficiency, the MD-80
series was never offered as a stand-alone
freighter, convertible or quick-change
version, although there is a potentially
huge market for converting these
types as freight volumes increase and the
first MD-80s approach retirement from
passenger service.

THE FUTURE OF THE FAMILY

CHAPTER FOURTEEN

The Future of the FaDlily

While the Boeing 717 is just beginning its
production run, the DC-9 and M 0-80
and MD-90 are the focus of various
modern ization program mes that may
ensure the type remains in service for
many years to come as operators continue
to benefit from these economical aircraft.

OC-9
Perhaps nothing in commercial aviation
has been more astounding than the
tenacity and longevity of the DC-9.
Aircraft older than thirty years are still
operated by major airlines around the
world. Even the younger and more
advanced Boeing 737-200 has not
remained as popular. Today, the DC-9 can
provide
operators
with
attractive
operating costs and the ability to comply
with current environmental regulations.
As stated, refurbished interiors and other
augmentations over the years have kept
DC-9s in good shape. But in the years
ahead, even the biggest proponents of the
DC-9 will have to start looking for
replacement aircraft.
The future of the hundreds of DC-9s
still in service in the twenty-first century
will be determined more by international
noise and emissions regulations than by
their ability to keep flying. Despite being
fitted with hush kits to bring them in
line with worldwide standards, the
aircraft's future is threatened in Europe
and other areas pushing for even stricter
limits on noise and emissions levels. For
instance, if hush kits are banned under
proposed Chapter 4 noise regulations,
hundreds of DC-9s would have to be
retired or would be restricted from being
sold to other operators. One idea has the
PW6000, a new-generation engine from
Pratt & Whitney, replacing original
JT8D engines to prolong the life of the
family.
There are still more than 500 DC-9s in
operation, ranging from twenty to thirtyfi ve or more years old. Dozens were retired

in late 2001 and 2002 after the worldwide

slump in demand for air cargo that
followed the even ts of 11 Septem ber,
2001. The largest and best-known fleet is
Northwest Airline's 170-strong DC-9
fleet. As long as they can comply with
noise and em issions standards, and as long
as operators don't mind using more fuel
than newer aircraft models, the DC-9 still
has years of service ahead of it, providing
maintenance is adequate.
The way in which DC-9s are used
began to change in the mid-1990s with
the advent of regional jets. The thirtyseven- to fifty-seat regional jets,
dominated by the Bombardier Canadair
Regional Jet (CRJ) and the Embraer
Regional Jet (ERJ), have provided
airlines with smaller aircraft, which
make lower-density routes more viable
and higher frequencies and new direct
services possible. Often airlines will use
regional jets and DC-9s on the same
routes, depending on how busy the route
is. The major regional jet makers are
planning 70- to 100-seat models, further
diluting
the
breakdown
between
regional jets and mainline aircraft. The
issue of replacing the DC-9, then, is not
simply a case of one-for-one substitution
in the same markets, but also one of
providing regional aircraft families that
offer more opportunities through
flexibility.
There are seven basic aircraft types that
airlines could choose to replace retiring
DC-9s, particularly the Series 30, the most
popular model. The first four major types,
new-generation mainline jets, are the
Airbus A318 and larger A319, the Boeing
737-600 and the Boeing 717. Three
regional jets also could replace DC-9s in
size but would be lighter in weight and less
expensive to operate. They include the
Bombardier CRJ-900, an eighty-four-seat
version of the CRJ; the ERJ-190, a ninetyseat version of the Embraer Regional Jet;
and the Fairchild Dornier 728 and 928 Jets.

Most passengers prefer the full-sized

cabin of the 717 over regional jets with
three- or four-across seating, especially on
flights of more than two hours. But with
Bombardier, Embraer and Fairchild
Dornier making ever-larger regional jets
(CRJ900, ERJ-190 and 928JET, some with
five-abreast seating) and Boeing and
Airbus making ever-smaller mainline jets,
including the 717 and A318, the
difference between regional jet and
standard-sized airliners is becoming more
difficult to distinguish.
In the end, it will come down to cost.
Finance charges on new aircraft play the
largest role. Many DC-9s are owned and
fully depreciated while still having
competitive operating costs, making it
harder for airlines to justify new aircraft.

