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Glencoe Science
To the Student
In todays world, knowing science is important for thinking critically, solving problems, and
making decisions. But understanding science sometimes can be a challenge.
Reading Essentials takes the stress out of reading, learning, and understanding science. This
book covers important concepts in science, offers ideas for how to learn the information, and
helps you review what you have learned.
In each chapter:
Before You Read sparks your interest in what youll learn and relates it to your world.
Read to Learn describes important science concepts with words and graphics. Next to the
text you can find a variety of study tips and ideas for organizing and learning information:
The Study Coach offers tips for getting the main ideas out of the text.
Foldables Study Organizers help you divide the information into smaller, easierto-remember concepts.
Reading Checks ask questions about key concepts. The questions are placed so you
know whether you understand the material.
Think It Over elements help you consider the material in-depth, giving you an
opportunity to use your critical-thinking skills.
Picture This questions specifically relate to the art and graphics used with the text.
Youll find questions to get you actively involved in illustrating the concepts you
read about.
Applying Math reinforces the connection between math and science.
Use After You Read to review key terms and answer questions about what you have
learned. The Mini Glossary can assist you with science vocabulary. Review questions
focus on the key concepts to help you evaluate your learning.
See for yourself. Reading Essentials makes science easy to understand and enjoyable.
Copyright by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Except as permitted under the United
States Copyright Act, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any
means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher.
Send all inquiries to:
Glencoe/McGraw-Hill
8787 Orion Place
Columbus, OH 43240
ISBN 0-07-872557-7
Printed in the United States of America
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 047 09 08 07 06 05
Table of Contents
To the Student . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii
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Chapter
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Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
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Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
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Chapter
Chapter
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Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
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26
iii
Foldables
Foldables are easy-to-make, three-dimensional, interactive graphic organizers that
students create out of simple sheets of paper. These unique hands-on tools for studying
and reviewing were created exclusively for Glencoe by education specialist Dinah Zike.
Research shows (Bransford, 1979; Corno, 1994), study strategies help students understand, organize, remember and apply new information presented in science textbooks.
Some study strategies include concept mapping, highlighting, outlining, note taking,
summarizing, and underlining (Peverly, Probst, Graham & Shaw, 2003).
3. Three of the five projects (Bound Book Project, Half-Book Project, and Shutterfold
Project) lend themselves to the use of whole sheets of notebook paper or photocopy
paper. Single or multiple sheets of paper can be stapled or braided onto these
projects. This allows essays and in-depth research projects to be included in chapter
study guides. Or, students can glue maps, charts, tables, photocopied activity sheets,
internet print-outs, and any other activities using a whole sheet of paper onto these
projects.
4. The Accordion Project lends itself to vertical Foldables such as those with two,
three, four, or more tabs. Two quarter sheets of notebook paper also fit on each of
the four sections of this project.
HINT: If you would like to place a whole sheet of paper into this project, fold it in
half or into fourths and then glue the folded paper onto one of the four sections.
iv
2. Quarter sheets and half-sheets of notebook paper are used in place of 3"5" and
4"7" index cards. These small sheets of paper are inexpensive and perfect for
recording terms and definitions, taking class notes and main ideas, outlining key
points, making concept maps or webs, sketching diagrams or observations, and
writing general information on a science person, place, or thing.
For additional information on Dinah Zike publications (Dinah Zikes Teaching Science
with Foldables) or workshops call 1-800-99DINAH or contact www.dinah.com.
1
section
Read to Learn
What is science?
Science is not just a subject in school. Science is a way of
studying the world. The word science comes from a Latin
word that means knowledge. Science is a way to learn or
gain knowledge by observing and investigating.
Nature follows a set of rules. The rules for understanding
how the human body works are complicated. The rules for
understanding the pattern of Earth spinning once every 24 h
on its axis are simpler. Scientists ask questions to learn about
the natural world.
Constan
Control
Scientif
ic
Metho
d
Hypothe
sis
Experi
ment
chapter
Scientific Methods
A scientific method is a set of steps used in an investigation.
Scientists follow steps similiar to those listed below when
doing an investigation. These steps guide the scientist. Some
steps may be repeated. Other steps may be skipped. The
flowchart below shows six common steps found in scientific
methods.
HiViZi]ZegdWaZb
L]VibViZg^VaXVcWZjhZYidXdkZgi]Z
heVXZh]jiiaZid`ZZe^i[gdbWjgc^c\jeYjg^c\
gZ"Zcign^cid:Vgi]hVibdhe]ZgZ4
1.
Draw Conclusions
Why might steps in
scientific methods be
skipped or changed?
<Vi]Zg^c[dgbVi^dc
9dgZhZVgX]dcbZai^c\ed^cihVcYdi]Zg
egdeZgi^Zhd[kVg^djhbViZg^Vah^cXajY^c\
cZlanXgZViZYbViZg^Vah#
;dgbV]nedi]Zh^h
=nedi]Zh^h/6XZgiV^cXZgVb^XbViZg^Va
XdjaYWZjhZYidbV`ZVegdiZXi^kZ
XdkZg^c\[dgi]ZheVXZh]jiiaZ#
IZhii]Z]nedi]Zh^h
7j^aYild^YZci^XVabdYZah]jiiaZh#8dkZgdcZ
l^i]i]ZXZgVb^XbViZg^VaVcYi]Zdi]Zgl^i]V
Y^[[ZgZcibViZg^Va#:medhZWdi]bdYZahid
higdc\WaVhihd[hjeZg"]ZViZYV^g#
6cVanoZYViV
I]ZbdYZal^i]i]ZheZX^VaXZgVb^X
XdVi^c\l^i]hiddYi]Zhigdc\WaVhihd[
hjeZg"]ZViZYV^gWZiiZg#
9gVlXdcXajh^dch
6XZgiV^cXZgVb^XbViZg^VahZZbh
idegdiZXii]ZbdYZaheVXZh]jiiaZ
WZiiZgi]Vcdi]ZgbViZg^Vah#
=nedi]Zh^hcdihjeedgiZY
Picture This
2.
=nedi]Zh^hhjeedgiZY
IZhidi]ZgXZgVb^XbViZg^Vah
idhZZl]^X]dcZegdiZXihi]Z
bdYZaheVXZh]jiiaZWZhi#
Reading Essentials
4.
3.
5.
6.
must be organized.
Reading Essentials
7.
models?
Picture This
8.
CORBIS
differences between a
flight simulator and a real
airplane.
Restate What is a
scientific law?
Using ScienceTechnology
The words science and technology often are used in place of
each other. However, the two words mean different things.
Technology is the application of science to help people. For
example, science is used when a chemist develops a new
material. When this new material is used on the space shuttle,
technology is applied.
Sometimes technology comes before science. For example,
when the steam engine was invented, no one knew exactly
how it worked. Scientists studied it and learned about the
steam engine. This led them to discover new ideas about the
nature of heat.
Not all technology produces something good. Some people
question the benefits of some technology, such as nuclear
technology. Learning more about science can help society
make decisions about these issues.
10.
Reading Essentials
2. Complete the chart below to organize the information you have learned in this section.
Put the following steps for scientific methods in order.
Analyze the data, Test the hypothesis, State the problem, Draw conclusions, Gather information,
Form a hypothesis
End of
Section
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Write a sentence explaining
how bias can influence an experiment.
chapter
2
section
Standards of Measurement
Read to Learn
Study Coach
C Organize Information
Distance
Volume
Matter
Time &
Temperature
Reading Essentials
Picture This
Recognize Circle the
1.
Quantity Measured
Unit
Symbol
Length
meter
Mass
kilogram
kg
Time
second
Electric current
ampere
Temperature
kelvin
Amount of substance
mole
mol
Intensity of light
candela
cd
Picture This
Identify Which of the
2.
10
decigram
nanogram
milligram
kilogram
Prefix
Symbol
Multiplying Factor
kilo-
1,000
deci-
0.1
centi-
0.01
milli-
0.001
micro-
0.000 001
nano-
SI Base Units
Applying Math
3.
new unit
1000 mL
old unit
1L
To find out how much water she has in mL, the teacher
multiplies the amount of water she has by the conversion
factor.
1m
3,000
1,0
00
1
3,000 m
1,000
1000 mL
1.3 L
1L
1000 mL
1.3 L
1L
Measuring Distance
In science, the word length is used to describe the distance
between two points. The SI base unit of length is the meter,
m. A baseball bat is about 1 m long. Metric rulers and
metersticks are commonly used to measure length. A meter
is slightly longer than 1 yard, as shown by the meter-stick and
the yardstick in the figure below.
Picture This
Yard
4.
Meter
Reading Essentials
11
5.
Define In the
calculations for finding the
volume of the van,
( m m m) is rewritten
as m3. The 3 in m3 is called
an exponent. What does an
exponent represent?
Measuring Volume
Volume is the amount of space an object fills. The volume of
a rectangular solid, such as a brick, is found by multiplying its
length, width, and height (V l w h). If the sides of the
brick were measured in centimeters, cm, the volume would be
expressed in cubic centimeters, cm3. When you multiply all
three measurements, you multiply cm three times, once with
each measurement. The result is cm3. If you were trying to find
out how much space there is in a moving van, you would
measure the van using meters. Its volume would be expressed in
cubic meters, m3. Lets find the volume of this van.
2m
4m
3m
Applying Math
6.
12
Applying Math
7.
Measuring Matter
Mass is the measure of how much matter is in an object.
A golf ball and a table tennis ball are about the same size.
If you pick up both, you notice a difference. The golf ball
has more matter, or mass, than the table tennis ball.
What is density?
Another property of matter is density. The density of an
object is the amount of mass in one cubic unit of volume of a
material. You can find density by dividing an objects mass by
its volume. Suppose an object weighs 10 g and has a volume
of 2 cm3. The density of the object is 5 g/cm3.
If two objects are the same size and one object has a greater
mass, it also has a greater density. This is because the more
dense object has more mass in one cubic unit of volume than
the other object has in one cubic unit of volume. The golf ball
and the table tennis ball have about the same volume. However,
the golf ball has a greater mass. This means that the golf ball
also has a greater density.
Applying Math
8.
Calculate Suppose an
object weighs 15 g and has
a volume of 5 cm3. What is
the density of the object?
13
What is Celsius?
Scientists use the Celsius (C) scale to measure temperature.
On this scale, water freezes at 0C and boils at 100C. The
scale is divided into 100 equal divisions, or degrees, between
the freezing point and the boiling point of water.
What is Fahrenheit?
The temperature measurement you are probably most
familiar with is the Fahrenheit (F) scale. The Fahrenheit scale
is based on the temperature of the human body, 98.6F. On
this scale, water freezes at 32F and boils at 212F.
9.
Restate At what
temperature does water
freeze and at what
temperature does water
boil on the Celsius scale?
Picture This
10.
14
What is Kelvin?
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. In your own words, write a
sentence that explains how mass affects an objects density.
2. Complete the chart below to organize the information from this section. For each unit
include the units name, what it measures, and its symbol.
SI Base Units
3. Think about what you have learned. Write a way to help you remember the meaning
of volume.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
15
chapter
3
section
Read to Learn
Identify the Main Point
A Visual Display
A graph is a visual display of information or data. Often
graphs are used to show results of experiments. Patterns in
data show better in a graph than when data are in a table.
The most common types of graphs are line graphs, bar
graphs, and circle graphs. Each type of graph is used to show
different types of data. Graphs make data easy to compare.
Line Graphs
D Compare and
Bar Graphs
Circle Graphs
Variables
16
Picture This
Temperature (C)
Classroom Temperature
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
15
0
1.
Interpret Which
thermostat reached its
temperature setting the
quickest?
2.
10
15
20
25
Time (min)
Bar Graphs
Bar graphs are useful for comparing data collected by
counting. Each bar shows a number counted at a particular
time. As on a line graph, the independent variable is plotted
on the x-axis, and the dependent variable is plotted on the
y-axis. The data are not related so the bars do not touch.
Reading Essentials
17
3.
Number of classrooms
Applying Math
4
3
2
1
0
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
Number of students
Applying Math
4.
Steam
25%
Gas
50%
Other
5%
Coal
10%
Electric
10%
18
Circle Graphs
2. Complete the outline below. Tell what type of data each type of graph displays and then
draw a small sample of each type of graph.
Three Types of Graphs
I. Line Graph
A. data type:
B. example:
B. example:
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
19
Science,
Technology,
and
Society
2
chapter
Locate Information As
you read the section, highlight
the main point under each
heading. Then explain the main
point in your own words.
Read to Learn
Scientific Discovery
The study of science usually leads to a better understanding
of the natural world. Scientific discoveries have helped the
people of today avoid many of the problems that faced earlier
people. For example, scientists have discovered the causes of
many diseases and illnesses.
A Organize Information
Science
Technology
20
1
section
Scientific Insight
Plague epidemics have taken place throughout history. One
epidemic in the 14th century killed one-fourth of the
population of Europe. Once scientists understood why the
disease was spreading, it became easier to stop the disease.
1.
Picture This
2.
What is technology?
The terms science and technology mean very different
things. Science is a process of exploration. Scientific processes
are used to gain knowledge of and predict events in the
natural world. Scientists often search for answers to human
needs and problems. Scientists also search for scientific
knowledge for the sake of learning new information.
Infer If meteorologists
did not have instruments
to help them, what could
they use to predict the
weather?
Reading Essentials
21
22
3.
5.
Infer What is a
technological system
that you use each day?
Picture This
6.
23
7.
24
Identify What is
agricultural
bioengineering?
1. Review the term and definition in the Mini Glossary. Explain one reason for using and
one reason for not using agricultural bioengineering.
2. Complete the outline to help you organize what you learned about science and technology.
I.
Scientific Discovery
A. Scientific discoveries help prevent
forecasting
or techniques
nations
supply
3. You highlighted the main points to help you understand science and technology. How did
you decide what the main point was?
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
25
2
section
Read to Learn
Social Forces that Shape Technology
Science and society are closely connected. Society is a
group of people that shares similar values and beliefs.
Discoveries in science and technology change society, and
likewise society affects how new technologies develop. The
politics, values, and economics of a society affect what new
technologies develop.
Science
26
Technology
Society
chapter
1.
2.
Reading Essentials
27
Responsible Technology
3.
Conclude Why is it
important for humans to
think about the positive
and negative effects when
they create technology?
Picture This
4.
28
Picture This
5.
6.
Reading Essentials
29
2. Complete the table below to help you organize the information you learned about forces
that shape technology.
Force
Government
Private Foundations
Private Companies
Citizens
3. As you read this section, you highlighted the sentences that you read more than once.
How could you use this strategy if you were studying with a friend?
30
End of
Section
Consumers
chapter
3
section
Developing Technology
Read to Learn
Scientists and Engineers
Scientists and engineers have different professions, even
though they both help develop technology. It is important
to learn what each does and how they differ.
What is a scientist?
A scientist is someone who studies science, such as biology,
physics, and chemistry. Scientists do research in laboratories
or in the field. They may not know how or if their work will
be used.
Not all scientists work on the same subject. But all
scientists know scientific principles. Most scientists pick one
area of science to study. For example, a scientist may
specialize in Earth science. This scientist will study the
chemical and physical changes that happen on Earth. An
Earth scientist may study one topic, such as glaciers,
earthquakes, or volcanoes.
What is an engineer?
An engineer is a researcher who is responsible for bringing
technology to the consumer. An engineer uses scientific
information or ideas to solve a problem or produce a
product. For example, high prices for gasoline created a
demand for cars that get better gas mileage. Engineers are
working to improve a hybrid engine that uses less gasoline.
C Compare and
Scientist
Engineer
Reading Essentials
31
Finding Solutions
Scientists and engineers work together to find technological
solutions. They use a system much like the scientific method.
This section outlines this general process. However, there are
many variations to this process, just as there are many types
of technical problems.
1.
2.
32
What is a prototype?
Creating prototypes or pilot plants are two methods of
performance testing. A prototype is a full-scale model that is
used to test a new design. The figure below shows a prototype
of a new car. The prototype of the new car, or any other
prototype, is tested to discover its flaws. When these flaws
are corrected, the prototype is ready for production.
Picture This
3.
33
4.
5.
34
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Choose two related terms and
use them together in a sentence.
3. As you read this chapter, you used different methods to help identify key information in
each section. Which method helped you the most? Would you recommend it to another
student? Explain why or why not.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
35
Motion,
Acceleration,
and
Forces
3
chapter
1
section
Describing Motion
Read to Learn
Identify the Main Point
Motion
Every day you see things around you in motion. Cars and
trucks move along streets. People walk and run and move in
different places. They move in different directions and at
different speeds. How can you describe the motion of people
and objects? You could say they are fast or slow. In addition
to speed, you can talk about the direction something is
moving. You also can describe the way the speed or direction
is changing.
Distance
36
Relative
Motion
Displacement
Applying Math
1.
Calculate A train
traveling at a constant speed
covers a distance of 960
meters in 30 s. What is the
trains speed? Show your
work.
40 m
30 m
30 m
50 m
20 m
Distance from starting
line is 20 m.
10 m
Picture This
2.