MO-80/MO-90
Though relatively new, early MD-80
family models are due for a major cockpit
upgrade to help airlines comply with
future air navigation requirements.
American Airlines, for instance, is
looking at upgrading its hefty MD-80
series fleet, possibly with 717 avionics.
Such a move, if economical, would both
enhance the life of this workhorse and
perhaps also stimulate additional 717
sales, as airlines look to acquire aircraft
with common flight decks. On the other
hand, any effort to prolong the Iives of the
MD-80 family would hurt Boeing's own
successful 737 Next Generation family.
Another idea to extend the life of the
MD-80 line is to possibly re-engine the
aircraft, replacing original JT8D-200
series engines with next-generation
engines such as the Pratt & Whitney
PW6000 or the BR 715, the same engi nc
that powers the 717. Such a step, if taken,
would enable MD-80s to keep operating
until at least 2020 and provide some
measure of commonality for airlines

Opposite: The DC-9 family's future is threatened by increased noise and emissions standards. Boeing

180

181

TilE FUTURE OF THE FAMILY

THE FUTURE OF THE FAMILY

An MD-87 flies into the sunset, possibly for many years to come as a result of modernization programmes.
Aformer Midway Airlines DC-9-30 at a scrap yard. The original DC-9 family will increasingly come to this
result in the years ahead. Jim Jet Thompson
operating both MD-80 series aircraft ami
the 717. Re-engining MD-80s would
require extensive engineering tests since
the model was designed for a specific
engine type and weight, and other types
would likely either be too heavy for the
MD-80 or not powerful enough. While reengining is an expensive option, it will
more than likely be necessmy to equip the
family with hush kits once more stringent
international noise regulations take
effect. In the meantime, MD-80 operators
are modernizing older aircraft with
modular lavatories, Cround Positioning
Satellite (CPS) technology, enhanced
ground proximity warning and even inflight entertainment systems.
As MD-80s <Ire replaced, perhaps by
new 737s, their future turns to cargo work.
A proposed MD-82 Special Freighter is
one idea, as Boeing sees it as a potential
regional
freighter
in
Asia.
This
programme is not likely to proceed until
2004. While no offer has been made to
convert MD-80 series into cargo aircraft,
that is another possibi Iity to replace DC-9
freighters.
The future of this family derends a lot

on fleet commonality within airlines. An

airline with a small number of DC-9s,
MD-80s or MD-90s is unlikely to acquire
additional ones to exrand. Delta, for
instance, plans to sell its MD-90 fleet
even though the model is newer and more
efficient than its large batch of M D-88s.
A small number of aircraft in a fleet raises
costs in training and maintenance.
Other airlines, including American
Airlines, have stated they plan to fly the
MD-80 line for years to come, having
recently replaced their interiors. On the
other hand, as older MD-80 series aircraft
arc retired, they may find a home with
start-up, charter, second-tier or thirdworld carriers looking for a cost-effective
way to add capacity and rerlace older
aircraft.

Boeing 717
The future success of the 717 remains to
be seen. Boeing is confident that more
and more airlines, after seeing the 717's
performance, will commit to this aircraft
to both replace older aircraft, including

782

the DC-9, and expand fleets. Perhaps the

most welcoming development to continue
the family heritage would be to expand
the 717 line-up with shorter and longer
versions.
One of the 717's early disadvantages
was that airlines were nor ready to order
new aircraft once it became available.
With cheap fuel in the late 1990s - a
trend that would quickly change - and
multi-million-dollar investments in cabin
upgrades on DC-9s, many airlines were
content to keep older planes aloft until
they could see what the 717 had to offer.
In addition, the DC-9 has proven to be
very rei iable; considering that older DC9s are already paid for, airlines are
reluctant to part with the kind of easy
money DC-9s can bring in.
But as fuel prices increase and older jets
begin to become a maintenance
challenge, the 717 may be a right fit for
many airlines. The 717 is also an ideal
replacement for the discontinued Fokker
100, a twin-engine aircraft of the same
rrorortion used on similar routes. The
717 also has a future as a business jet,
rroviding supplemental fuel tanks arc
added for additional range.
The 717 could become the choice of
smaller airlines looking for a cost-effective

aircraft that can handle rigorous

schedules. Regional jets on the market
today can meet these same challenges, but
they don't have the capacity to match the
717. Therein lies the 717's niche. And
any clear competitor to the 717 has, by
2002, yet to enter service, giving Boeing
more time to secure additional orders and
deliver the aircraft before an airline would
be able to get 90- to 100-passenger
versions of regional jets from Bombardier
or Em braer. The 717 has a fu tu re,
especially for service to smaller cities

Boeing

needing an aircraft that fills the gap

between seventy-scat regional jets and the
Boeing 737 family. As the marketplace
continues to evolve, airlines will need an
aeroplane to bridge the gap between
regional jets and larger, mainline aircraft.
The fact that the DC-9's basic design
is alive and well nearly forty years after
it was introduced is a testament to the
foresight of Donald Douglas Sr and the
thousands of men and women who have
worked to evolve the aircraft family
into one of the most com mon aircraft

183

in the skies. Just as the DC-3 broke

barriers in the 1930s to make air travel
accessible to just about everyone, the
DC-9 and its successors have brought
jet service to airrorts and airlines that
before offered only propeller-driven
fleets. The family's greatest legacy,
then, is not only its reliable service but
also its remarkable longevity. While the
DC-9 today may be a symbol of the
early jet age, its successors will very
much continue to rlay a vital role in air
travel for decades to come.