Speed
Speed is the distance an object travels per unit of time. To
describe how fast something is moving, you need to know how
far it travels in a certain amount of time. In SI units, the unit of
speed is meters per second (m/s).
Usually an objects speed changes as it moves. But you can
find the speed at a single instant. Instantaneous speed is the
speed of an object at a single instant of time. A cars
speedometer measures the instantaneous speed of the car.
Reading Essentials
37
v = d
t
The units for average speed are a distance unit divided by a
time unit. In addition to m/s, other units, such as kilometers
per hour (km/h), can be used.
Explain What term
describes the total distance
an object has traveled
divided by its total travel
time?
Velocity
Suppose you hear that a storm is approaching. The storm is
traveling at a speed of 20 km/h and is 100 km east of your
location. Do you have enough information to know whether
the storm will reach you?
Knowing only the speed and location of the storm is not
enough information to decide if the storm will reach you. The
speed tells you how fast the storm is moving. To find the
answer, you also need to know the direction the storm is
moving. In other words, you need to know the velocity of the
storm. Velocity is the speed of an object and the direction it is
moving. Like displacement, velocity is a vector that has a size
and a direction. The size of an objects velocity is the objects
speed.
4.
38
3.
Graphing Motion
A distance-time graph shows the motion of an object over
time. The graph below shows the motion of three swimmers
during a 30-min workout. The line for Mary is straight. This
means that she swam at a constant speed. Her speed was
80 m/min for the whole 30 min.
The line for Kathy is also straight. Kathy also swam at a
constant speed. Her speed was 60 m/min for the whole 30 min.
Notice that Julies line is not straight. Julie did not swim at a
constant speed. During part of the practice, Julie rested and
her line is horizontal. It has zero slope. During the last part of
the practice, Julie swam as fast as Mary. That part of Julies
line has the same slope as Marys line.
The steepness of the line is called the slope. The slope of a
line on the graph is the speed. A steeper slope means a greater
speed. Mary was swimming faster than Kathy, so the slope of
Marys line is steeper than the slope of Kathys line.
Applying Math
5.
Graphing Motion
2,400
2,200
2,000
1,800
At rst Julie
swam with
a speed of
40 m/min.
The slope of
this line is
less than
Kathys line.
Distance (m)
1,600
1,400
1,200
1,000
800
600
400
200
0
10
20
Picture This
6.
30
Time (min)
39
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. What is the difference
between average speed and instantaneous speed?
2. Choose one of the question headings from the Read to Learn section. Write the question
in the box below. Then write your answer to that question on the lines below.
Question:
Answer:
End of
Section
40
Motion,
Acceleration,
and
Forces
3
chapter
2
section
Acceleration
Read to Learn
Study Coach
Car B
Car A
Acceleration
Acceleration
Velocity
Velocity
B Construct a Venn
Speed
Velocity
Reading Essentials
41
1.
a = (vf vi)
(tf ti)
Applying Math
2.
42
Calculate Suppose a
bird takes off from a tree
and flies in a straight line.
It reaches a speed of 10 m/s.
Calculate the change in the
birds velocity.
Calculating Acceleration
Speed-Time Graph
Speed
Positive
acceleration
Time
3.
Picture This
4.
start
time = ti 0 s
speed = vi 0 m/s
takeoff
time = tf 20 s
speed = vf 80 m/s
Reading Essentials
43
2 m/s
30 m/s2
7 m/s
14 m/s2
Speed
5.
(0 m/s 3 m/s)
1.5 m/s2
a
(tf - ti)
2s
Negative
acceleration
Time
Picture This
6.
44
1. Review the term and its definition in the Mini Glossary. Explain why a change in velocity
affects acceleration.
2. Complete the chart to organize information about how average acceleration is calculated.
Which is greater in
positive acceleration,
initial or final velocity?
Which is greater in
negative acceleration,
initial or final velocity?
3. As you read the section, you made an outline describing the points covered in each
paragraph. How did you decide what to write as the major points in your outline?
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
45
3
section
Study Coach
Read to Learn
What is force?
When you shoot a basketball or kick a soccer ball, you are
exerting a force on an object. A force is a push or pull that
one object exerts on another. Force is a vector, like velocity
and acceleration. It has a size and a direction. The size of a
force is its strength. The direction is the direction it is pushed
or pulled. The SI unit for force is newtons (N). Lifting a full
can of soft drink takes about 3 N of force.
Motion
Forces
46
chapter
Picture This
1.
0
Net force 0
Net force
Picture This
2.
Net force
47
Friction
3.
More
force
4.
Surfaces
Surfaces
Same two
surfaces
More force presses the
bumps closer together.
48
Picture This
5.
Apply In your
experience, what could
reduce the static friction
that makes it difficult to
move a box across the
floor?
Picture This
6.
49
Air Resistance
7.
8.
50
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary above. Choose two terms that
are related, and write a sentence using both terms.
2. In the diagram below show one characteristic each of rolling friction, static friction, and
sliding friction. In the middle, write two things they have in common.
Rolling:
Sliding:
All Three:
Static:
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
51
1
section
Study Coach
Read to Learn
Newtons Laws of Motion
A force is a push or a pull. When you lift a backpack, you
exert a force that causes it to move. Before you lifted it, the
backpack was at rest. When you pulled it up, you changed its
velocity. But if you push down on a table, the table doesnt
move or change velocity. The force you applied to the table
did not cause motion. If you compare the backpack and the
table, you may wonder how forces and motion are related.
Isaac Newton was a British scientist who lived from 1642 to
1727. In 1687, he stated three rules that describe the effects of
forces on the motion of objects. The three rules are called
Newtons laws of motion. The rules apply to all objects in
motion, from baseballs in the air to the motion of planets,
stars, and galaxies.
As
you read, use a two-tab Foldable
to help you identify the main
ideas about inertia and the first
law of motion.
Inertia
52
First Law
of Motion
chapter
1.
Force causes
turning motion.
Picture This
2.
Reading Essentials
53
Picture This
4.
No seat belt
Seat belt
54
5.
Define What is
acceleration?
Picture This
6.
baseball
force applied
velocity
softball
Reading Essentials
55
Applying Math
7.
56
Fnet = ma
1. Review the definitions of the vocabulary words in the Mini Glossary. Choose two terms that
are related and write a sentence using both terms.
1.
2.
3.
Not wearing safety belts:
1.
2.
3.
3. You wrote five quiz questions as you read this section. How did writing these questions
help you learn the content of this section?
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
57
chapter
2
section
Gravity
Read to Learn
Identify the Main Point
What is gravity?
You have learned that objects falling toward Earth are being
pulled downward by the force of gravity. There is also a
gravitational attraction between you and your desk, you and
your science book, and even between you and the planet
Jupiter. Everything that has mass is attracted by the force of
gravity. Gravity is an attractive force between any two objects.
Look at the figure below. Gravity increases as the mass of
either object increases, or as the objects move closer.
You cant feel any gravitational attraction between you and
your desk because the force is weak. Only Earth is both close
enough and has a large enough mass that you can feel its
gravitational attraction. The Sun has much more mass than
Earth. But it is too far away to exert a gravitational force that
you could notice. Your desk is close, but it doesnt have
enough mass to exert an attraction you can feel.
Picture This
1.
Interpret Illustrations
What two things can cause
the gravitational force
between objects to
increase?
If the mass of either of the objects
increases, the gravitational force
between them increases.
58
B Organize Information
Weight
Weightlessness/
Free Fall
Projectile
Motion
Centripedal
Force
(mass 1) (mass 2)
gravitational force (constant)
(distance)2
m1m2
F G d
2
2.
Determine What do
the 1 and 2 in m1m2 in the
universal gravitation
equation mean?
59
Applying Math
3.
4.
Explain Why do
astronauts in the space
shuttle weigh less than
they do on Earth?
Weight and mass are not the same. Weight is a force. Mass is a
measure of the amount of matter in an object. But weight and
mass are related. The force of gravity between an object and
Earth increases as the mass of the object increases. Weight
increases as mass increases. An object has the same mass on
Earth as on the moon. Yet, because Earths force of gravity is
greater, an object weighs more on Earth than on the moon.
60
Picture This
5.
Projectile Motion
You probably have noticed that thrown objects do not
always move in a straight line. Their paths curve downward.
Anything that is thrown or shot through the air is called a
projectile. Earths gravity causes projectiles to follow a
curved path.
6.
Reading Essentials
61
Picture This
7.
Interpret a Figure
Which ball has fallen the
greater vertical distance in
one second, the ball that
was dropped or the ball
that was thrown?
Direction
thrown
curved tube
Picture This
8.
62
Centripetal Force
9.
Define What is
centripetal force?
Picture This
10.
Reading Essentials
63
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Explain the difference
between the mass of an object and its weight.
2. Choose one of the question headings in the Read to Learn section. Write the question in
the space below. Then write your answer to the question.
Answer:
3. Think about what you have learned in this section. How did identifying the main point
and supporting details of each paragraph help you learn the new material?
64
End of
Section
Question:
chapter
3
section
Read to Learn
Study Coach
Reading Essentials
65
Momentum
1.
Define What is
momentum?
Two cars can have the same velocity. But the bigger car has
more momentum, because it has more mass. An archers
arrow can have a large momentum because of its high
velocity, even though its mass is small.
Suppose a sprinter with a mass of 80 kg has a speed of
10 m/s. What is the sprinters momentum? Substitute the
known values into the momentum equation.
Applying Math
2.
66
p mv
(80 kg)(10 m/s)
800 kgm/s
The sprinters momentum is 800 kgm/s.
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Describe a real-world
example of Newtons third law of motion.
2. Match the terms with the correct statements. Put the letter of the statement in Column 2
on the line in front of the term it matches in Column 1.
Column 1
Column 2
1. rocket propulsion
2. momentum
3. conservation of momentum
4. Newtons third law of motion
3. You created quiz questions to help you learn the material in this section. How can you use
these questions to help you prepare for a test?
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
67
Energy
1
section
Study Coach
Read to Learn
What is energy?
Changes are taking place all around you all the time. For
example, lightbulbs are heating the air around them, and the
wind may be blowing leaves in the trees. Even you are
changing as you breathe, blink, or move around at your desk.
All changes involve energy. Imagine a baseball flying through
the air. It hits a window and breaks the glass into small pieces.
The moving baseball causes the solid pane of glass to change
into the small pieces. The moving baseball has energy.
68
CHAPTER 5 Energy
chapter
Electric
energy
Chemical
energy
Radiant
energy
Picture This
2.
Kinetic Energy
When you think of energy, you might think of moving
objects. An object in motion, like the baseball, does have
energy. Kinetic energy is the energy a moving object has
because of its motion. The kinetic energy of a moving object
depends on the objects mass and speed. You can find the
kinetic energy of an object using the following equation.
1
KE 2 mv 2
Energy is measured using the SI unit called the joule. The
letter J stands for joule. If you drop a baseball from about
0.5 m, it will have a kinetic energy of about one joule, or 1 J.
Define
Examples
of. . .
Calculate
Kinetic
Energy
Potential
Energy
Reading Essentials
69
Applying Math
3.
KE 2mv 2
1
2(540 kg m2/s2)
270 kg m2/s2
The kinetic energy of the jogger is 270 J.
Potential Energy
Chemical
Potential
Energy
Gravitational
Potential
Energy
70
CHAPTER 5 Energy
4.
GPE mgh
On Earth, the acceleration due to gravity is 9.8 m/s2 and has
the symbol g. Like all forms of energy, gravitational potential
energy is measured in joules.
Suppose a ceiling fan has a mass of 7 kg and is 4 m above
the floor. What is the gravitational potential energy of the
ceiling fan?
GPE mgh
(7 kg)(9.8 m/s2)(4 m)
274 kg m2/s2
The ceiling fan has a GPE of 274 kg m2/s2, or 274 J.
Way It Is Stored
Elastic
Chemical
Gravitational
Applying Math
5.
Reading Essentials
71
bookcase. If you fill the vase with water, you increase its
GPE by increasing its mass. If you move the vase to a higher
shelf, you also increase its GPE by increasing its height. The
gravitational potential energy of an object can increase if you
change its mass or move the object higher above the ground.
If two objects are at the same height, then the object with
the greater mass will have more GPE. If two objects have the
same mass, the one that is higher above the ground will have
the greater GPE.
Picture This
7.
72
chemical energy
kinetic energy
thermal energy
radiant energy
CHAPTER 5 Energy
What would happen if the vase on the top shelf fell? As the
vase falls, it starts moving. It now has both GPE and kinetic
energy. As the vase gets closer to the ground, its GPE decreases.
At the same time, its kinetic energy increases. The GPE changes
into kinetic energy.
Look at the two vases in the figure. If the vase on the top
shelf falls, it will start with more GPE and end with more
kinetic energy when it hits the ground. This is why a vase that
falls from a high shelf is more likely to break than a vase that
falls from a lower shelf.
Reasoning Which
would have a greater GPE,
a feather on a high shelf or
a large book on the next
shelf down? Explain your
reasoning.
6.
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Explain the difference
between kinetic energy and potential energy on the lines below.
2. Complete the chart below. Fill in the first column with the three kinds of potential energy.
Fill in the second column with an example of something that stores each type of
potential energy.
Examples
3. Think about what you have learned. How did you decide what was the main idea of
each paragraph?
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
73
chapter
Energy
2
section
Conservation of Energy
Read to Learn
Highlight the main point in each
paragraph. Highlight in a different color a detail or example that
helps explain the main point.
Picture This
1.
74
CHAPTER 5 Energy
The heat you can feel around the bulb lets you know that
some of the electric energy also is changed to thermal energy,
as shown in the figure on the previous page.
Picture This
2.
Gases expand
C Collect Information
Law of
Conservation
of Energy
Reading Essentials
75
GPE
Kinetic
Mechanical
energy
energy
Picture This
4.
GPE
Kinetic
Mechanical
energy
energy
76
CHAPTER 5 Energy
3.
Picture This
High KE
Low GPE
5.
6.
High KE
Low GPE
Reading Essentials
77
7.
8.
78
CHAPTER 5 Energy
9.
Compare and
contrast nuclear fusion
and nuclear fission.
Radiant
energy
Picture This
10.
79
Applying Math
Displaying Data On
the graph below, make a
bar graph comparing the
number of calories used by
a medium-framed person
for the following activities:
standing, walking, playing
tennis, and bicycling.
Calories Used in One Hour
700
Type of Activity
Body Frames
Small
Medium
Large
Sleeping
48
56
64
Sitting
72
84
96
Eating
84
98
112
Standing
96
112
123
Walking
180
210
240
Playing tennis
380
420
460
Bicycling (fast)
500
600
700
Running
700
850
1,000
Calories
600
500
400
300
200
100
Standing Walking Playing Bicycling
tennis (fast)
Activity
80
CHAPTER 5 Energy
11.
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Describe a real-world
example in which the amount of potential and kinetic energy change, but the total
amount of mechanical energy stays the same.
2. In this section, you learned that chemical potential energy can be changed in the human
body. Complete the chart below by naming three processes in the body that are fueled by
chemical potential energy.
3. Think about what you have learned. How did highlighting the main points and details or
examples help you learn the new material?
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
81
Work
and
Machines
6
chapter
1
section
Work
about work
how work and energy
are related
how to calculate work
and power
Read to Learn
Selective Underlining As
you read this section, underline
the key idea in each paragraph.
What is work?
When people talk about work, they might mean doing a
job, earning money, or using a computer. But scientists have a
different definition of work. Work is the energy transferred
when a force makes an object move.
Press your hand into the surface of your desk as hard
as you can. Are you doing work? No, because you are not
making the desk move. For work to be done, a force has to
cause something to move. If you push against the desk and
nothing moves, then you havent done any work.
1.
82
Work
Power
Picture This
2.
Energy is transferred
to the boxes.
Reading Essentials
83
Power
Suppose you and a friend want to see who can push a box
of books up a ramp more quickly. Each box of books weighs
the same. Both of you push your box the same distance, but
your friend pushes her box faster than you do. You both do
the same amount of work on the boxes because the force and
the distance are the same. The only difference is how long it
takes to do the work. Your friend has more power than you
because she can do the work faster than you can. Power is the
amount of work done in one second. It is the rate at which
work is done.
power (in watts)
time (in seconds)
W
P t
The SI unit for power is the watt (W). One watt equals
one joule of work done in one second. Because the watt is a
very small unit, power usually is given in kilowatts. One
kilowatt (KW) equals 1,000 W.
To find the power of a machine that can do 5,000 joules of
work in 20 seconds, use the power equation.
W
P t
5000 joules
P
20 seconds
P 250 watts
The power of the machine is 250 W.
84
Applying Math
Applying Math
4.
P t
Calculate Suppose a
lightbulb changes electrical
energy into light and heat
at a rate of 100 J in 2 s. How
many watts of power does
the lightbulb have? Show
your work below.
P t
100 joules
P
1 second
P 100 watts
Picture This
5.
Identify Use a
highlighter to trace the
transfer of energy from the
plug to the lightbulb. Circle
the place where electrical
energy is being converted
into heat and light energy.