APPENDIX I

APPENDIX II

Deliveries by Year
DC-9 {all series}
1965 - 5
1966 - 69
1967-152
1968 - 203
1969 - 121
1970 - 53
1971 - 45
197Z - 32
1973-29
1974 - 48
1975-42
1976 - 50
1977 - ZZ
1978 - ZZ
1979 - 39
1980 - 18
1981 - 16
1982 - 10
TOTAL: 976

MD-80 {all series}

1980 - 5
1981-62
1982 - 33
1983 - 51
1984 - 44
1985 - 71
1986 - 85
1987 - 94
1988 - 120
1989 - 117
1990 - 139
1991 - 139
1992-85
1993 - 43
1994 - 23
1995 - 18
1996 - 12
1997 - 16
1998 - 8
1999 - 26
TOTAL: 1,191

Operators
MD-90
1995 - 14
1996 - 24
1997-26
1998 - 34
1999 - 13
2000 - 3

This entire aircraft family has been

operated by dozens of different airlines,
past and present, over th i rty-fi ve years.
Here is a Iist of some of the most popu lar
operators, by region:

North America
TOTAL: 114
717
1999 - 12
2000 - 32
2001 - 49
TOTAL: 91

aribe, Aeropostal, Avensa, Allegro, Airsur, Air

Puerto Rico, Aeroquetzal, Air Margarita, Air
Panama, Intercominental Colombia, Cayman
Airways, Mexicargo, ALM, Aeroposral, Venezuela
Air Force, VIASA, Dominicana, TAESA,
Sclvivensa, Aerorepublica Colombia, Austral, Dinar
Lincas Aereas, Suriname, A.scrca, Imer, Zuliana

DC-9

MD-80

Republic Airlines, Muse Air, TranStar, Altair,

Eastem, Sunworld, New York Air, ValuJet, Delta
Air Lines, Ozark, Texas Imernational, Allegheny,
USAirways, Hughes Air West, North Central,
Southem, Private Jet, Grand Airways, Midway,
Bonanza, Legend, Continental, Air Tran,
Northwest, Allegiant Air, TWA, Spirit, Air
Canada, Airhorne Express, Hawaiian, West Coast,
Trans Texas, Emerald Air, Midwest Express,
North Central, All Star, Be,l, Eagle, Great
American, Skybus, Fortune, Air One, US Postal
Service, Emery, Air Florida, Purloator, Kitty
Hawk, Kalitta, FAA, US Navy, US Air Force,
NASA, US Department of Corrections, United
Nalions, Ryan International, Evergreen, Reliant,
Southeast, USA Jet, Express One

ALM, Aeromexico, Air Aruba, Aerolineas

Argentinas, Aeropostal, Austral, Avianca,
BWIA, Aero California, SAM Colomhia, Air

American Airlines, TWA, Continental, Pacific

Southwest, Alaska Airlines, USAirways, Delta,
North American, Great American, National,
Midwest Express, Reno Air, Sun Jet International,
Southelll,
Republic,
Hawaiian,
Midway,
Vanguard, Spirit, Sunway, Express One, Miami
Air, Northwest

MD-90
Delta, American, Reno Air

717

Europe
SAS, Finnair, Alitalia, Swissair, British Midland,
THY, Iberia, Balair, KLM, Gennanair, Span tax ,
TAT, Baltic International, Unifly Express,
Cyprus Airways, THY, JAT, Italian Air Force,
Adria, Itavia, Aviaco, Hunair, Avioimpex,
Macedoni:m, Austrian, Onur Air, Safair

SAS, Finnair, Alitalia, Swissair, Adria, Aero

Lloyd, Air Liberrc, Airtours, AOM, ATI,
Austrian Airlines, Balair, Centennial, Spanair,
CTA, Eurofly, Iberia, Meridiana, Oasis, Onur
Air, Transwede, Crossair, Edelweiss, Avio-impex,
Onur Air

Middle East/Asia
DC-9

Korean Air, Japan Air System, Far Easterr~ Air

Transport, China Eastern, China Northern, ULand, UNI Air, Air Philippines, Beiya

MD-90
Japan Air System, UNI Air, Saudi Arabian,
China Northern, China Eastern, Great China,
Pacific Airlines