Reading Essentials
85
1. Review the terms in the Mini Glossary above. Use the terms to explain a real-world
situation involving work and power.
2. Complete the chart below to organize the equations you learned in this section.
How to Calculate
Power
3. As you read, you underlined the key idea in each paragraph. How did underlining the text
help you understand or remember what you learned?
End of
Section
86
Work
Work
and
Machines
6
chapter
2
section
Using Machines
Read to Learn
Study Coach
What is a machine?
87
Picture This
1.
Your
force
Force
exerted
by jack
Distance
jack
moves
Distance
you push
PhotoEdit
The work done by the jack above is not greater than the
work you do on the jack. The jack increases the applied force,
but it doesnt increase the work done.
Describe an example of
work that is made easier by
increasing distance.
88
Picture This
3.
4.
Reading Essentials
89
5.
B Organize Equations
Calculate
Efficiency
Mechanical Advantage
Machines such as the car jack, the ramp, the crowbar,
and the claw hammer make work easier by making the
output force greater than the input force. The ratio of the
output force to the input force is called the mechanical
advantage of the machine. The mechanical advantage (MA)
of a machine can be calculated with the following equation.
output force (in newtons)
MA F
in
90
Win = Wout
Applying Math
6.
Efficiency
Some of the energy put into a real machine is changed into
thermal energy by friction. For this reason, the output work of
a machine is always less than the work put into it. Efficiency is
a measure of how much of the work put into a machine is
changed into useful output work by the machine. A high-efficiency machine produces less thermal energy from friction, so
more of the input work is changed to useful output work.
100%
efficiency
W
in
40 J
7.
Analyze Explain to a
classmate how oil makes a
machine more efficient.
Reading Essentials
91
1. Review the terms in the Mini Glossary. Write one sentence using the terms input force and
output force.
2. Complete the chart below to organize information about the three ways machines make
work easier.
3. How did writing notes about the main ideas and details in two columns help you learn?
End of
Section
92
Work
and
Machines
6
chapter
3
section
Simple Machines
Read to Learn
Study Coach
Levers
A wheelbarrow, lawn rake, and baseball bat are all examples
of levers. A lever is a bar that is free to pivot, or turn around, a
fixed point. The fixed point is called the fulcrum.
A lever has an input and an output arm. The input arm is the
distance from the fulcrum to the point where the input force is
applied. The output arm is the distance from the fulcrum to the
point where the lever exerts the output force. The output force
can be larger or smaller than the input force depending on how
the distance from one end of the bar to the fulcrum changes.
Leve
Pulle
Axle
el and
Whe
d Plan
Incline
Screw
Wedge
Reading Essentials
93
Picture This
1.
Output
force
Fulcrum
2.
Determine A hockey
stick is a third-class lever
similar to a baseball bat.
You hold a hockey stick
near the top of the stick.
Where is the output force
exerted?
Fulcrum
Input
force
IMA
L
out
94
Input
force
Fulcrum
Pulleys
To raise a sail, a sailor pulls down on a rope. The rope uses
a simple machine to change the direction of the input force.
The machine is called a pulley. A pulley is a grooved wheel
with a rope, chain, or cable running along the groove. There
are two types of pulleys: fixed and movable. Both are shown
in the figure below. There are also systems of fixed and
movable pulleys.
Picture This
4.
Fixed pulley
Movable pulley
Reading Essentials
95
Picture This
5.
IMA r
a
96
Picture This
7.
Inclined Planes
An inclined plane is a sloping surface, such as a ramp, that
reduces the amount of force required to do work. On a
mountain, the road acting as an inclined plane and zigzags to
the top, making the work of getting up the mountain easier.
Applying Math
8.
IMA h
To increase the IMA of an inclined plane of a given height, the
plane is made longer. The screw and the wedge are forms of
the inclined plane. In both the inclined plane moves and the
object stays still.
Reading Essentials
97
The Screw
9.
The Wedge
A wedge is an inclined plane with one or two sloping sides.
It changes the direction of the input force. A wedge is a screw
because the inclined plane moves through the object. A knife
is a wedge. The sharp edge slopes outward at both sides to
form an inclined plane. When you cut an apple, the downward input force of the knife is changed to a horizontal
output force pushing the apple apart.
Picture This
10.
Wedge
98
Lever
Compound Machines
1. Review the items in the Mini Glossary above. Two of the terms are modified inclined
planes. Describe how one of them might be used in a real-life situation.
2. Use the chart to fill in the six types of simple machines you learned about in this section.
Types of Simple
Machines
3. Look back at the Know, Want to Know, and Learned chart you made at the beginning of
this section. How did making this chart help you learn about simple machines?
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
99
The
Earth-Moon-Sun
System
7
chapter
Earth in Space
Before You Read
about Earths
characteristics
about Earths magnetic
field
how Earth moves
through space
Read to Learn
Study Coach
A Gather Information
100
size
shape
magnetic
field
life
1
section
Picture This
1.
2.
Magnetic axis
Reading Essentials
101
4.
Earth and Mars The planet Mars is almost half the size of
Earth. However, its surface gravitational pull is less than
two-fifths that of Earths. Even so, conditions on Mars are more
like those on Earth than any other planet in the solar system.
There may even be frozen water near the surface of Mars.
Earth and Mercury The planet Mercury is very different
from Earth. It has no atmosphere and is covered by craters,
like our Moon.
102
3.
2. Use the Venn diagram to show how Earth is the same as and different from Venus.
Earth
Both
Venus
3. How did using an outline help you organize and understand the material in this section?
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
103
The
Earth-Moon-Sun
System
7
chapter
Have you ever had or heard of jet lag? People get tired when
they travel long distances to different time zones. Why do you
think people get jet lag?
Read to Learn
Study Coach
Time
104
Seasons
2
section
1.
Axis
Picture This
Rot
2.
atio
105
3.
4.
106
Picture This
Arc
tic
Circ N
le
Can
cer
Tro
pic
of
Tro
pic
of
Equ
ato
r
More intense
covers less area
5.
High angle
Cap
rico
rn
Ant
arc
tic
Circ
le
S
Less intense
covers more area
Low angle
6.
Identify What is an
equinox?
Reading Essentials
107
1. Explain how the tilt of Earths axis affects the equinox and the solstice.
Earths
tilted axis
One revolution
equals _______
Unequal heating of
surface by Sun
causes ________
More intense
heating during
the _________
3. You summarized the parts of this section. How did summarizing help you understand the
information in this section?
108
End of
Section
One rotation
equals _______
The
Earth-Moon-Sun
System
7
chapter
3
section
Earths Moon
Read to Learn
Movement of the Moon
You have seen the Moon move across the sky at night from
east to west. This apparent movement, just like the Suns, is
caused by Earths rotation. If you look at the Moon for several
nights at the same time, you will also see that it appears
further east each night.
Study Coach
Two-Column Notes
Create two columns in which to
organize notes from this section.
In one column write the main
idea. Write details about the
main idea in the other column.
C Gather Information
Cause
Effect
Tides
Phases
Eclipse
Craters
Reading Essentials
109
1.
Picture This
2.
A tide on Earth is the rise and fall of the level of the sea.
Earths tides are caused by a huge wave produced by the
gravitational pull of the Moon and the Sun. The giant wave has
a height of only 1 to 2 meters but a wavelength of thousands of
kilometers. As the crest of the wave nears shore, the level of the
water in the ocean rises. This sea-level rise is called high tide.
About six hours later, as the waves trough approaches and the
water recedes from the shore, there is low tide.
Both Earth and the Moon revolve around a center of mass
that is about 1,700 km below Earths surface. Because Earth is
far more massive, the Moon seems to be revolving around
Earth. This center of mass inside Earth, in turn, revolves
around the Sun. That is why Earth, the Moon and the Sun are
considered as a three-body system.
As Earth rotates and the Moon revolves, different areas of
Earth pass through high and low tides. Because the Moon is
so close to Earth, it has a greater effect on tides than the Sun.
The more massive Sun affects tides too, but to a smaller
degree because it is farther away than the Moon. However, the
Sun does strengthen or weaken the tides. When the Moon and
the Sun are lined up and pull together, high tides are much
higher and low tides are much lower than normal. These
periods are known as spring tides. When the Sun and Moon
are at right angles to Earth, the high tide is relatively low and
low tide is relatively high. This condition is called neap tide.
These conditions are shown in the figure below.
B
Moon
Earth
Sun
Earth
Tidal
bulge large
110
Moon
Sun
Tidal
bulge large
Moonlight
Moonlight is the most obvious way the Moon affects Earth.
The Moon shines because it reflects sunlight from its surface.
As the Moon revolves around Earth, different parts of the side
facing Earth are lighted, causing the Moons appearance to
change. Moon phase is the changing appearance of the Moon
as seen from Earth, as shown in the figure below. The phase of
the Moon you see depends on the relative positions of the
Moon, the Sun, Earth, and you.
Picture This
1st qtr.
Waxing gibbous
Waxing crescent
3.
4.
Sunlight
Earth
Full
New
Waning gibbous
Waning crescent
3rd qtr.
Waning Phases After the full moon, the lighted part of the
Moon we see begins to get smaller, or to wane. The waning
phases after the full moon are the waning gibbous moon, the
third quarter moon, and finally the waning crescent moon.
Then a new moon follows. The complete cycle of the Moons
phases takes about 29.5 days.
Reading Essentials
111
Eclipses
Eclipses occur when Earth temporarily blocks sunlight
from reaching the Moon or when the Moon temporarily
blocks sunlight from reaching Earth. The Sun, the Moon, and
Earth must be lined up perfectly for an eclipse to occur.
5.
Penumbra
Picture This
6.
Compare and
Contrast Where will a
partial and a total solar
eclipse occur?
112
7.
8.
Reading Essentials
113
What is regolith?
When NASA first sent spacecraft to study the Moons surface,
scientists were concerned about the depth of the debris from
meteorites. Regolith is the layers of debris from meteorites on
the Moons surface. On some parts of the Moon, the regolith
is almost 40 m thick, while in other regions it is only a few
centimeters thick. So far, all astronauts to visit the Moon have
landed safely on firm ground. Astronauts who walked on the
Moon even kicked up moon dust, which formed from the
countless meteors that hit the Moon.
Picture This
9.
10.
114
Picture This
Upper mantle
Crust
Lower mantle
11.
Highlight Use a
highlighter to indicate the
layer of the Moons surface
that differs the most in its
thickness.
12.
Core
115
13.
Primitive Earth
Picture This
14.
116
2. Each diagram below shows the Moon, Earth, and the Sun. Label each diagram and
identify what is happening in each.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
117
The
Solar
System
8
chapter
Planet Motion
Study Coach
Note-Taking Strategies
As you read, underline or
highlight key words or ideas
that identify the important
information.
Read to Learn
Models of the Solar System
It would be difficult to make a model of the solar system if
you did not know that Earth rotates. All you can see from
Earth is the movement of planets across the sky, and they all
seem to move in a path around Earth. Its easy to understand
why many ancient scientists thought Earth was the center
around which everything they saw in the sky revolved.
A Compare Scientific
118
Both
heliocentric
1
section
Mars
Venus
Picture This
Mercury
1.
Earth
Jupiter
Uranus
Saturn
Neptune
Pluto
2.
Analyze Information
What two planets did
Galileo study that
convinced him Earth moves
around the Sun?
Reading Essentials
119
Identify Is Mars an
inferior or a superior
planet? Why?
120
3.
Picture This
5.
Interpret a Diagram
The Latin word nebula
means mist, vapor, or
cloud. How does the figure
look like a nebula?
The Suns Size The cloud fragment from which the Sun
formed was the size of our entire solar system. As it rotated
slowly in space, the cloud continued to contract, and its
matter became squeezed into an ever-smaller space. The
clouds density increased, and its increasing gravity pulled
more gas, ice, and dust toward the center. The forces made the
cloud fragments rotate faster, which in turn caused the cloud
to flatten into a disk with a dense center.
The Suns Temperature Temperatures rose inside the dense
disk. They finally reached about ten million degrees Celsius.
At this temperature, hydrogen fuses into helium, and the
process of fusion converts some mass into energy. The Sun
was born. The leftover mass in the outer part of the cloud
fragment condensed to form planets and other objects in the
solar system.
6.
121
1. Review the terms in the Mini-Glossary. Explain how the geocentric model of the solar
system differs from the heliocentric model.
2. The planets of our solar system are classified based on their location relative to the Sun
and to the asteroid belt. Label each of the planets in the figure according to this
classification system.
te
As
3. You highlighted key words and ideas. How did this help you understand the information
in this section?
122
End of
Section
ro
id
B
e lt
Sun
The
Solar
System
8
chapter
2
section
Read to Learn
Study Coach
Two-Column Notes As
you read about the planets,
write the name of each planet in
one column and details about it
in another.
Mercury
Mercury is the second-smallest planet, and the closest
planet to the Sun. Much of what we know about Mercury
came from the Mariner 10 mission that was sent to
photograph the planet during 1974 and 1975. This space
probe photographed 45 percent of Mercurys surface. The
photographs show a surface much like that of Earths Moon.
Mercurys surface is covered in impact craters.
The space probe found that Mercury has a magnetic field
and a larger-than-expected iron core. Mercurys thick mantle
is missing some lighter materials that scientists expected to
find. One theory is that Mercury collided with another body
soon after it formed. Their cores merged to form one large
iron core. Some of the lighter materials vaporized into space.
B Organize Information
Inner
Planets
Outer
Planets
Reading Essentials
123
1.
Picture This
2.
124
Venus
Earth
Earth is the third planet from the Sun. Earth is unlike other
planets in the solar system. Its surface temperature allows
water to exist in its three forms: gas, liquid, and solid. Earth
has an oxygen-rich atmosphere that supports life and burns
up most incoming meteors. The ozone layer in Earths
stratosphere blocks harmful ultraviolet rays from the Sun and
protects organisms from this intense radiation. Life exists all
over Earth. Life has been found at extreme termperatures and
pressures on Earth. These findings encourage scientists to
think that life may be possible on other planets in the solar
system.
3.
4.
Mars
Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun. It is called the red
planet because iron oxide in some of its surface rocks gives it
a reddish color. From Earth you can see Marss red color and
polar ice caps. The polar caps are made mainly of frozen
carbon dioxide and frozen water.
The tilt of Marss axis and its seasons are similar to Earths
tilt and seasons. During the Martian winter, the polar ice caps
get bigger, then shrink in summer. The color of Marss surface
changes according to its seasons. At one time, people thought
this indicated the growth and dying back of vegetation. Today
we know that these color changes result from seasonal surface
winds. When wind blows dust off one area, the area may
appear darker. In another season, the wind may weaken and
the area may again be covered with light-colored dust.
Reading Essentials
125
Picture This
Identify Highlight each
of the features in the figure
that might have been made
by flowing water.
NASA
NASA
NASA on Mars
6.
126
5.
7.
8.
Reading Essentials
127
extreme temperatures
Venus: the second planet from the Sun; has a dense, carbon
dioxide-rich atmosphere with an intense greenhouse
effect
1. Review the terms in the Mini-Glossary. Explain one way in which Earth differs from at
least two of the other three inner planets.
Position Relative
to the Sun
Atmosphere
Surface
Mercury
Earth
Mars
3. You made two-column notes as you read this section. How did this help you understand
the information in this section?
128
End of
Section
Venus
The
Solar
System
8
chapter
3
section
Read to Learn
Study Coach
Sticky-Note Discussion
Use sticky-notes to mark those
pages or passages you have
questions or comments about or
that you find most interesting.
Discuss your questions and
interesting facts after you read
the section.
Jupiter
Jupiter, the fifth planet from the Sun, is the largest planet
in the solar system. It is made mainly of hydrogen and
helium, with some ammonia, methane, and water vapor.
Scientists theorize that there is an ocean of liquid metallic
hydrogen in the middle of the planet. Below this liquid may
lie a solid, rocky core that is larger than Earth. The core has
extreme pressure (50 million Earth atmospheres) and
temperature (40,000C). These conditions make Jupiters
core far different from any rock on Earth.
Jupiters colorful clouds are bands of white, red, tan, and
brown. Lightning has been observed within these clouds. The
planet has constant storms of swirling, high-pressure gas. The
Great Red Spot is the most spectacular of these storms.
B Organize Information
Inner
Planets
Outer
Planets
Reading Essentials
129
2.
Saturn
Saturn is the sixth planet from the Sun and is known for
its colorful rings, as shown on the following page. It is not the
only ringed planet, but it does have the largest and most
complex ring system. In 2004, NASAs Cassini-Huygens
spacecraft reached Saturn and began sending data. Data about
Saturn, including data about its rings and moons, were
collected during the spacefrafts approach. The data
indicated that Saturn could have at least 34 moons.
Low Density Although it is the second-largest planet in the
solar system, Saturn has the lowest density. Saturns cloud
layers are not squeezed as tightly together as Jupiters because
Saturn has a weaker gravitational pull than Jupiter.
130
Jupiter has more than 60 moons. Many are very small and
may be captured asteroids. Four are large enough to be
considered small planets. Galileo was the first to discover
these moons when he looked through his telescope. Jupiters
large moons are called Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto.
Ganymede is the largest moon in our solar system and is
larger than the planet Mercury. Io is caught in a constant tug
of war between the gravitational pulls of Jupiter and Europa.
This tug of war heats up Ios interior and makes it the most
volcanically active body in the solar system. The volcanoes on
Io were first seen in photographs from the Voyager probes.
The most recent findings of the Galileo space probe indicate
that all of Jupiters large moons, except Io, likely have an ocean
of water under an ice-rock crust. Data from the space probe
and the models of the moons made afterward show that the
three large moons probably contain water. Some scientists
speculate that Europas large ocean might contain life.
3.
Picture This
4.
Reading Essentials
131
Uranus
5.
6.
Pluto
Pluto, the ninth planet from the Sun, is the smallest and
least known of the planets. Pluto is considered the ninth
planet because its orbit takes it farther from the Sun than
Neptune. However, during part of its orbit, Pluto does move
closer to the Sun than Neptune does. The two planets never
collide because Plutos orbit is inclined farther from the
eliptical plane creating an angle that will not allow the orbits
to intersect.
132
Neptune
7.
Picture This
8.
Interpret a Diagram
Describe the location of the
tail of the comet in relation
to the position of the Sun.
Reading Essentials
133
10.
134
What is Sedna?
Pluto: the ninth planet from the Sun; has a rocky surface and is
1. Review the terms in the Mini-Glossary. Explain how asteroids, meteoroids, and comets are
similar.
2. Fill in the Venn diagram to show how Pluto and the other outer planets are alike and
different. In the diagram, list the special characteristics of each group of outer planets.
Then, list their shared characteristics.
Pluto
Shared
Jupiter, Uranus,
Saturn, Neptune
3. You used sticky-notes to mark any questions or comments you had on the text. How did
discussing these questions and comments help you understand the information in this
section?
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
135
The
Solar
System
8
chapter
Study Coach
Authentic Questions As
you read this section, write
down any questions you may
have. Discuss these questions
with the class after you have
completed this section.
C Compare Information
Read to Learn
Life As We Know It
You know that life exists in our solar system because it is
all around you. On Earth, life occurs in even the harshest
environments. Yet scientists are still trying to find out if life
exists on other planets in our solar system. Where might life
exist and under what conditions? Life on Earth is based on
carbon and water. Is water found on other planets?
On Earth, life easily can be seen: people, animals, and
plants. There is also life we cannot see easily, such as
microorganisms in the soil.
If you were to test Earths soil for microscopic life, you
might look for traces of life that once lived in the soil or for
gases released by respiration. If you were looking for life in
the soil of Mars or other planets in our solar system, you
would need to do the same type of tests. But the tests would
have to be done by a robot lander.
Life
Elsewhere
136
4
section
Picture This
1.
2.
Reading Essentials
137
4.
138
2. Complete the table below to show the conditions that exist on other planets and moons in
our solar system that indicate that life may exist on them.
Earth
Mars
Europa
Titan
water
atmosphere
hydrocarbons
sunlight warmth
3. You wrote authentic questions as you read this section. How did writing and discussing
authentic questions help you understand the information in this section?
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
139
1
section
Thermal Energy
what temperature is
how thermal
energy depends on
temperature
how to calculate the
change in thermal
energy
Study Coach
Read to Learn
The Kinetic Theory of Matter
All around you objects are getting warmer and cooler.
What is temperature? What causes objects to change
temperature? The temperature of an object depends on the
motion of the particles in the object.
The kinetic theory is an explanation of how particles
behave and move. There are three parts to the kinetic theory.
1. All matter is composed of particlesatoms, molecules,
and ions.
2. The particles are in constant random motion. They move
in all directions at different speeds.
3. The particles have kinetic energy because they are
moving. The particles collide with one another and
transfer kinetic energy between them.
Temperature
1.
140
chapter
Mass
Thermal Energy
Atoms and molecules that make up matter are constantly
moving, so they have kinetic energy. Molecules also have potential energy that can be changed into kinetic energy. How can
molecules have potential energy? Think about a ball held high
above your head. Earth exerts an attractive gravitational force on
the ball. When you hold the ball above your head, the ball and
Earth are separated. This gives the ball potential energy. The
particles in a substance also exert attractive forces on each other.
The particles have potential energy when they are separated.
As particles in an object move farther apart, their potential
energy increases. As they move faster, their kinetic energy
increases. Thermal energy is the sum of the kinetic and
potential energy of all the particles in an object. The figure
shows that if either potential or kinetic energy increases,
thermal energy increases.
Picture This
2.
Use Scientific
Illustrations In the
space below, sketch the
particles in the figure
if separation increased
even more.
Kinetic energy
increases
Speed increases
Potential energy
increases
Separation increases
Reading Essentials
141
Heat
3.
Communicate Write
in your own words the
difference between
temperature and heat.
Have you ever noticed that a chair felt warm when you sat
down? You could tell that someone had been sitting in it
recently. The chair felt warm because thermal energy from the
persons body flowed to the chair and increased its temperature.
Heat is thermal energy that flows from something at a
higher temperature to something at a lower temperature.
Heat is a form of energy, so it is measured in joules. Heat
always flows from warmer materials to cooler materials.
4.
142
Specific Heat
J
mass (kg) change in temperature (C) specific heat
kgC
Q m(Tf Ti )C
In the equation, Q stands for the change in thermal energy.
C stands for the objects specific heat. Tf is the final
temperature and Ti is the initial temperature.
5.
Explain What is a
calorimeter used to
measure?
Inner chamber
Picture This
6.
Insulated flask
(outer chamber)
Reading Essentials
143
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. What is the difference
between temperature and thermal energy?
2. Complete the chart below to organize information from this section about temperature.
Molecules in a substance
so they have
so they have
3. You made an outline as you read this section. How did that strategy help you learn the
material?
144
End of
Section
chapter
2
section
States of Matter
Read to Learn
Identify New
Information You may
already know about states of
matter. As you read this section,
underline any new or surprising
information about states of
matter that you read.
Liquid
Gas
Plasma
Reading Essentials
145
Picture This
1.
2.
Changing States
Imagine holding an ice cube or snowball in your hand. It
will change from a solid to liquid. The warmth of your hand
causes a change in state from solid to liquid. You also see a
change in a state when a puddle of water disappears on a
sunny day. The warmth of the Sun caused a change of state
from liquid to gas. Changes in temperature can change the
state of matter. In each case, the thermal energy of the object
and its temperature increase.
146
3.
How do you make liquid water turn into solid water, or ice?
You can lower its temperature. Then the particles move more
slowly because they have less kinetic energy. The attracting
forces are strong enough so that the particles form into an
ordered arrangement of a solid. Thermal energy is released
when a liquid freezes. The heat of fusion is the energy released
when a liquid freezes. Recall the heat of fusion is also the
amount of energy that is required to change a solid into a
liquid at its melting point.
What is vaporization?
Particles in a liquid stay together because of attractive
forces. But as the particles in a liquid move faster, they can
overcome attractive forces and spread out more. The liquid
then becomes a gas. Vaporization is the process of the liquid
becoming a gas.
In a liquid, particles at the surface can move away more
easily because they are not surrounded by other particles. The
forces holding them to the liquid are not as strong. They have
enough energy to move away and become a gas. Evaporation
occurs when particles at the surface of a liquid leave the
surface and become a gas.
What is boiling?
A second way that a liquid can vaporize is by boiling.
Unlike evaporation, boiling occurs throughout a liquid. It
occurs only at a certain temperature, depending on the
pressure at the surface of the liquid. The boiling point of a
liquid is the temperature at which the pressure of the vapor in
the liquid is equal to the outside pressure acting on its surface.
This outside pressure is a force that pushed down on the
liquid and keeps the particles from escaping. The heat of
vaporization is the amount of energy required for 1 kg of a
liquid at its boiling point to become a gas.
4.
Reading Essentials
147
6.
2500
2000
Heat of vaporization
1500
1000
b
500
a
Heat of fusion
0
2010 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Temperature (C)
148
Picture This
3000
Thermal Expansion
Did you ever notice gaps on a highway bridge between the
sections of the bridge? These gaps are called expansion joints.
The materials of the bridge and highway surface expand when
they get warmer. Expansion joints make room for the bridge
materials to expand on warm days without becoming warped
or cracked.
7.
8.
Define What is
contraction?
149
charged particles
1. Review the items in the Mini Glossary above. Use the term heat of fusion and the term
heat of vaporization to explain an event you see in everyday life.
2. Use this flowchart to organize information about the steps that occur as you add thermal
energy to a solid.
more
thermal
thermal
energy
added
point
energy
3. As you read this section, you underlined new or surprising information about states of
matter. What are two things you learned that you didnt understand or know about
before reading this section?
150
End of
Section
Solid
chapter
3
section
Read to Learn
Identify Definitions As
you read the section, highlight
the definition of each word that
appears in bold.
Conduction
The kinetic theory states that particles in matter are always
in random motion. When particles collide, energy is
transferred from one particle to another. This process is called
conduction. Conduction is the transfer of thermal energy by
the collision of particles in matter.
Imagine a metal frying pan heating on a stove. The metal
atoms nearest the burner absorb the most thermal energy
causing their kinetic energy to increase. These atoms start to
move faster. Kinetic energy is transferred when these
faster-moving atoms collide with slower-moving particles
near them. As these collisions continue, thermal energy is
transferred throughout the frying pan. In conduction,
thermal energy is transferred by the collisions between
particles in matter, not by the movement of matter.
Conduction
Convection
Radiation
Reading Essentials
151
Convection
1.
Explain What is
convection?
2.
152
Radiation
How does thermal energy travel through space? There is
almost no matter between the Sun and Earth, so thermal
energy does not travel by conduction or convection. Instead,
energy is transferred from the Sun to Earth by radiation.
Radiation is the transfer of energy by electromagnetic
waves. These waves transfer energy through solids, liquids,
and gases. They also carry energy through empty space.
Energy transferred by radiation is often called radiant energy.
When you sit by a fireplace, you feel warm because thermal
energy is transferred by radiation to your skin.
3.
Thermal Insulators
A coat and oven mitt are thermal insulators. A thermal
insulator is a material through which thermal energy flows
slowly. Thermal insulators include wood, some plastics,
fiberglass, and air. An insulator is the opposite of a conductor.
Good conductors of thermal energy, such as metals, are poor
thermal insulators.
Gases such as air are much better thermal insulators than
solids or liquids. Some kinds of insulating materials have
many pockets of trapped air. These air pockets are poor
conductors of thermal energy. They also keep convection
currents from forming.
4.
Reading Essentials
153
1. Review the terms in the Mini Glossary above. Write a sentence below that shows your
understanding of the term thermal insulator.
2. Complete the table to organize information about how thermal energy is transferred.
How Thermal Energy
Is Transferred
Definition
Example
Conduction
Radiation
3. Think about what you have learned. How did identifying definitions help you as you read
this section?
154
End of
Section
Convection
chapter
4
section
the laws of
thermodynamics
how heat is used and
how engines work
how the entropy of the
universe changes
Cars and buses use heat engines. List three more kinds of
devices you know about that use engines.
Read to Learn
Study Coach
Heating Systems
Almost everywhere in the United States, a heating system is
used to make the indoor temperatures more pleasant on cool
days. Heating systems add thermal energy to rooms. The
heating system in a building depends on the local climate and
the construction of the building.
Forced-Air Systems In a forced-air system, fuel is burned
in a furnace. A fan blows the warm air through large pipes
called ducts. The ducts carry heated air to openings called
vents in each room. Cool air is returned through other vents
to the furnace where it is reheated.
Elec. Heating
Passive Solar
Active Solar
Open System
Closed System
Int. Comb.
Reading Essentials
155
Thermodynamics
There is a way to increase the thermal energy of an object
without heating it. Have you ever rubbed your hands together
to warm them? No heat is flowing to your hands, but they get
warmer. The thermal energy and temperature in your hands
increase. You did work on your hands by rubbing them
together. The work you did caused the thermal energy in your
hands to increase. Thermal energy, heat, and work are related.
Thermodynamics is the study of the relationship among thermal energy, heat, and work.
1.
2.
156
3.
4.
Reading Essentials
157
5.
Entropy
You learned how a car engine can convert only some
thermal energy into work. In general, work can be converted
completely into thermal energy, but thermal energy cant be
converted completely into work. Why is this? The answer has
to do with entropy. Entropy is a measure of how spread out,
or dispersed, energy is. When energy is more spread out,
entropy increases.
6.
158
1. Review the terms in the Mini Glossary above. On the lines below, write a sentence that
describes the relationship between a entropy and an energy in the universe.
2. Complete the missing information in the following chart using the terms provided.
thermal
work
entropy
thermal
cool
increases
warm
work
energy
system
energy
3. Entropy may seem like a complicated concept. How could you explain entropy to
someone using everyday language?
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
159
Waves
10
chapter
Study Coach
Read to Learn
Whats in a wave?
Imagine that you are watching a surfing championship on
television. As you look at the surfers riding the giant waves,
you heat up some leftover pizza in the microwave. You call a
friend to tell her about the surfing. Your friend tells you to turn
on your radio to listen to a song you both like. You have just
experienced three different types of waves. You saw the waves
in the ocean. You cooked using microwaves. Sound waves were
produced by the television, your friends voice, and the radio.
A wave is a repeating disturbance or movement that
transfers energy through matter or space. For example, ocean
waves disturb the water and transfer energy through it. In an
earthquake, powerful waves transfer energy through Earth.
Light is a type of wave that can travel through empty space to
transfer energy from one place to another, such as from the
Sun to Earth.
1.
160
CHAPTER 10 Waves
1
section
Picture This
2.
Producing a Wave
Mechanical Waves
Sound waves travel through the air to reach your ears.
Ocean waves travel through water to reach the shore. Both
kinds of waves move their energy through a medium. A
medium is the matter through which a wave travels. A
medium can be a solid, a liquid, or a gas. It can also be a
combination of these forms of matter. The medium for
sound waves is air. The medium for ocean waves is water.
Not all waves need a medium in order to travel. Light waves
and radio waves are examples of waves that do not need a
medium. They can travel through space. Waves that can
travel only through matter are called mechanical waves. The
two types of mechanical waves are transverse waves and
compressional waves.
3.
Reading Essentials
161
Compressional
Waves
Picture This
4.
162
CHAPTER 10 Waves
Picture This
5.
6.
Reading Essentials
163
1. Review, the key terms and definitions in the Mini Glossary above. What is the difference
between a transverse wave and a compressional wave?
2. Complete the chart below to list what you learned about mechanical waves.
Compressional Waves
Examples
Example
End of
Section
164
Mechanical Waves
CHAPTER 10 Waves
Tranverse Waves
Waves
10
chapter
2
section
Wave Properties
Have you ever sat high in the stadium at a baseball game and
heard the sound of a ball being hit by a bat? Did you notice
that you heard the sound after you saw the ball being hit?
Explain why you think this happened.
about wavelength,
frequency, period, and
amplitude
how frequency and
wavelength are related
how a waves energy
and amplitude are
related
how to calculate
wave speed
Read to Learn
Picture This
Crest
1.
Trough
Rest position
Rarefaction
Compression
Reading Essentials
165
Wavelength
B Summarize Make a
Frequency
Speed
Amplitude
and Energy
Wavelength
2.
Wavelength
Rest
position
166
CHAPTER 10 Waves
Picture This
3.
Distance traveled in 1 s
Picture This
4.
Rest position
One
wavelength
One
wavelength
One
wavelength
Wave Speed
Look back at the question at the beginning of this section.
It asks if you have ever sat up high in the stadium at a
baseball game, heard the sound of a ball being hit by a bat,
and realized that you heard the sound after you saw the ball
being hit. You saw the baseball being hit before you heard it
because light waves travel through gases much faster than
sound waves. Air is a gas. The light waves reflected from the
ball reached your eyes before the sound waves created by the
bat hitting the ball reached your ears.
Reading Essentials
167
Determine Do light
waves or sound waves
travel faster through
gases?
Applying Math
6.
Step 1
168
CHAPTER 10 Waves
Why does multiplying the frequency unit (Hz) by the distance unit (m) result in the unit for speed (m/s)? Recall that
the SI unit Hz is the same as 1/s. So multiplying m Hz
equals m 1/s. Which equals m/s.
Using the equation, you can calculate the speed of a wave
traveling in water. If the wave has a frequency of 500 Hz and
a wavelength of 3 m, what is the speed of the wave?
Picture This
7.
Amplitude
Picture This
8.
Amplitude
Rest position
Trough
Reading Essentials
169
1. Review the key terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary above. Explain how a
transverse waves wavelength is different from its amplitude.
Properties
of Waves
3. Look back at the important ideas you underlined about wave properties. How did
underlining these ideas help you learn the information?
End of
Section
170
CHAPTER 10 Waves
2. Complete the concept map below to list the properties of waves that you learned about in
this section.