717
Turkmenistan,
Airlines

Bangkok Airways, Wuhan

Australia
SAS, KTHY, Heliopolis

717
Impulse Airlines, Qantas Link

717
Aerolineas Baleares, Olympic Aviation

Latin/South America

784

AMC

MD-90

Africa

Aeromexico, Aviasca, AeroCalifornia, Aero-

MD-90

MD-80

DC-9

Air Tran, TWA, Hawaiian, American

DC-9

AS Airline of Egypt, Air Libertc, Nouvelair

Tunisie, Safair

TOA, Saudi, Japan Air System, Kuwait Air

orce, Garuda, Cebu Pacific, Merpati

jal11aica

MD-80
MD-80

MD-80

DC-9
Egyptair, Ghana Airways, ADC, Air Mali,
Bell view, Sun Air

785

For a continually updated fleet list of

the OC-9/M O-80/M 0-90/7 17 family,
including serial numbers, last known
operators and registration numbers, visit
the Harms Aircraft Census on the
Internet at www.bird.ch/bharms.

ACCIDENTS

Date
_.IYPe
14Sep 1979
~9.30

APPENDIX III

7 Jan 1980

Accidents

DC-930

Operator
Reg. Number
Aero Transporti ltaliani I.ATJC
Alitalia

IDIKB

13 Jan 198~ J?C-9-30

Ganlda Indone'ia

PK-CND

17 Mar 1980

DC-910

Texas International

N9103

19 Jun 1980

MD81

McDonnell Dougla,

NI002C
ITICI

-I----

Location
Sarmch, Ilaly

Fatalities Circumstance
31
Hit mountain during approach

C\ome

Caught fire in h:mgar

Banjarma,in,lndone;ia

Hard landing

l-Flatlln Rouge, LA, USA

O"erran runway during raimtonn

Yuma, AZ, USA

Landed with 'imulated hydr:lulic failure during

Off Ustica, Itall'

81

Cr:lshed into sea; pmsihle mil itary involvement

Chihuahua, Mexico

30

Missed runway on approach in ,torm

18

Struck mountain during emergency landing

Mt St Pietro, France

180

Crashed into mountain

Montreal, Canada

Fuel tank expl",ion during maintenance

Barqui,imeto, Venezuela

23

Hard landing in fog

23

Fire in lav'ltory; cra,h.l:mding

Runw;'l colli>ion

test flight; ran off runway

(test aircraft)

A list of accidents in which the aircraFt was damaged beyond repair.

Date
I Oct 1966

Type
DC-910

Operator
~eg. Number
We,t Coa,t Airline,
N9101

9 Mar 1967

DC-910

Tram World Airline,

27 Dec 1968

DC-910

O:ark Air Line,

16 Mar 1969

!iC-9 30

VIASA

9 Sep 1969

DC-930

Allegheny Airline,

15Feh 1970

DC-9 30

Dominican,\

-f---

f-------

N1063T

I-

~74Z
YVCAVD

N988VJ

f-------

14 Nov 1970

DC-930

6June 1971

DC-9 30
C-9A

US Air Force

21 J'lI1 1972

DC-930

TIIY Turki,h

26 Jan 1972

DC-930

JAT Yug",lav

19 March 1972 DC-930

18 May 1972

DC-930

Ea'tern Air Line,

DC-910

Del,a Air Line,

I--

N97S

~45
-

6722586

YUAI-IR

f-

DC-930

Nonh Central Airline; N954N

30 Jan 1973

DC-920

SAS

DC9-30

Iheria

EC-B!I

20 Jun 1973 _ DC-910

Aeromexico

XA-SOC

31 Jul 1973

Dell<\ Air Line,

I--

DC-930

27 Nov 1973

DC-9 30

Delta Air Line'

N975NE

f--

N3323L

84
82

Mid"ir colli,ion with Piper

Off Santo Domingo,

102

Cn"hed into ,e" following

Dominican Repuhlic

DC-9 30

Ea>tern A ir Lines

N8967E

2)

USA

75

liard landing

27

homemade homh

I-

30

I---

Ft. Lauderdale, Fla., USA

I-lard landing

Rolled on landing following vortex

from heavy aircraft

Chicago, III., USA

10

Colli,ion on takeoff

Oslo, Norway

Ahorred takeoff '1 fte r fal;e stall warning;