10 Waves
chapter
3
section
Read to Learn
Reflection
Suppose you and a friend are the last students to leave your
school building. You shout to your friend at the other end of
the hallway. Your voice echoes throughout the hallway. You also
notice your reflection in one of the glass windows. These are
both examples of wave reflection. Wave reflection causes the
echo you hear and the image you see of yourself. Wave
reflection happens when a wave strikes an object or surface and
bounces off it. All types of wavesincluding sound, water, and
light wavescan be reflected.
Study Coach
C Build Vocabulary
Refle
ction
Refra
ion
Diffract
nce
Interfere
Standing
Waves
e
Resonanc
Reading Essentials
171
Picture This
1.
Normal
Reflection
Refraction
What is refraction?
2.
172
CHAPTER 10 Waves
Refraction
Light
Air
Air
Picture This
Normal
Normal
3.
4.
Water
Water
Light
Air to water
Water to air
Diffraction
Suppose you are in a classroom and you hear music coming
from another room. The sound waves bend around corners and
travel from the room down the hall to where you are. Refraction
does not cause sound waves to bend. Instead, they bend because
of diffraction. Diffraction takes place when an object causes a
wave to change direction and bend around it.
Light waves can diffract, too. Light waves do not diffract as
much as sound waves do. Suppose you walk toward the room
where you hear the music. As you walk toward the open door,
you can see light coming out of the room. Light waves bend
around the edges of the open door. But the amount of light
that bends is not enough for you to be able to see around the
corner and into the room. Yet, you can hear the all the music
that is being played in the room.
Reading Essentials
173
Picture This
5.
174
CHAPTER 10 Waves
Interference
Suppose you throw two pebbles into a still pond. Each
pebble causes ripples to form around it. The waves of ripples
travel toward each other. When the two waves meet, they pass
right through each other and continue moving. Interference
is the point where two waves meet each other and overlap to
form a new wave. The new wave lasts only as long as the two
waves continue to overlap. There are two kinds of
interference, constructive and destructive.
7.
Wave 1
Wave 1 Wave 2
Wave 1
Wave 1 Wave 2
Wave 2
Picture This
8.
Wave 2
Constructive Interference
Destructive Interference
175
Standing Waves
Suppose you and a friend are holding the ends of the same
rope. You both shake the rope and make waves the same size
that travel toward each other. Interference happens when the
waves from one end overlap waves from the other end. A new
wave forms when a crest of one of your waves meets a crest of
one of your friends waves. The new wave has a larger amplitude.
When a crest of one wave meets a trough of another wave,
the waves cancel each other out. Then there is no movement.
A standing wave is a wave pattern that forms when two
equal-sized waves travel in opposite directions and
continuously interfere with each other. The interference of
these two waves makes the rope vibrate and creates a pattern
of crests and troughs. This makes it look like the rope is
standing still. Nodes are the places where the two waves
cancel each other. The nodes always stay in the same place on
the rope. The wave pattern vibrates between the nodes.
Describe What happens
when a crest of one wave
meets a trough of another
wave of the same
amplitude?
Resonance
10.
176
CHAPTER 10 Waves
9.
1. Review the key terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. How are refraction and
diffraction the same? How are they different?
2. List the main topics you learned about the behavior of waves. For help, use the main
headings in the section.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
177
Sound
and
Light
11
chapter
1
section
Sound
Read to Learn
Main Ideas Highlight the
Sound Waves
An amusement park is a noisy place. Music is playing,
videogames are beeping, and people on rides are screaming.
These sounds are all different, but they all have something in
common. Each sound is made by an object that vibrates.
Remember that vibration is a quick, rhythmic back-and-forth
movement.
A Build Vocabulary
178
uses
loudness
speed
compression
waves
Sound
Applying Math
1.
2.
Reading Essentials
179
Picture This
3.
Low-amplitude
sound wave
High-amplitude
sound wave
What is loudness?
You do not need special equipment to know which sounds
have greater intensity. Your ears and brain can tell the difference.
Loudness is the human perception of sound intensity. As the
intensity of a sound wave increases, the loudness of the sound
also increases.
4.
Determine What is
180
5.
6.
181
Compression A
Picture This
8.
Compression A
Compression B
182
7.
Using Sound
When sound waves strike an object, three things can
happen. The sound waves can pass through the object, be
absorbed by the object, or be reflected from the object.
Reflected sound waves can be used to determine the size,
shape, and location of an object.
What is echolocation?
Some species of bats use sound waves to find their prey.
Echolocation is the process of locating objects by making
sounds and interpreting the sound waves that are reflected
back. Bats can discover how far away and how big an insect is
from the sound waves that bounce back. Dolphins, whales,
and other animals use echolocation to locate objects.
What is sonar?
9.
10.
Reading Essentials
183
1. Review the vocabulary terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary above. How are
intensity and loudness similar and different?
2. Fill in the blanks below with the following words to make correct statements about the
topics you studied in this section:
intensity, high-amplitude, ultrasonic, decibel, frequency
sound frequencies are too high for humans to hear.
of a sound wave increases, the pitch increases.
In a
The
As the
3. You highlighted the main idea of each paragraph in this section. How did this strategy
help you learn the material? Would you recommend that a friend use this strategy?
184
End of
Section
As the
Sound
and
Light
11
chapter
2
section
Read to Learn
Imagine looking around a dark room. Your eyes slowly get
used to the darkness. Everything is a shade of gray or even
black. When you turn on the light, the objects are colorful
again. What you see depends on the amount of light in the
room and on the color of the objects. For you to see an object,
it must reflect or emit some light that reaches your eyes.
Study Coach
B Organize Information
reflected
LIGHT
transmitted
Reading Essentials
185
Reflection of Light
Did you look in a mirror this morning before you left for
school? When you saw your reflection, you actually saw light
that reflected off your body. The light then reflected off the
mirror and traveled to your eye. Because light behaves as a
wave, it obeys the law of reflection.
According to the law of reflection, the angle at which a light
wave strikes a surface is the same as the angle at which it is
reflected. The figure below shows the law of reflection. Light
follows this law when it is reflected from any surface, whether
it is a mirror or a piece of paper.
Picture This
Observe Suppose the
light from the flashlight hits
the mirror at a 60 angle.
What will be the angle of
the reflected beam of light?
186
1.
Refraction of Light
Have you ever seen a spoon sitting in a glass of water? If
you look at the glass from the side, the spoon looks bent or
broken. The image that you see is caused by the refraction, or
bending, of light.
Refraction is caused by a change in the speed of a light ray.
The speed of light depends on the substance it travels
through. Light travels at different speeds in air, glass, and
water. When light is traveling at an angle and passes from one
substance into another, the wave is bent, or is refracted.
.
2.
3.
Reading Essentials
187
strikes it
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Why might you use
translucent glass in windows and doors?
2. Complete the graphic organizer to organize the information you learned in this section
about the behavior of light.
Reflection
Happens when light waves
Refraction
off objects.
The
of light.
Regular reflection
surfaces
images
light
wavelengths
Diffuse reflection
Rainbows
surfaces
light
Mirages
formed when light is refracted through
188
End of
Section
Prisms
Sound
and
Light
11
chapter
3
section
Read to Learn
Locate Information Many
Light Rays
Mirrors
A mirror is any surface that makes a regular reflection. A
pool of still water, a metal pan, and even the back of a shiny
spoon can be mirrors. Mirrors can be flat, curved inward, or
curved outward.
plane mirror
concave mirror
convex mirror
convex lens
concave lens
Reading Essentials
189
Picture This
2.
Ray A
Optical axis
Focal
point
Concave Mirror
190
3.
Concave Mirror
Ray B
Ray A
Optical axis
Picture This
4.
Lenses
What do your eyes have in common with cameras,
eyeglasses, and microscopes? They all contain at least one
lens. A lens is a transparent object with at least one curved
surface. The lens causes light rays to refract. Like curved
mirrors, lenses form images. The image depends on the shape
of the lens. A lens can be either convex or concave.
Reading Essentials
191
Picture This
5.
Focal length
6.
192
Focal point
Picture This
7.
Optical axis
What determines how well you can see the words on this
page? If you do not need eyeglasses, the parts of your eyes
give you the ability to focus on words and objects.
Light enters your eye through the cornea (KOR nee uh). As
shown in the figure below, the cornea is a transparent
covering of the eyeball. The cornea bends light rays to bring
them together. Then the light passes through an opening
called the pupil. Behind the pupil is a flexible convex lens.
Muscles attached to the lens change its shape to help focus
light, forming a sharp image on the retina.
The retina is the inner lining of the eye. Cells on the retina
that are sensitive to light change the image into electrical
signals. The optic nerve sends the signals to your brain.
Retina
Focal
point
Lens
Pupil
Cornea
Optic nerve
Picture This
8.
193
9.
Picture This
10.
Compare and
Contrast What are
Focal
point
Light from
nearby object
Light from
distant object
Nearsighted eye
Light from
nearby object
Corrected
farsighted eye
Farsighted eye
Focal
point
194
Focal
point
Focal
point
Light from
distant object
Corrected
nearsighted eye
1. Review the terms in the Mini Glossary. Write one or more sentences to show that you
understand how concave mirrors form images.
2. In the first box, draw a convex lens. In the second box, draw a concave lens. Add light rays
to show how they travel through each lens. Label the focal point if one is formed.
convex lens
concave lens
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
195
Sound
and
Light
11
chapter
4
section
Read to Learn
Identify the Main Ideas
light
color
196
Both
pigment
color
Have you ever worn tinted glasses? Maybe you noticed that
tinted glasses change the color of almost everything you see.
Yellow glasses make everything look yellow. Red glasses make
the world look red. If you put a clear green plastic sheet over
this page, the paper would look green. Tinted glasses and
plastic sheets are filters. A filter is a transparent material that
transmits one or more colors of light, but absorbs the rest.
The color of a filter is the color of light that it transmits.
1.
Seeing Color
As you approach an intersection, the traffic light changes
from green to yellow to red. What could happen at the
intersection if you couldnt see the color changes? Your safety
depends on seeing colors. How do you see colors?
2.
Think Critically
Nocturnal animals are active
at night. They probably
have the most of which
type of retina cells?
197
Mixing Colors
Have you ever noticed the variety of paint colors in a paint
store? You even may have mixed paints to make new colors in
art class. It is possible to create different paint colors by
mixing pigments. A pigment is a colored material that is used
to change the color of other substances. A pigments color
depends on the wavelengths of light it reflects.
4.
Explain A hardware
store clerk uses green
pigment to make green
paint. Is green pigment a
primary pigment, or is it
made from a mixture of
primary pigments? Explain
your answer.
198
1. Review the term and its definition in the Mini Glossary. Write a sentence describing a
product you have used that contains pigments.
2. Complete the Venn diagram to organize the information you learned about color.
Colored Light
Color Pigments
All other
colors can be
produced by
mixing the
primary
colors.
.
Mixing all three
primary colors produces
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
199
Earths
Internal
Processes
12
chapter
If you look at a map of the world, you will notice that the
continents look like pieces of a puzzle. Why do you think they
look that way?
Read to Learn
Study Coach
Continental Drift
At the start of the twentieth century, geologists only studied
the land that was close to them. They developed theories
about erosion and mountain-building processes. There was
no theory to explain that the geologic processes on Earth
were related.
200
1
section
Picture This
1.
2.
Reading Essentials
201
Picture This
3.
Identify Using a
highlighter, trace the MOR.
202
A Organize Information
Picture This
Volcanic arc
Deep-sea
trench
Identify At plate
boundaries, what kind of
motion can occur?
Island arc
Continental
crust
Continental
crust
Lithosphere
5.
Mountain range
Deep-sea
trench
Asthenosphere
Lithosphere
Oceanic crust
Lithosphere
Oc
ea
nic
Asthenosphere
cru
st
st
ru
cc
ni
ea
Oc
st
cru
nic
ea
c
O
Asthenosphere
Reading Essentials
203
7.
204
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Write a sentence that explains
how subduction occurs.
2. Complete the chart below. List three arguments Wegener used to prove that the continents
were once joined:
Pangaea
1.
2.
3.
3. Review the ideas your group wrote on the index cards. Write one idea that you all agreed
was important. How did this idea help you to understand the evolution of Earths crust?
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
205
Earths
Internal
Processes
12
chapter
2
section
Earthquakes
Before You Read
causes of earthquakes
characteristics of
earthquakes
how seismic waves
affect Earths surface
seismic waves and
Earths internal structure
Have you ever felt the ground shake? What do you think
caused it to shake? How did you feel when it shook?
Read to Learn
Global Earthquake Distribution
For decades, scientists have known that earthquakes are not
distributed randomly. Earthquakes occur in particular places.
These zones are along the boundaries of Earths lithospheric
plates. Earthquakes occur near the edges of the plates. Seismic
data gathered from an earthquake gives scientists information
about the structure of the ocean floor and the structure and
motion of Earths plates.
Depth of Focus Scientists who plot data about depths of
earthquakes on a world map have seen patterns develop.
Transform faulting of divergent boundaries lets plates move
in opposite directions. This creates a narrow band of shallow
earthquakes. In an opposite way, convergent boundaries have
wide earthquake zones. The shallowest focal points in these
zones are near the surface at the point the boundaries
converge. The deepest focal points lie under volcanoes or
mountains that are created in the area where boundaries
collide.
Causes of Earthquakes
An earthquake is any seismic vibration of Earth caused by a
rapid release of energy. Earthquakes can be either natural or
caused by humans.
206
Organize Information
As you read this section, use a
highlighter to mark the most
important ideas in each
paragraph.
What is deformation?
Earths crust is made of rigid, rocky material and can be
considered brittle. When a stress is put on a brittle material, it
shows little sign of strain or deformation. However, it might
suddenly break. A strain is the manner or deformation in
response to a stress. Stress is the force per unit area that acts
on a material.
B Understand Cause
Tenision
Shear
Torsion
1.
Describe elastic
rebound.
Reading Essentials
207
Earthquake Waves
Earthquake waves travel out in all directions from a point
where strain energy is released. This point is the focus, or
point of origin, of an earthquake. The focus is usually deep
inside Earth. The epicenter is the point on Earths
surface directly above the focus. This is demonstrated in the
figure below.
Picture This
2.
Epicenter
Wave
fronts
Focus
Fault s
Faults
3.
208
When you throw a rock into still water, you see rings of
waves. The center of these rings, where the rock hit, is similar
to the focus of an earthquake. The difference is that the rings
of waves in an earthquake move in spheres, not circles.
There are two main types of earthquake waves. Body waves
are waves that travel through Earth. Surface waves are waves
that travel across Earths surface.
4.
Earthquake Measurement
The Modified Mercalli Intensity scale ranks earthquakes in
a range from I-XII. XII describes the worst, most serious
earthquakes. The Modified Mercalli scale describes
earthquakes by intensity and uses eyewitness obervations to
assign intensity value.
The Richter magnitude scale is often called the Richter
scale. It uses the amplitude of the largest earthquake wave as
a comparison. The Richter scale describes how much energy
was released during an earthquake. A seismograph is an
instrument used to measure earthquake waves and determind
a Richter value. A seismogram is the tracing of the
seismographs pen.
5.
Reading Essentials
209
1. Review the vocabulary words and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Write a sentence
that uses the terms fault and elastic rebound to describe an earthquake.
Measures
Energy Released
3. Look at the parts of the text that you highlighted. How did this help you to learn about
earthquakes?
210
End of
Section
Name
of scale
Earths
Internal
Processes
12
chapter
3
section
Earths Interior
Read to Learn
Whats inside?
How do scientists learn about Earths interior? In 1961
scientists drilled a hole 200 m into the oceanic crust. They
hoped to reach the Mohorovicic (moh huh ROH vee chihch)
discontinuity. Unfortunately, the project was canceled after
Phase I. Earths center is 6,371 km below the surface.
Seismologists are geologists who study seismic waves to
learn about Earth. Studying the behavior of earthquake waves
to gather data about Earths interior is similar to using sound
waves to see inside the human body. Observing seismic waves
allows scientist to infer images of Earths interior.
Study Coach
C Build Vocabulary As
you read this section, make a
three-tab vocabulary Foldable to
show that you understand the
vocabulary terms.
athenosphere discontinvity shadow zone
Reading Essentials
211
Earthquake Observations
Seismic wave recording stations across Earth record seismic
wave data. From this data, scientists make discoveries. Data
has shown that refracted waves bend when they encounter
sharp changes in density. A discontinuity is a boundary that
marks a density change between layers. The Mohorovicic
discontinuity separates the crust from uppermost mantle.
1.
Explain Why do
scientists think the outer
core is a liquid?
2.
Compare and
Contrast the lithosphere
and the asthenosphere.
212
between layers
1. Review the definitions of the vocabulary words in the Mini Glossary. Choose one of the
words and write what it means in your own words.
2. Draw a cross section of Earth with the layers you learned about in this section. Place the
layers in the correct order. Shade the layer that contains the crust and uppermost mantle.
Draw stripes on the layer on which plates move.
3. Think about the question you wrote on. Write one question and the anser you and your
group decided on. How did these notes help you learn?
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
213
Earths
Internal
Processes
12
chapter
Volcanoes
Before You Read
Have you ever pumped air into a bicycle tire? What would
happen if the tire had many small cracks? What would
happen if the tire had no cracks and you kept pumping in air
after it was full?
Study Coach
Read to Learn
Origin of Magma
Faults are weaknesses in Earths crust along which
movement takes place. This movement causes a decrease in
pressure, called decompression. When pressure decreases, the
melting point of rock also descreases, even though the
temperature does not change.
Magma comes from Earths asthenosphere. This nearly
molten rock can change to liquid by decompression melting.
As magma rises to Earths surface, it becomes even more fluid
as it decompresses, especially if it contains a lot of gas.
volcanoes
214
4
section
Eruptive Products
Volcanoes throw out, or expel, a variety of different
materials. These materials occur in different states of matter.
Volcanoes erupt lava, gases, and chunks of solid material, as
shown in the figure of Mt. St. Helens below.
1.
Picture This
2.
Ash
Gases
Globules
Blocks
Reading Essentials
215
3.
Explain What is
viscosity?
Eruptive Styles
4.
216
Picture This
5.
Fujiyama
Pinatubo
Mauna Loa
Etna
Kilauea
Pele
Paricutin
Kilimanjaro
Krakatoa
Tambora
6.
Reading Essentials
217
Types of Volcanoes
Volcanoes are classified by their size, shape, and the
materials that compose them. Recall that the magma source
helps to determine the kind of materials that erupt from a
volcano. The physical properties of magma include
temperature, make-up, and gas content of magma.
Picture This
7.
9 km
218
1. Review the definitions of the vocabulary words in the Mini Glossary. Describe why
viscosity changes.
2. Complete the chart below to organize information you have learned about volcanoes.
Type
Shield Volcano
Volcanoes
Composite Volcano
Type of Magma
Type of Eruption
Boundary where
volcano forms
3. Think about what you have learned in this section. Pick a partner. Quiz each other with
the flash cards you made. How did these cards help you learn?
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
219
13
Electricity
1
section
Electric Charge
Read to Learn
Positive and Negative Charge
Sometimes, when you walk across a carpet and then touch an
object, you get a shock. Why does this happen? The answer has
to do with electric charge. The center of an atom is made up of
particles called protons and neutrons. Other particles, electrons,
move around the center of the atom. Protons and electrons have
electric charge. Neutrons have no electric charge. In the figure
below, the light gray particles are the protons, the black particles
are the neutrons, and the floating particles are the electrons.
Picture This
1.
220
CHAPTER 13 Electricity
Center of an Atom
chapter
A Build Vocabulary As
Static
ricity
Elect
Law of n
rvatio
Conse rge
of Cha
ctor
Condu
tor
Insula
g by
Chargin
Contact
Charging by
Induction
Have you ever taken clothes out of a dryer and had them
cling together? Look at the figure below. Opposite electric
charges attract each other. They tend to move toward each other.
Electric charges that are the same repel each other. They tend to
move away from each other.
Picture This
2.
221
3.
of ainPositive
f a PositiveMove
Charge
Electric Charge
Fields in Electric Fields
222
CHAPTER 13 Electricity
Picture This
When a charged balloon comes near your hair, your hair will
move toward it. Your hair does not have to touch the balloon for
an electric force to act on it. So what makes your hair move? It is
positively charged. The balloon is negatively charged.
They are
attracted to each other because they have opposite electric charges.
What is a conductor?
Electrons can move more easily in some materials than
in others. A conductor is material in which electrons can
move easily. Your skin is a better conductor than your shoes.
Electrons move from your shoes to your skin, spreading to
your hands. The best electric conductors are metals. Atoms in
metals have electrons that are able to move easily through the
metal. Copper is one of the best conductors.
What is an insulator?
An insulator is a material in which electrons cannot move
easily. In insulators, electrons are held tightly to atoms. The
plastic coating around an electric wire keeps you from getting
a dangerous electric shock when you touch the wire. Wood,
rubber, and glass are other good insulators.
5.
Charging Objects
Just like the clothes in the dryer, when two materials are
rubbed together, electrons can be transferred between them.
One object will have a negative charge. The other will have
the same amount of positive charge. Charging by contact is
the transfer of charges by touching or rubbing.
223
What is lightning?
Have you ever seen lightning hit the ground? Lightning is
a large static dischargea transfer of charge between two
objects. It happens if there is a buildup of static electricity.
A large amount of static electricity is formed when air
moves around in thunderclouds. Areas of positive and
negative charge build up. When enough charge builds up,
there is a static discharge between the cloud and the ground.
As the charges move through the air, they hit atoms and
molecules and cause them to give off light.
What is thunder?
Lightning makes a bright light. It also creates powerful sound
waves. Thunder is the sound that lightning makes. The electrical
energy in lightning heats the air to 25,000C. This rapid heating
of the air causes sound waves you hear as thunder.
Picture This
7.
Metal rod
224
CHAPTER 13 Electricity
6.
1. Read the definitions of an insulator and a conductor in the Mini Glossary above. Use the
words in a sentence that shows that you understand them.
2. Column 1 lists some of the concepts you learned about in this section. Column 2 gives a
fact about each concept. Write the letter of the fact on the line next to the concept that
matches it.
Column 1
1. transferring charge
Column 2
a. static electricity is discharged
between a cloud and the ground
2. conservation of charge
3. insulator
4. lightning
3. You highlighted the main points to help you understand electric charge. How did you
decide what the main points were?
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
225
13
Electricity
2
section
Electric Current
1.
226
CHAPTER 13 Electricity
Read to Learn
Current and Voltage Difference
You have read about the ways electric charges move. One
example is the spark that can jump between your hand and a
metal doorknob. Electric current is the net movement of
electric charges in one direction.
To understand net movement, consider the movement of
electrons in all materials. In all materials, electrons move in
every direction. Since the electrons are not moving in the same
direction, there is no electric current. When electric current
flows in a wire, the electrons still move in all directions, but they
also drift in the direction that the current flows. The drifting of
the electrons is the net movement in one direction.
Electric current is measured in units called amperes.
Amperes are also called amps. The symbol for amperes is the
letter A. Amperes measure the electrons that flow past one
point. One ampere is equal to 6,250 million billion electrons
moving past a point every second.
chapter
Picture This
Lightbulb
Electron
flow
Battery
2.
Batteries
A circuit needs a voltage difference to keep electric current
flowing in it. A battery can provide the voltage difference
that keeps electric current flowing. Look at the figure of the
circuit again. The positive end and the negative end of a
battery are called the terminals. When a closed path connects
the terminals, the current will flow.
B Build Vocabulary
Zinc container
Negative terminal
Wet-Cell
Batteries
Dry cell
Reading Essentials
227
3.
Picture This
4.
Negative terminal
Positive terminal
Partition
Lead plate
Battery solution
Wet cell
228
CHAPTER 13 Electricity
Resistance
Flashlights use dry-cell batteries to make the current that
lights up the lightbulb. What makes a lightbulb glow? Part of the
circuit is a thin wire in the bulb. The wire is called a filament.
The electrons in the current flow through the filament. As they
move, they bump into the metal atoms in the filament.
The electrons bump into the metal atoms, turning some of
their electrical energy into thermal energy. The metal filament
gets hot enough to glow. The radiant energy lights up the
room.
5.
6.
Reading Essentials
229
Picture This
7.
Compare In which
circuit will the light be
brighter, the one on the left
or the one on the right?
More resistance
Less resistance
Batt
ery
Batt
ery
R I
Applying Math
8.
R I
120
0.5
240
The resistance is 240 .
230
CHAPTER 13 Electricity
I R
1. Read the terms and definitions of resistance in the Mini Glossary above. Rewrite the
definition of resistance in your own words on the lines below.
2. Complete the table below to describe a simple circuit. The first column lists the parts of a
circuit. In the second column, give an example of each part of a circuit. Under the heading
Function, write a short description of what job each part does in the circuit.
Parts of a Simple Circuit
Part
Example
Function
Voltage difference
Source of resistance
Conductors
3. As you read this section, you highlighted the question headings and their answers. Why
was using two colors helpful?
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
231
13
Electricity
3
section
Electrical Energy
Study Coach
D Gather Information
Series Circuit
232
Parallel Circuit
CHAPTER 13 Electricity
Read to Learn
Series and Parallel Circuits
Think of your home. How many things are plugged into
electric outlets? You might think of lamps, stereos, televisions,
and clocks.
As you read in the last section, a circuit includes three
parts. The first part is something that provides a voltage
difference. It can be a battery or an electric outlet. The second
part is something that uses electric energy and provides
resistance. Lightbulbs and hair dryers are two examples. The
third part is a conductor that connects the other parts. An
example of a conductor is a wire. These three parts form a
closed path for the electric current to travel on.
Think about using a hair dryer. The dryer needs to be
plugged into an electric outlet. A generator at a power plant
produces the voltage difference that ends up at the wall outlet.
The voltage difference makes electric charges move when the
circuit is complete. The dryer and the circuit in your house
have conducting wires. The wires carry the current.
Closing the Circuit When you turn on the hair dryer, you
close the circuit. The hair dryer turns electrical energy into
thermal energy and mechanical energy. Mechanical energy is
the energy that moves the fan in the hair dryer.
chapter
Opening the Circuit When you turn the hair dryer off, you
open the circuit. This breaks the path of the current. To use
electrical energy, you need a complete circuit. There are two
kinds of circuits, series circuits and parallel circuits.
1.
Some older strings of holiday lights will not work if just one
lightbulb is burned out. The lights are connected in a series
circuit. In a series circuit, the parts are wired one after another.
The amount of current is the same through every part. When
any part of a series circuit is disconnected, no current flows
through the circuit. This is called an open circuit. One burnedout bulb makes the string of lights an open circuit.
Picture This
2.
Conductor
Lightbulbs
Battery
233
Household Circuits
Many things in your house use electric energy. You dont
see all the wires, because they are hidden behind the walls,
ceiling, and floors. The wiring is mostly a combination of
parallel circuits. The circuits are connected in an organized
and logical way.
Look at the figure below showing the wiring in a house.
There is a main switch and a circuit breaker or fuse box.
These are like the electric headquarters for the house. Parallel
circuits branch out from the circuit breaker or fuse box. The
circuits run to wall outlets, appliances, and lights.
Light circuit
Wall socket
Stove
circuit
Meter
Picture This
3.
Light switch
Fuse box
or circuit
breaker
Ground
234
CHAPTER 13 Electricity
Wall socket
5.
Electric Power
Electrical energy is useful because it is easy to change into
other kinds of energy. For example, it can be changed to
thermal energy in a hair dryer. It can also be turned into light,
or radiant energy, in a lamp or mechanical energy in a fan.
Electric power is the rate at which electrical energy is changed
into another form of energy.
Different appliances use different amounts of electric
power. Appliances are usually marked with a power rating.
The power rating tells how much power the appliance uses.
Appliances that have electric heating elements, such as ovens
and hair dryers, usually use the most power.
current
(in amperes)
voltage difference
(in volts)
P IV
The unit for power is the watt. The abbreviation for watt is
W. The watt is a small unit of power. Because of this, electric
power usually is measured in kilowatts. Kilo- means thousand.
One kilowatt equals 1,000 watts. The abbreviation for kilowatt
is kW. You may see this symbol, or something similar, if you
look at an electric bill.
Applying Math
6.
Reading Essentials
235
time
(in kW)
(in hours)
E Pt
Picture This
8.
Observe Which
appliance has the greatest
monthly cost?
236
CHAPTER 13 Electricity
Appliance
Hair
Dryer
Stereo
Color
Television
Power rating
1,000
100
200
0.25
2.0
4.0
7.5
6.0
24.0
$0.09
$0.09
$0.09
Monthly cost
$0.68
$0.54
$2.16
series circuit: a circuit with just one loop for current to move
through
1. Read the terms and definitions in the Mini Glossary above. On the lines below, write a
sentence that shows your understanding of the difference between a series circuit and
a parallel circuit.
Circuit Breaker
contains
contains
that
that
when
when
3. You used the create-a-quiz strategy as you read this section. Look at the quiz questions
you wrote. How many of them can you answer correctly? Did this strategy help you
understand and remember what you read?
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
237
Magnetism
14
1
section
Magnetism
Study Coach
Read to Learn
Magnets
Magnets were discovered more than 2,000 years ago. Greeks
discovered a mineral that could attract pieces of iron. This
mineral is now called magnetite. About 1,000 years ago, Chinese
sailors used magnetite to make compasses. Compasses are tools
that can help you determine which direction you are traveling.
Since then many items have been invented that use magnets.
Magnetism refers to the properties of magnets and how
magnets act when they are near each other, or interact.
A Organize Information
238
Attract
Repel
Poles
Field
Magnets
CHAPTER 14 Magnetism
chapter
Picture This
N
N
1.
Highlight Using a
highlighter, trace the lines
of the magnetic fields for
all three types of magnets
shown on this page.
2.
Reading Essentials
239
Picture This
3.
Determine Write an N
on the figure to show where
Earths north magnetic pole
is. Write an S on the figure to
show where Earths south
magnetic pole is.
4.
240
CHAPTER 14 Magnetism
Magnetic Materials
Picture This
5.
6.
If the bar magnet is taken away, the atoms in the nail start
to move around and bump each other. This motion causes
the domains to move out of line and cancel each other. This
is why a nail is not always a magnet.
Reading Essentials
241
magnetic pole: the north and south pole where the forces of
1. Review the terms in the Mini Glossary. Write a sentence that explains why Earth has a
magnetic field.
2. Complete the chart below. List the different things you learned about in this section that
have the word magnetic as part of their description.
Magnetism
1. magnetic force
2.
4.
5.
3. Think about the ideas your group wrote on index cards. Write one idea that everyone
agreed was important. How did this idea help you to understand magnetism?
End of
Section
242
CHAPTER 14 Magnetism
3.
chapter
14
Magnetism
2
section
Read to Learn
Electric Current and Magnetism
B Note Cards
As you read
this section, make note cards
out of half-sheets of paper to
write notes about the three
main topics.
Electron flow
Electric Current
and Magnetism
Electromagnets
Electric Motors
Electron flow
Magnetic field lines
Reading Essentials
243
Electromagnets
The magnetic field that surrounds a wire carrying current can
be made much stronger in an electromagnet. An electromagnet
is a temporary magnet made by wrapping wire coil carrying
electricity around an iron core. The figure below at right is an
electromagnet.
The magnetic field inside a loop of wire is stronger than the
magnetic field around a straight wire. The magnetic field is
stronger because the magnetic fields inside the loop combine.
A solenoid (SOH luh noyd) is a single wire wrapped into a
coil. The magnetic field inside a solennoid is stronger that the
magnetic field inside a single loop of wire. The figure below at
left is a solenoid.
If a solenoid is wrapped around an iron core, it forms
an electromagnet. The solenoids magnetic field magnetizes
the iron core. As a result, the magnetic field inside the
electromagnet can be 1,000 times stronger than the field
inside a solenoid without a core.
Solenoid
Picture This
Electromagnet
Electron
flow
N
S
Electron
flow
2.
244
CHAPTER 14 Magnetism
1.
3.
Electromagnet
Picture This
4.
Permanent
magnet
Electron
flow
Permanent
magnet
Electron
flow
Reading Essentials
245
Picture This
5.
Spring
Electromagnet
Galvanometer
Fuel Gauge
Electric Motors
An electric motor is a machine that changes electrical
energy into mechanical energy. The wires carrying electric
current produce a magnetic field. This magnetic field acts the
same way as the magnetic field of a magnet. Two wires carrying electric current can attract each other as if they were two
magnets, as in the figure below.
6.
Identify What is a
machine that changes
electric energy into
mechanical energy called?
ron flo w
Elect
f l ow
tron
lE ec
246
CHAPTER 14 Magnetism
Wires
carrying
current to coil
Permanent
magnet
7.
Step 2
Step 1
Picture This
N
S
N
8.
S
Step 4
Step 3
247
mechanical energy
electromagnet: a single wire carrying an electric current
that is wrapped around an iron core
1. Review the vocabulary words and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Write a sentence
that shows how a solenoid and an electromagnetic are related.
2. Complete the chart to list three items that use electromagnets to make them work.
3. Look at the parts of the text that you highlighted. How did this help you learn about
electricity and magnetism?
End of
Section
248
CHAPTER 14 Magnetism
chapter
14
Magnetism
3
section
Read to Learn
what electromagnetic
induction is
how a generator
produces current
the difference between
direct and alternating
current
how to change the
voltage of an
alternating current
Study Coach
Sticky-Note Discussions
Place sticky notes at parts of the
section you find interesting
orthat you have a question
about. Write the question on the
sticky note.
C Build Vocabulary As
Turbine
DC
AC
Transformer
Reading Essentials
249
Picture This
1.
Electron flow
Electron
flow
2.
250
CHAPTER 14 Magnetism
Picture This
3.
Make Connections
What do the propellers
rotate?
4.
Reading Essentials
251
Transformers
A transformer is used to increase or decrease the voltage of
an alternating current. A transformer has a primary coil and a
secondary coil. Both coils are wrapped around the same iron
core. An input voltage of alternating current passes through the
primary coil. This causes the coils magnetic field to
magnetize the iron core. When the current in the primary coil
changes direction, this causes the magnetic fields in the
primary coil and the iron core to also change directions. This
causes an output voltage in the secondary coil.