La Trauche, France
~uerto

Vallana, Mexico

~)ston, Mas;.,

USA

68

Midair colli,ion with Convair 990

27

Cra,hed on approach

89

St ruck ,eawall shorr of runway in poor vi,ibility

Chattanooga, Tenn., USA 0

Akron, Ohio, USA

- f-

DC-9 30

JAT

YU-AJN

Belgrade, Yugo;lavia

DC9-20

AVENSA

YVCAVM

Maturin, Venezuela

77

30 OCt 1975

!X~9 30

Adria

YUAJO

23June 1976

!~930

Allegheny Airlines

N994VJ

22 Dec 1974

2 Sept 1976

!~910

10 SCI' 1976 _ DC-930

16 Nov 1976

DC-910

N8984E

Aeromexico

XASOF

Adria

YUAJR

Tex'l" International

N9104

Charlorre, N.C., USA

- I-

Prague,

70

Czechmlovaki,~

Philadelphia, Penn., USA

Denver, Colo., USA

Overran runW8Y

_ Crashed short of runway on final approach

Landed short of runway

f--

Lo"

or conrrol after rakeoff

Hard landing due to windshear

113

..

I--

Overran runway

DC-9-30

Southern Airway;

N1335U
-

26Jun 1978

DC930

Air Canada

New Hope, C'l., USA

63

Overran runway following false srall

Engine failure in thunderstorm; crashed
on highw'l\,

CFTLV

Toronto, Celnad<=l

9 Feh 1979

DC930
-'oC-9.10

Alilalia
Ea;tern Air Lines

I-DIKQ
N8910E

Off Palermo, Imil'

Miami, FL, USA

108
0

MD-81

Adria

YU-ANA

2 Jun 1982

DC-9-30

Air Canada

II Mar 1983

DC-9-30

2Jun 1983

DC-9-30

7 Dec 1983

DC-930

Aviaco

_Madrid, Spain

42

II Jun 1984

DC-930

Garuda Indone;ia

PKCNE

Jakarta, Indonesia

Hard landing

30 Dec 1984

DC-930

Garuda Indonesia

PKCNI

Dcnpasar, Indonesia

Ovcrrclll runway

IC-FTLY
YV-67C

l-

Avensa
AirCanad'l

-i=-FTLU
EC-CCS

eerra de Cuerm, Mexico

..j..C incinnati,

OH, USA

~adelphia, Penn., USA

5 Feh 1985

DC-910

Airhorne Express

N926AX

6 Sept 1985

DC-910

Midwe't Expre

N 100ME

Milwaukee, \'(Iis., USA

21 Feh 1986

DC-9-30 IusAir

N961 VJ

Erie, Penn., USA

Cra,hed into sea on approach

Ice buildup on wings

31

Crashed after uncontained engine f'\ilure during

takeoff

Overran rUl1way in ~now

31 Aug 1986

~-9-30

XA-JEI!

Cerritn" Calif., USA

25 Feh 1987

DC-9AO

SAS

SE-DAT

Trondheim, Norway

4 Apr 1987

DC930

Garuda II1donc~ia

PKCNQ

Mcdcln,

16 Aug 1987

MD82

Norrhwe>l Airline,

N312RC

Detroit, Mich., USA

15 Nov 1987

~)C-9'I~tinen(;l1Airline,

N626TX

Denver, Col., USA

iAeromexico

Mid"lir colli,ion wilh small plane upon de,cent

Jt

Indonc~ia

__,

I-

Hard landing

23

Cra"hed on final approach in heavy rain

154

Cra;hed on takeoff; crew failed to extend flap,

and ,Iats
Crashed on takeoff; Ice huildup on wing"

27 Dec 1987

DC930

Eastern Air Line,

N8948E

Pensacola, Fla., USA

Hard landing"fter improper lbcent nile

12Jun 198~

MD-81

Austral Lineas Aerea,

N lOOK,

Posadas, Argentina

22

Crashed into (ore,t shorr of runway in fog

18Mar 1989

DC930RC Evergreen

N931 F

Saginaw, Texas, USA

Cargo door opened on takeoff; cra;hed trying to

_
~
-----t!nternational Airlines
18 Feh 1990
DC930
IAviaco

ECBIQ

Mahon, Spain

14 Nov 1990

I.ATJA

Zurich, Switzer-land

46

DC-930

17 Feh 1991

~orthwestAiriine;

18 Feh 1991

DC-930CF Kuwait Air Force

5Marl991

DC930
DC-930

MD81

18Jan 1992 ~DC-9.30

26 Mar 1992 , DC-9-1 0

land

Alitalia

DC9\ ORC I Ryan International

---tNTI 13L

+~~~5PC

Runway collbion

Cleveland, Ohio, USA

Ice on wing" during takeoff

Aeropmtal

YV23C

La Pucrta, Vene11lpb

Aliralia

I-RmN

Wars::Jw, Poland

OY.KIIO

Coruma, Sweden

,2

--+-o
~3

o
o

~SAir

+~

N964VJ

~~:~::4X

Cranada, Spain

YV-03C

Off Margarita Island,

18 Apr 1993

DC-940

Japan Air SyMem

21 Jun 1993

DC-9-30

Garuda Indone,ia

~.CNT

19 Jul 1993

DC-9-30

Servivensa

YV613C

Ciudad Bolivar, Venezuela 0

25 Oct 1993

MD-82

Far Eastern Air

B28003

Kn()h~iung,

30 Mar 1992

Aviaco

2Aprl993

IAeropmtal

Venezuela

JA8448

MD82

13 Nov 1993

I MD82

China Eastwn Airlines B2103

China Norrhern

21 Mar \994

IDC-930

Aviaco

Nose gear collapse due to un'U1hle appmach

Icc on wings cau~cd ingestion, engine (ailure,

B2141

0
0

EC-CLE

Urumqi, China
Vigo, Spain

787

Taiw::ln

Fuzhou, China

to crash-landing

~:ard landing

, Hard hmding

1Crashed on test fl ig,hI following maintenance

I)enpasar, Indonesia

Airline,

Wing ,truck ground during simulated engine fail

---1--;-;--

-lo-~llanding
-If!I

Ilanmnaki, Japan

Transport
26 Oct 1993

De,uoyed during Culf War

Struck mountain in fog

~ing

!ntercontinent,\1

Hard landing during go-around

Crashed short of runway on landing; f'lUlty
n(lVigfltion

Kuwait City

SAS

-I--

~tmit, Mich., USA ~

KAF320

de Aviacion

f-

ure on lest flight

786

I Dec 1981

Tyre failure led to ahorted takeoff,

overran rUI1W<lY

23 Dec 1978

XADEO

Midair collision with Tridcnt

- I--

warning on takeoff
4 Apr 1977

~.DEN

Aeromexico

27 Dec 1991

N/A

Vrohec, Yugmlavia

~eromexico

DC-9- 30

17 Dec 1991

0
0

- I--

Landed ;hon of runway after excessive rare of

75

Leon, Mexico

DC-9 30

!tavia

Airline;

de,eent
0

27Jul 1981

8 Nov 1981

3 Dec 1990riDC-9.10

overran runway

- I--

Cret::-,hcd into mountain on approach

Forth Worth, Texas, USA

- I--

In.flight explmion in cargo hold from

Czechoslovakia
Aden, Yemen

N/A

DC-930

f-------

Midair colli,ion with F4B Phaotom fighter

23 Nov 1974

Struck tree, on final approach

50

DC-910

Ran oul of fuel following diversion

US Virgin Island,

~unringtnn, W.Va.,

IISepl974

E'l,lern A ir Line,

takeoff

10>, of power on takeoff

'OffSt. Croix,

27 Nov 1973

00

Struck pmverline, following takeoff

Shelhyville, Ind., USA

Krussne I-lory Mountain,

LN-RLM

f--

Ice on wing cau,ed ;tall, crash

Adana, Turkey

NB05L
f--

Ivlidair colli,ion with Beechcraft

Th10i;, USA

N8961 EE

25
0

California, USA

I--

Urhan'l, Ohio, USA

Sioux Citl' Iowa, USA

+-s;;; Cahriel Mountain"

20 Dec 1972

5Marl973

'TGJAC
YU-AHT

Egyptair

30 M"y 1972

t-

Ilughe, Airll'e't

16 Sep 1971

--

N935F

'I
Soullcrn
Air\Vay~ -

f-

111-177

DC-9 30CF ALM

Fatalities Circumstance
18
2truck mountain during de;cenr

Maracaibo, Vcnc:ucl,1

.C-

May 2, 1970

Location
Oregon, USA

27 Jun 1980

Windshear, hard landing

~avy landing
--

Touched down (a:-tt, overran runway

Engine (ailure; upon relurn, overran runway

Overran runway, hmkc apart

12

----+-:-o

Autllpilol disengaged during approach;

undersh(l{ runway

Touched down ,hort of runway

__

ACCIDENTS

Rcg. Number Location

Opcrator
Date
.--IYJJ"Charlollc, N.C., USA
USAir
2Jul1994
DC-930
N954VJ
Monrovia, Ld1Cflrl
5NBBE
18 Aug 19941 DC-9.30 ADC Airlinc,
IntcrcontinCI1l;ll
Maria La Baja, Colomhi;l
IIK3939X
II Jan 1995
DC-9-1O
dc Aviacion
IIK3564X Barranquilhl, Colomhia
Intercontinenwl
17 Fch 1995
DC910
de Aviacion
Atlant;l, Cia., USA
ValuJet Airline,
DC930
N908VJ
8Jun 1995
DC9.30- ADC Airline,
Monrovia, Liheria
5NBBA
26Jul1995
DC-9-30 - Continental Airline,
N 10556
19 Feh 1996
Hou'ton, Tex;", USA
-Ncar Miami, Fla., USA
II May 1996 DC-930
ValuJet Airline,
N904VJ
-Tampico, Mexico
Allegro Airlinc,
14 May 1996 DC-910
XASNR