The figures below show two kinds of transformers, a
step-up transformer and a step-down transformer.
Picture This
5.
Primary coil
10 turns of wire
Secondary coil
20 turns of wire
Increase
2 times
Step-up Transformer
240 volts
AC in
Primary coil
40 turns of wire
120 volts
AC out
Secondary coil
20 turns of wire
Decrease
2 times
120 volts
AC out
Step-down Transformer
Determine What is
the difference between a
step-up transformer and a
step-down transformer?
252
CHAPTER 14 Magnetism
60 volts
AC in
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Choose one of the words and
write what it means in your own words.
Direct
How it flows
Alternating
What produces it
How it flows
What produces it
3. Think about what you have learned in this section. Look at the parts you marked with
sticky notes. How did these notes help you learn?
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
253
Electromagnetic
Radiation
15
chapter
how electromagnetic
waves are formed
how electric
charges produce
electromagnetic waves
properties of
electromagnetic waves
Read to Learn
Study Coach
Waves in Space
No matter where you are, you are surrounded by
electromagnetic waves. You cant see them or feel them. But
some of these waves are passing through your body right
now. Electromagnetic waves make it possible for you to see.
They make your skin feel warm. You use electromagnetic
waves when you watch TV, talk on a cordless phone, or make
popcorn in a microwave oven.
254
1
section
2.
Draw Conclusions
How could you test an
object to see if it has a
magnetic field?
Picture This
Copyright by Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
3.
Magnetic
Magneticfield
fieldlines
lines
255
4.
Identify What is
produced when an
electric charge vibrates?
Electron
Electric field
Picture This
5.
Wavelen
gth
Direction
of travel
Electromagnetic Wave
256
Magnetic field
Applying Math
Speed of Visible Light
6.
Material
Vacuum
Air
Speed (km/s)
300,000
slightly less
than 300,000
Water
226,000
Glass
200,000
Diamond
124,000
257
Particles as
Waves:
7.
258
Picture This
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Choose one term and use it
in a sentence that shows your understanding of the term.
2. Write a fact about electromagnetic waves on the lines under each heading.
Electromagnetic Waves
Kind of wave
Sometimes behave as
3. As you read this section, you summarized the important information under each heading.
How did that strategy help you learn the material in this section?
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
259
15 Electromagnetic Radiation
chapter
Read to Learn
Identify Definitions As
you read this section, highlight
each vocabulary term and
its definition.
A Range of Frequencies
Electromagnetic waves have a wide range of frequencies.
Some vibrate once a second. Others vibrate trillions of
times a second. The whole range of electromagnetic wave
frequencies is called the electromagnetic spectrum. The
electromagnetic spectrum is shown below.
Different parts of the electromagnetic spectrum interact
with matter in different ways. Because of this, the parts of the
spectrum have different names. Visible light, the range of
electromagnetic waves that humans can see, is a small part of
the whole electromagnetic spectrum. But a number of devices
have been created to detect the other frequencies. For
example, the antenna of a radio detects radio waves.
Radio
waves
Picture This
1.
Infrared
waves
Microwaves
Visible light
Identify Which
electromagnetic waves
have the lowest frequency?
INCREASING FREQUENCY
260
Gamma
rays
Ultraviolet
waves
X rays
2
section
Radio Waves
Even though you cant see them, radio waves are moving
everywhere. Radio waves are low-frequency electromagnetic
waves with wavelengths longer than about 1 mm. Radio
stations make use of these waves. Microphones are used to
change sound waves from voices and music into radio waves.
The radio waves carry signals that can be picked up by radios.
Radios then change the signals back into sound waves. You
cannot hear actual radio waves. Remember, you hear sounds
when compressions and rarefactions from a sound wave reach
your ears. A radio wave does not produce compressions and
rarefactions. It needs to be turned into a sound wave by a
radio before you can hear it.
Picture This
2.
Analyze a Diagram
Look at the figure. List
two differences between
the left part and right part
of the figure.
Water
molecules
Electromagnetic
wave
Reading Essentials
261
Applying Math
4.
262
Visible Light
Visible light is the range of electromagnetic waves that
people can see. Visible light has wavelengths of about
750 billionths to 400 billionths of a meter. The
electromagnetic waves you can see have different wavelengths.
You see the different wavelengths as different colors. Blue light
has the shortest wavelength. Red light has a longest wavelength. The light looks white if all the colors are present.
Infrared Waves
Ultraviolet Waves
Ultraviolet waves are electromagnetic waves with
wavelengths from about 400 billionths to 10 billionths of a
meter. Ultraviolet, or UV, waves have enough energy to enter
skin cells. Being exposed to too many UV rays can cause skin
damage and cancer. Sunlight contains ultraviolet waves.
Most of the ultraviolet radiation that reaches Earths surface
is longer-wavelength rays. They are called UVA rays. Shorterwavelength rays are called UVB rays. UVB rays are the rays
that cause sunburn. Both UVA and UVB rays can damage the
skin and cause skin cancer.
5.
6.
Reading Essentials
263
X Ray of Bone
8.
Identify Which
statement is not true.
(Circle your answer.)
a. Gamma rays are lowfrequency waves.
b. X rays are high-energy
waves.
c. Gamma rays are used
to treat diseases.
264
7.
1. Draw a line to match the name of each ray in the first column with its wavelength in the
second column.
Column 1
Visible light
X ray
Microwave
Gamma ray
Radio wave
Ultraviolet wave
Infrared wave
Column 2
less than 30 cm
400 billionths to 10 billionths of a meter
longer than 1 mm
1 mm to 750 billionths of a meter
10 billionths to 10 trillionths of a meter
10 billionths to 400 billionths of a meter
shorter than 10 trillionths of a meter
2. Write the names of the waves listed in question 2 in the electromagnetic spectrum pyramid.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
INCREASING FREQUENCY
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
265
15 Electromagnetic Radiation
chapter
Radio Communication
Before You Read
Read to Learn
Study Coach
Radio Transmission
When you listen to the radio, you hear music and words
that were created far away. Radio stations need to send
sounds over great distances. They do this by changing sound
waves to electromagnetic waves. Your radio then changes the
electromagnetic waves back to sound waves again.
266
3
section
What is AM radio?
The figure below shows the two ways the carrier wave can
be modified. The first way is amplitude modulation, or AM.
AM radio stations broadcast information by changing the
amplitude of the carrier wave. Look at the wave labeled
amplitude modulation. Notice that the amplitude changes,
but the frequency does not. The original sound is changed
into an electrical signal that changes the amplitude of the
carrier wave. You tune an AM radio to the frequency of
the carrier wave. AM frequencies range from 540,000 Hz to
1,600,000 Hz. AM radio stations give their frequencies in
kilohertz. A station that gives its frequency as 810 AM
means that it is broadcasting at a frequency of 810,000 Hz.
Applying Math
1.
What is FM radio?
The second way a carrier wave can be modified is called
frequency modulation, or FM. FM radio stations broadcast
information by changing the frequency of the carrier wave.
Look at the wave labeled frequency modulation. Notice that the
frequency of the wave changes, but not the amplitude. The
strength of the FM waves is always the same. Because of this, FM
signals are usually clearer than AM signals. FM frequencies range
from 88 million to 108 million Hz. This is much higher than AM
frequencies. FM radio stations give their frequencies in megahertz. Mega- means million, so a station with a frequency of
89.9 FM is broadcasting at a frequency of 89,900,000 Hz.
Picture This
2.
Carrier wave
Signal
Amplitude modulation
Frequency modulation
Interpret a Scientific
Illustration Look at
the figure that shows
frequency modulation.
How does the wavelength
of the wave change as its
frequency increases?
Reading Essentials
267
Television
Television might seem like magic, but not if you know how
it works. Television and radio work in similar ways, using
radio waves. At a television station, sounds and images are
changed into electronic signals. The signals are broadcast by
carrier waves. Television sound is sent by FM radio waves.
Information about the color and brightness is sent at the
same time by AM signals.
3.
Telephones
4.
268
5.
Cordless
phone
Radio
signals
Base unit
Picture This
6.
Reading Essentials
269
Communications Satellites
Radio waves cannot be sent through Earth. Instead, radio
signals are sent to satellites. The satellites can communicate
with other satellites or with stations on the ground.
Thousands of satellites have been launched and orbit Earth.
Many of these satellites are used for communication. A radio or
television station sends a high-frequency microwave signal to
the satellite. The satellite amplifies the signal and sends it back
to a different place on Earth. The satellite avoids interference by
using a different frequency to receive and to send messages.
7.
8.
270
1. Read the vocabulary terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. In the space below,
write the name of a device that uses a cathode-ray tube.
2. Complete the list to organize the information from the section about radio transmission.
1.
2.
3.
4.
The carrier wave vibrates electrons in stations antenna and creates a radio wave.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
The sound waves travel to your ears and your brain interprets them as music
and voices.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
271
chapter
16
Energy Sources
1
section
Fossil Fuels
Locate Information
Underline every heading in the
section that asks a question.
Then, highlight the answers to
those questions as you find
them.
Read to Learn
Using Energy
Energy is used in many ways. Furnaces use thermal energy
to heat buildings and stoves use it to cook food. Air
conditioners use electrical energy to move thermal energy
outdoors. Vehicles use mechanical energy to move people and
materials.
Remember, the law of conservation of energy says that
energy cannot be created or destroyed. Energy can only
transform, or change, from one form to another. When you
use energy, you change it to another form. For example, the
chemical energy in fuel changes to thermal energy in stoves.
The thermal energy heats the food you cook.
Some energy changes are not useful. For example, about
10 percent of the electrical energy that flows through power
lines changes to thermal energy in the lines. This thermal
energy is the result of friction between the flowing electrons
and the atoms in the wire.
272
Energy Usage
Residential
20%
Industrial
37%
Sources of Energy
Applying Math
1.
Interpret a Graph
What percentage of energy
used in the United States is
used by businesses and
industries together?
Nuclear
8%
Coal
23%
Business
16%
Natural gas
23%
Transportation
27%
2.
Explain What is
necessary to change
matter into fossil fuels?
Reading Essentials
273
Applying Math
36,000
24,000
Coal
48,000
Gasoline
12,000
Wood
Natural gas
3.
Type of Fuel
274
Petroleum
5.
6.
Use Percentages
Natural Gas
Natural gas and petroleum are formed by the same chemical
processes. However, natural gas is a gas and petroleum is a liquid.
Underground, natural gas is usually found above petroleum
deposits. Natural gas is made up mostly of the hydrocarbon,
methane, CH4. It also contains other hydrocarbon gases such as
propane, C3H8 and butane, C4H10. Natural gas provides energy
for cooking, heating, and manufacturing. About one-fourth of
the energy used in the United States comes from natural gas.
Natural gas contains more energy per kilogram than petroleum
or coal. It also burns more cleanly than other fossil fuels and
produces fewer pollutants.
Coal
Coal is a solid fossil fuel. It is found in underground mines.
From 1900 to 1950, coal provided more than half of the energy
that was used in the United States. Now, almost two-thirds
of the energy used comes from petroleum and natural gas.
Only about one-fourth comes from coal. About 90 percent of
all the coal that is used in the United States is burned by power
plants to generate electricity.
Reading Essentials
275
Generator
Water
Transformer
Turbine
Intake pipe
Fuel
Power lines
Steam
Cooling
water
Picture This
7.
Generating Electricity
Burning fossil fuels produces almost 70 percent of the
electrical energy used in the United States. The chemical
energy contained in fossil fuels is converted or changed to
electrical energy in electric power stations. Follow the process
in the figure above. First, the fuel is burned and converted to
thermal energy. The thermal energy heats water and produces
steam under high pressure. Then the steam spins the blades of
a turbine. The turbine is connected to an electric generator.
The spinning turbine turns magnets inside the generator. This
produces electric current. Finally, the electric current is sent
to homes, schools, and businesses through power lines.
Applying Math
8.
When fossil fuels are burned, not all the chemical energy in
the fuel changes into electrical energy. Some of the energy is
converted into thermal energy. Efficiency is the percentage of
the total energy that is usable. You can find the overall
efficiency of a power plant by multiplying the efficiencies of
each stage of the process. In fossil fuel-burning powerplants,
the overall efficiency is only about 35 percent. Only about
35 percent of the chemical energy contained in fossil fuels is
delivered as electrical energy. The rest of the energy is
converted to thermal energy that is transferred to the
environment.
276
9.
Nonrenewable Resources
Fossil fuels are nonrenewable resources. Nonrenewable
resources are resources that cannot be replaced by natural
processes as quickly as they are used. Fossil fuel reserves are
decreasing. Reserves are the amounts of fossil fuels remaining
in the ground. At the same time, the population and industrial
needs for fuel are increasing. The graph below shows that over
the next 50 years, oil production might decrease from more
than 25 billion barrels to about 5 billion barrels per year.
Picture This
10.
30
Reading Graphs In
what year was global oil
production the highest?
25
20
15
10
5
0
1930
1950
1970
1990 2010
Year
2030
2050
277
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Explain why fossil fuels are
called nonrenewable resources.
2. Complete the graphic organizer below to organize the information you learned in this
section about fossil fuels.
Comes From
Effects of Burning
Petroleum
Coal
3. Think about what you have learned. How did underlining the questions and their answers
help you as you read the section?
End of
Section
278
Natural Gas
chapter
16
Energy Sources
2
section
Nuclear Energy
Read to Learn
Study Coach
Nuclear Reactors
A nuclear reactor uses the energy from controlled nuclear
reactions to generate electricity. Nuclear reactors can have
different designs, but they all have the same major parts.
Nuclear reactors contain a fuel that can undergo nuclear
fission. They also have control rods that can speed up or slow
down the nuclear reactions. Nuclear reactors have a cooling
system that keeps the reactor from being damaged by the heat
that is produced. The actual fission of the atoms of the fuel
happens in a small part of the reactor known as the core.
Reading Essentials
279
Applying Math
1.
Calculate Suppose
that over a period of time,
100 kg of nuclear fuel is
converted to energy in a
nuclear power plant. How
many kilograms of coal
would have to be burned
to release the same amount
of energy? Write your
answer in both numerals
and words.
Neutron
Picture This
2.
Energy
Neutron
Energy
U-235
Nucleus
Neutron
Smaller nucleus
280
Picture This
3.
Control rod
Turbine
Generator
Low-pressure steam
Boiler
Condenser
Pump
Pump
Reactor core
Pump
Cooling
water
Reading Essentials
281
5.
Draw Conclusions
What would you say is the
main risk from nuclear
power plants and nuclear
fuel?
282
4.
Nuclear Fusion
A different type of nuclear reaction, thermonuclear fusion,
is the source of the Suns energy. In fusion, two very small
nuclei collide and stick, or fuse, together to form a larger
nuclei. In the fusion reaction shown in the figure below, two
isotopes of hydrogen come together to form a helium
nucleus. This reaction makes even more energy than fission.
A small amount of mass is converted into energy. Fusion is
the most concentrated energy source known.
H-3 nucleus
He-4 nucleus
Picture This
6.
7.
Energy
H-2 nucleus
Neutron
of fusion.
Reading Essentials
283
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Tell how nuclear reactors and
nuclear waste are connected.
2. Complete the outline to help you organize what you learned about nuclear energy.
Nuclear Energy
I.
End of
Section
284
chapter
16
Energy Sources
3
section
Read to Learn
Identify Main Points
Energy Options
C Compare and
285
Applying Math
1.
Picture This
2.
Reservoir
Dam
Draw Conclusions
What moves the turbine in
hydroelectric power plants?
Generator
Turbine
286
What is hydroelectricity?
Electricity produced from the energy of moving water is
called hydroelectricity. A dam that produces hydroelectricity
is a hydroelectric dam. About 8 percent of the electrical energy
used in the United States is produced by hydroelectric power
plants. Not all of the kinetic energy of flowing water is
changed to electrical energy in a hydroelectric dam. Some of
the energy is lost to friction, and some water escapes without
moving the turbine. But, because no heat or steam is needed
to spin the turbine, hydroelectric dams are almost twice as
efficient as fossil fuels or nuclear power plants.
3.
4.
Reading Essentials
287
6.
288
Generator Turbine
Pump
Picture This
7.
Highlight Use a
highlighter to follow the
path of the water and
steam in the geothermal
power plant. Be sure to
start at the pump.
8.
Draw a Conclusion
Steam
Fractures in rock
Magma
Alternative Fuels
The use of fossil fuels could be reduced if cars used other
energy sources. Cars have been developed that use electrical
energy supplied by batteries. Hybrid cars use both electric
motors and gasoline engines. Hydrogen gas is another possible
alternative fuel. Hydrogen may one day replace gasoline as a fuel
for automobiles. Burning hydrogen instead of gasoline is better
for the enviroment. It produces only water vapor when it burns
and creates no pollution.
Reading Essentials
289
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Is hydroelectricity a
renewable resource? Why or why not?
2. Complete the chart below to summarize what you know about these alternative
energy sources.