19 Oct 1996
12 Arr 1997
10 Oct 1997
15 Oct 1997
2 Fch 1998

~'v1D.88
-

8 Fch 1999
24 Feb 1999
15 Mar 1999
I Jun 1999
24 Aug 1999
9 SCI' 1999
9 Nov 1999
31 Jan 2000
14 J"" 1000
6 Oct 2000
I3 Nov 2000
10 May 2001
8 Oct 2001
7 May 2002

DC950
DC930
DC-9-30
DC-9 30
DC-930
MD88
MD82
MD-82
MD-90
DC930
DC930F
MD83

~M D-R!

DC-9- 30
DC-9- 50
MJ)-83
MD-87
MD82

N914DL
9GACM
LVWEG
XA.DEJ
RP1507

Delt;l Air Linc'

~hana Airway,
Au,tral Linea' Acrea'

I--

Aerolllcxico

Cehu Pacific Air

Itali;1I1 Air Force

I-

ACfolinc(l'\ Argcntina~

Korean Air
Amcrican Airlinc,
Uni Air
Trans World Airline,
TAESA
Ala,ka Airline,

..

Acrolllcxico

Ghana Airways
Sranair
-SAS
China
Northcrn
Airline,

Burned after .hortcircuit in rear toilct

Circumstance

N16884N936ML -

0
0
I0
f-110
0

Uncontained enginc failure on takeoff

-':-anding gear collar'e
J::anding with gear, ur
Fire in cargo COmpcHll1lCnt

~inc flameollt

9GADY
ECFXI
SEDMA -

-I-

0
0
0

f---

~IO
n/k

..

Overran wel runW;'lY

Gcar,ur landing
Landing gcar collar'c on landing
Runway coll,'ion wirh corrorare jct
Crashed into occan afrcr rilm rcportcd firc
nn hoard

A
Airbus
A318 118,169
A319 180
A320 101,118,168,169
Air Canada 22,47,48,49, 142, 143, 167
AirTran 108, III, 112, 117,164
Alaska Airlines Flight 261 165-6
Alitalia 95,96
Allegheny 55
ALPA 90-1,93
American Airlines 23,95,99, 102, 113, 115
Austrian Airlines 47,55,71,94,99

B
BAC 1-11 6,19,21-2,24,25,47,49,93,168
BAE Avro RJ 100 169
Baltensweilcr, Armin 70,72, 148
Boeing 707 15,16,46,124
Boeing 717
717-100117
717 -200 I 17
Delivering new aircraft 137
Design and development 106
Design details 109
Efficiency 111
Entry into service 111
FI igh t deck 109
Firstflight 110
Future 182-3
Inservice 162
Moving production line 128-31
Original 717 116
Questioning 717 118
Rollout 110
Specifications 106
Boeing 727 23,67,71,72,85,105,124,161
Boeing 737 19,22,28,46,47,67,79,93, 105,107,118,168,
169
Bombardier CRJ900 169
Bonanza 47
BR 715 106, I 10, 125-6, 180
Brizendine, John 22,48, 72, 85, 151

188

Touchdown ,hon of runway following

Ncw York City, USA

0
Overran rUI1W;':IY
- ISkidded off runway in he;1Vy rain
0
~hidjan, Ivory Coa't
- I-- ICrashcd into ,wamr during thunder'torm
Nuevo Bcrlin, Urugll>ly _
f - - on.
landing
Mexico City
0
rRcar
- fu,elage 'truck runway
.
.
Colli:,joll into mountain
Cagay;1I1 de Oro,
104
Philirrinc,
Ground colli,ion
Moscow
0
Hangar
firc
~10' Airc" Argcntina_ 0
I.
I--Pohang, South Korca 0
Overran fUI1W'l1 in ~t()rlll
f--liard landing in thundcrsrorm
Litrlc Rock, Ark., USA
II
I
I-Iunlian, Taiwan
Exrlo'ion in carryon hin
I-lard landing
N;1Shvillc, Tcnn., USA
0
Uruapan, Mexico
18
Imracrcd ground afrcr l<lkcoff
Off Poinr Mugu,
Horizonral Mahilizcr failurc
88
Calif., USA
0 - Colli:,ion With terminal during engine lC~(
N;:wark, N.J., USA

Rcyno"l, Mcxico
Conakry, Guinea
Liverrool, England
.0ilan.Linale, Italy
D;llian, China

Index

f---- -

c2i--

MM62013
LVVIW
IlL 7570
N215AA
B17912
N993Z
XATKN
N963AS

B2138

Winlbhcar on landing
Caught firc aftcr runway ovcrrun
Cr;lshed with unrcliable altimcter

COl1linenr;J1 Alrlinc'

Fatalities
37
0
52

C-9A Nightingale 170-1, 173

C-9B Skytrain II 64, 173, 176, 179
allaghan, Joe 72,95, 100, 160
aravelle 6, 19,21,23,24,93
argo 176

D
Delta Air Lines 22,47,48,99,102,138,141,151,162
Douglas
loudster 8
History 7-18
Merger with McDonnell 16
World Cruiser 8
Douglas, Donald Sr 7-8,46,47
Douglas, Donald Jr 46, 48
Douglas DC-I 9
Douglas DC-2 9-10, 14
Douglas DC-3 10, 14, 15,48, 101
Douglas DCA 15
Douglas DC-SIS
Douglas DC-6 15
Douglas DC-7 IS, 16
Douglas DC-8 6, 16, 19-21, 46, 48
Douglas DC-9
Air.conditioning 37
Auxiliary power unit 37,44
Avionics 30
Brakes 36
hronology 6
Cockpit 29
Cockpit design 25
Design decisions 22
Design studies 19
Engine location 23
Family at a glance 67
First flight 47,49
First revenue flight 138
Flightcontrol systems 30
Flight testing 50-1
Flying 142
Fuel capacity 36
Fuel system 34
Fuselage 28
Future 180

189

INDEX

INDEX

Hydraulics 31
lee-protection system 38
Improvements and upgrades 64,67
In service 138
Landing gear 36
Landing weight 26
Launch and production 45-51
Milestones 6J
Models that never flew 57
Openlting costs 26
Origins 19
Oxygen 37
Passenger cabin 33
Rollout 47
Specifications 20
Stairway 40
Stall 27
ta II testi ng 27
Systems and components 26
TimcLahlc 22
Typica I rou tes 141
Vertical tail 24, 25, 29
Wind-tunnel testing 27
Wing 27
DC-9-20 55
DC-9-30 52-3,69
DC-9-40 53,55,63
DC-9-50 55-63,69,72,74,95
Douglas DC-IO 7,16,95
DTI & 2 8

E
Eastern Ai rI ines 52
Em braer 190 169

F
Fairchild Dornier 728 & 928 169
Finnair 55, 96, 99
Fokker F-28 93
Fokker 100 182

H
Hawaiian Airlines 47,48,55,94, 108, 115, 164

]
JT8D 23,26,53,55,63,76,119-121,124
JT8D-200 68,69,70,72,76,84,121-4,180

KLM 47

Northwest Airlines 138, 142,166

Tupolev TU-134 22
TWA 9,21,101,113,115,160,163

Manufacturing locations 9, 14, 16, 106, 127-8, 163

McDonnell Douglas MD-I I 18, 105
McDonnell Douglas MD-80
ertification 92
hina 97, 104
ockpit 76-8
onfigurations 71
Design and development 69
Engines 76
Extcriors 74
Family chart 98
Felmily grows 68
Final delivery ]01
First flight 83
First revenue flight 143
Flight testing 84
Flight-test accidents 86
Flying 154
Forecast 71
Fuselage stretch 74
Future 180
Improvements over earlier DC-9s 73
Models that never were 105
Nicknames 93
Other systems 80
Passenger cabin 79
Prohlems 161
Production 94
Propfan 8]
Selling 151
Specifications 69
Suppl iers 93
Tail 74,75
Tail cone 82,96
Terminology 96
Two-member cockpit 91
Typical routes 151
Wing 74,75
MD-82 details 96
MD-83 details 97
MD-87 details 97
MD-88 details 99
MD-90 details 102-5, 162, 180
In service 162
MD-95 106-7,1]0
McDonnell Douglas
Merger with Boeing 18
McDonnell, James Smith 16
McGowan, Jackson 48,55
Midwest Express 115-6

Pacific Southwest 94,151, 161

Painting 132, 134-5, 137
Powerplants 119-126
How they work 119
Powerbacking 124
Specifications 121

790

v
ValuJet Flight 592 167
V2500 102, 104, 125

w
Wright Brothers 7, 51

Republic Airlines 96,141

s
Safety 165-7
SAS 55,96,99, 106
Schaufelc, Roger 19,21,22,23,24,25
Swissair 47,55,70,71,93,94,96,144,148,151

797