290
Solar
Advantage:
Hydroelectricity
Advantage:
Tidal
Advantage:
Wind
Advantage:
Disadvantage:
Disadvantage:
Disadvantage:
Disadvantage:
Energy Sources
3. Complete the figure below with either the action or type of energy in each step of
producing hydroelectricity.
Action
Energy
Water rests
behind dam.
Kinetic
energy
Turbine
spins.
Electric
energy
4. You identified main points as you read this section. Would you recommend this strategy
to a friend who is reading this chapter? Why or why not?
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
291
Weather
and
Climate
17
chapter
Earths Atmosphere
Study Coach
Read to Learn
Atmospheric Composition
You probably never think about the air you breathe. Your
body uses only the oxygen in the air. But, oxygen is only one
part of air. Earths atmosphere is a mixture of gases. It consists
of about 78 percent nitrogen, 21 percent oxygen, and smaller
amounts of argon and water vapor. Trace gases make up a
very small part of the atmosphere. Trace gases include carbon
dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone.
A Summarize
Make a
two-tab Foldable like the one
shown to summarize how
Earths varied surface heats the
atmosphere.
temperature change
land
292
water
1
section
Atmospheric Structure
Earths atmosphere extends more than 1,000 km above Earths
surface as shown in the figure below. Most of the atmosphere
lies within 30 km of the surface in a region called the
troposphere. The troposphere is the layer of the atmosphere in
which most of the weather takes place. In the troposphere the
temperatures normally decrease with height.
Sometimes, the temperature increases with height. A
temperature inversion is an event that occurs near the
ground when air temperature increases with height. When
this happens, the air is very stable. The air resists the rising
motion that is needed to form clouds or to scatter pollution.
1.
Picture This
2.
Height (km)
100
75
50
25
0
120 60
600
800
Reading Essentials
293
A Varied Surface
4.
Determine What
surface materials reflect
the most solar radiation
out into space?
294
3.
5.
Picture This
6.
Cumulus
Stratus
Cirrus
Reading Essentials
295
Transpiration
Picture This
8.
Precipitation
Runoff
Groundwater
Storage
296
Evaporation
7.
1. Review the vocabulary terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Use at least one
term to write a sentence describing how heat is kept near Earths surface.
Transpiration
[COMP: pick up diagram of water cycle from page 6; retain arrows but leave out labels,
but put WOL near rainfall from cloud (precipitation), near upward arrow
(evaporation) and downward arrow (flow into groundwater storage)
Precipitation
Evaporation
PSG to Render
Groundwater
Storage
3. You highlighted key ideas and terms as you read this section. How did this help you
understand the information you read?
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
297
Weather
and
Climate
17
chapter
Weather
Study Coach
Two-Column Notes
As you read this section, write
important words and concepts
in the left column. Write details
or other information about each
word or concept next to it in the
right column.
298
Read to Learn
Atmospheric Pressure
Air has pressure. Air pressure comes from gas molecules
moving and colliding with each other and with any surfaces
they touch. Atmospheric pressure is equal to one kilogram
per square centimeter.
The number of air molecules decreases as altitude
increases, so air pressure always decreases with altitude. This
is why the air is said to be thinner in the upper atmosphere.
The number of air molecules, including oxygen, decreases as
the pressure decreases. This is why jet aircraft cabins are
pressurized and why climbers can get mountain sickness at
altitudes above 3,000 m.
2
section
1.
Picture This
2.
299
Warm air
Cold air
Warm air
Picture This
4.
Cool air
Cold air
Warm air
Cold air
Severe Weather
The continental United States experiences severe weather
because of the extreme temperatures of warm and cold air
masses and moisture available from tropical oceans. Unstable
conditions lead to severe thunderstorms, hurricanes,
tornadoes, and violent wind storms called downbursts.
300
3.
5.
6.
Reading Essentials
301
low-pressure system
westerlies: winds that blow from the west in the middle
latitudes
1. Review the vocabulary terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Use one or two
terms to describe wind patterns over the United States.
2. Complete the table below by writing a description of how each type of severe weather
occurs.
Severe Weather
Cause
thunderstorm
tornado
wind shear/downburst
3. You used two-column notes as you read this section. How did this help you understand
the information in the text?
302
End of
Section
hurricane
Weather
and
Climate
17
chapter
3
section
Climate
Read to Learn
Climate is the long-term weather conditions in an area.
Climate includes precipitation, temperature, wind, moisture,
and other factors. Climate also describes the annual variations
of these factors and their extremes.
what determines
climate
how other factors
determine climate
about the different
climate systems
how climates are
distributed around the
United States
Study Coach
Sticky-Note Discussion
As you read, use sticky-notes to
mark those passages that you
have a question about or that
you think are particularly
interesting. After you finish this
section, discuss your questions
or comments with the class.
latitude
climate
Earth
system
definition
Reading Essentials
303
1.
WINTER
SUMMER
40s
10s
[NEW ART: 830-re-04:
U.S. seasonal temperature
50s map, January
60s
and
July; SET after 2nd paragraph]
40s
20s
70s
30s
50s
60s
90s
PSG to Render
80s
90s
2.
Identify What is a
maritime climate?
304
Picture This
3.
Picture This
4.
Reading Essentials
305
80
60
40
20
80
70
Picture This
6.
60
50
40
30
306
Cold
Arid
tundra
Cold
Dry winter
boreal
evergreen forest
Warm
Arid
desert
Warm
Semi-arid
grassland
Wet winter
Dry summer
Mediterranean
forest
Wet summer
Dry winter
temperate
woodland
Warm
Wet
subtropical
deciduous forest
Warm
Wet
tropical
deciduous forest
Types of Climates
1. Review the vocabulary terms and their meanings in the Mini Glossary. Write a
sentence or two describing one type of climate and what influences it.
2. Describe at least one way that each of Earths spheres affects the global climate.
Sphere
biosphere
Copyright by Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
lithosphere
cryosphere
hydrosphere
atmosphere
3. You used sticky-notes to mark those places in the text that you found interesting
or that you had questions about. How did using sticky-notes help you understand the
information in this section?
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
307
Weather
and
Climate
17
chapter
Study Coach
Authentic Questions
You may have questions about
what you read. Write down any
questions you have about what
you read in this section.
Read to Learn
Seasonal Changes
When summer begins, the hemisphere that is tilted toward
the Sun experiences summer. In the mid-latitudes, seasonal
changes are stronger because of the temperature contrast
between the land and the sea. Oceans are generally warmer
than the land in winter, but cooler than the land in summer.
Long-term Changes
D Compare and
308
Climate
changes
Climate
changes
Cause
Effect
4
section
Picture This
&,% %
&)
&%%
3
Medieval climatic
2
Holocene
optimum
1
maximum
0
1
2
Little Ice
3
Younger- Age
4
Dryas
5
18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0
Thousands of years
1.
+%
AVjgZci^YZ
>XZH]ZZi
(%
<gZZcaVcY
>XZH]ZZi
:ahbdgZ"7V[[^c
<aVX^Zg8dbeaZm
%
%
-%%b
'%%`b
2.
Reading Essentials
309
CO2
CO2
O2
O2
C
CO2
O2
O2 CO2
Decomposition
releases carbon
Phytoplankton
O2
Photosynthesis
People
CH4
C
Deposits of shells/debris
containing carbon
Ocean
nts
ime
Sed
ine
Mar
tary Rock
Sedimen
Igne
ks
Roc
ous
CH4
Land
Agriculture - uses
CO2 and produces O2
but also a source of CH4
Livestock
(produce methane - CH4)
Magma
Picture This
4.
310
Applying Math
5.
Draw Conclusions
Applying Math
6.
325
500
Reading Essentials
311
Compare and
Contrast Describe how
El Nio and La Nia are
different.
312
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Write one sentence about
how human activity is affecting climate.
El Nio
Both
the same
La Nia
3. You wrote down authentic questions as you read this section. How did this help you
understand the information in this section?
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
313
Classification
of
Matter
18
chapter
1
section
Composition of Matter
Read to Learn
Underline Look for
Pure Substances
Have you ever seen a print that looked like a real painting?
Did you have to touch it to find out? The smooth or rough
surface told you whether it was a painting or a print. Each
material has its own properties. The properties of materials
can be used to classify them into categories.
Each material is made of a pure substance or of a mix of
substances. A substance is a type of matter that is always
made of the same material or materials. A substance can be
either an element or a compound. Some substances you
might recognize are helium, aluminum, water, and salt.
1.
314
Atoms in Elements
Picture This
2.
Mercury
Copper
Oxygen
2004
3.
Mixtures
Is pizza one of your favorite foods? Do you like soft drinks? If
so, you like two foods that are mixtures. A mixture is a material
made up of two or more substances that can be separated
physically. There are many different kinds of mixtures.
Reading Essentials
315
Colloid
Suspension
4.
316
What is a solution?
Vinegar is another homogeneous mixture. It looks clear, but
it contains particles of acetic acid mixed with water.
Homogenous mixtures, such as bottled soft drinks and
vinegar, are called solutions. A solution is a homogeneous
mixture of particles so small that they cannot be seen with a
microscope and will never settle to the bottom of their
container. Solutions stay evenly mixed. The diagram below
shows the difference between substances and mixtures.
Matter
Has mass and takes
up space
Substance
Composition definite
Compound
Two or more kinds
of atoms
Element
One kind of atom
Mixture
Composition variable
Picture This
5.
6.
Heterogeneous
Unevenly mixed
Homogeneous
Evenly mixed; a solution
Reading Essentials
317
scattering of light by
particles in a colloid?
Applying Math
8.
Comparison Which
type of mixture has the
largest particles? Explain
how you know.
318
Description
Solutions
Colloids
Suspensions
Settle upon
standing?
no
no
yes
Separate using
filter paper?
no
no
yes
Particle size
0.11 nm
1100 nm
>100 nm
Scatter light?
no
yes
yes
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. The oxygen that you breathe
is made up of tiny particles that are actually two atoms of oxygen bonded together. Would
you say that oxygen is an element or a compound? Explain.
Matter
Substance
Mixture
Wood
Compound
Heterogeneous
Granite
Element
Homogeneous
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
319
Classification
of
Matter
18
chapter
Properties of Matter
to identify substances
using physical properties
differences between
physical and
chemical changes
how to identify
chemical changes
the law of conservation
of mass
Study Coach
B Compare and
320
Physical
Properties
Chemical
Properties
Physical
Changes
Chemical
Changes
Read to Learn
Physical Properties
You can stretch a rubber band, but you cant stretch a piece
of string very much. You can bend a piece of wire, but you
cant bend a matchstick easily. The rubber band and the wire
change shape, but the substances that they are made of do not
change.
The ability to stretch or bend is a physical property. A
physical property is a feature or characteristic that describes
an object or substance. Some examples of physical properties
are color, shape, size, density, melting point, and boiling point.
2
section
1.
Picture This
2.
Sand
Iron Fillings
Physical Changes
When you break a stick of chewing gum, you change its size
and shape. You do not change the identity of the materials that
make up the gum. A physical change does not change identity.
Reading Essentials
321
3.
Cooling
water out
Condenser
Picture This
4.
Distilling
flask with
impure liquid
Cooling
water in
Pure liquid
322
What is distillation?
5.
6.
Reading Essentials
323
8.
324
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. What is the main difference
between a physical change and a chemical change?
Example:
Chemical property
Example:
Physical change
Example:
Chemical change
Example:
Separation using
physical change
Example:
Separation using
chemical change
Example:
3. Imagine explaining physical and chemical changes to a group of elementary school students.
Describe some items around your house to use as examples of physical and chemical changes.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
325
19
1
section
Study Coach
A Organize
326
Atomic
Components
Quarks
Read to Learn
Scientific Shorthand
Do you have a nickname? Do you use abbreviations for
long words or the names of states? Scientists also do this. In
fact, scientists have developed their own shorthand, a way to
shorten long, complicated names.
C, Al, Ne, and Ag are all chemical symbols for different
elements. A chemical symbol is shorthand for the name of an
element. Chemical symbols make writing names of elements
easier. Chemical symbols are either one capital letter or a
capital letter plus one or two lowercase letters. The table shows
the chemical symbols for some elements. For some elements,
the symbol is the first letter of the elements name. For example,
C is for carbon. For other elements, the symbol is the first
letter plus another letter from its name. Calcium is Ca.
Symbols of Some Elements
Element Symbol
Element Symbol
Element Symbol
Aluminum Al
Gold
Nitrogen
Calicum
Ca
Hydrogen H
Oxygen
Carbon
Iron
Fe
Potassium K
Chlorine
Cl
Mercury
Hg
Sodium
Au
Na
chapter
Atomic Components
An element is matter that is made up of one type of atom. An
atom is the smallest piece of matter that still has the properties
of the element. For example, the element silver is made up of
only silver atoms. The element hydrogen is made up of only
hydrogen atoms.
The figure below shows the structure of the atom. Atoms
are made up of protons, neutrons, and electrons. Protons are
particles with an electrical charge of 1. Neutrons are
particles with no electrical charge. Electrons are particles with
an electrical charge of 1.
The nucleus is the small, positively charged center of the
atom. It is made up of protons and neutrons. The nucleus is
surrounded by a cloud containing electrons. Atoms of different
elements differ in the number of protons they contain. Atoms of
different elements have different numbers of protons. For
example, all atoms with 47 protons are silver atoms. All atoms
with one proton are hydrogon atoms.
Quarks
Electron
cloud
Neutron
(No charge)
Identify What is
the symbol for
dihydrogen oxide?
Picture This
2.
Quarks
Nucleus
Atom
Proton
(1 charge)
Reading Essentials
327
Compare Which is
smaller, a proton or a
quark?
4.
Describe How do
scientists study the
makeup of protons?
328
5.
Explain Why do
scientists use scaled-up
models to study the atom?
Daltons Model
Negatively charged
electron
Picture This
6.
Thomsons Model
Reading Essentials
329
Rutherfords Model
Bohrs Model
Picture This
7.
Compare and
Contrast
How are Daltons model
(see figure on previous
page) and electron cloud
models of the atom similar?
How are they different?
Similar: ________________
Different: ______________
Nucleus
330
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Write a sentence naming the
parts that make up an atom.
2. Below is a model of an atom. Label and describe each part of the atom. If any particles are
made up of even smaller particles, list these also.
3. As you read this section, you created a quiz question for each paragraph. Did answering
these quiz questions after you read the section help you learn the material? Why or why not?
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
331
chapter
19
2
section
Masses of Atoms
Read to Learn
Highlight As you read the
Atomic Mass
Neutrons and protons are much more massive than electrons.
Since the nucleus contains the neutrons and protons, it contains
most of the mass of an atom. The mass of a proton is about
the same as the mass of a neutronabout 1.6726 1024 g, as
shown in the table. The mass of a proton or a neutron is about
1,836 times greater than the mass of an electron. The mass of an
electron is so small that it is not even considered when finding
the mass of an atom.
Subatomic
Particle Masses
Particle
Proton
1.6726 1024
Comparing Decimals
Neutron
1.6749 1024
Electron
9.1093 1028
Picture This
1.
Mass (g)
332
Isotope
Average
Atomic Mass
Picture This
2.
age
Mass*
amu
amu
amu
amu
amu
The
Reading Essentials
333
Isotopes
Applying Math
3.
Picture This
4.
334
Half-Life
uranium-238
lead-206
potassium-40
argon-40, calcium-40
rubidium-87
strontium-87
carbon-14
nitrogen-14
5,715 years
Picture This
5.
Boron-11
5 Electrons
5 Electrons
5 Protons
5 Neutrons
5 Protons
6 Neutrons
Nucleus
Nucleus
Applying Math
6.
Reading Essentials
335
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. How can you find the
number of protons and neutrons in an atom of an element from the atomic number
and the mass number?
2. Complete the Venn diagram by writing the given phrases in the correct area.
equals the
atomic number
Protons
Neutrons
Both
equals the
mass number
3. Tell how you could use a set of red and blue marbles to teach a friend about the atomic
number and mass number of an element.
End of
Section
336
determines
which isotope
chapter
19
3
section
Read to Learn
Study Coach
1.
Reading Essentials
337
2.
Predicted Properties
of Ekasilicon (Es)
Actual Properties
of Germanium (Ge)
Atomic mass 72
Gray metal
3.
338
Mendeleevs Predictions
Applying Math
4.
Draw Conclusions
Neon is a gas. Do you think
neon is an element in
Group 11? Explain.
Picture This
5.
Energy
Energy Levels
Reading Essentials
339
Top Row The top row has hydrogen with one electron and
helium with two electrons. Both of these electrons are in
energy level 1. Energy level 1 is the outermost level in these
elements. So, hydrogen has one outer electron and helium
has two. Recall from the figure on the previous page that
energy level 1 can hold only two electrons. Therefore,
helium has a full outer energy level.
Picture This
6.
Identify What is
hydrogens outermost
energy level?
Hydrogen
1
Helium
2
He
340
Lithium
Beryllium
Boron
Carbon
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Fluorine
Neon
3
Li
4
Be
5
B
6
C
7
N
8
O
9
F
10
Ne
Sodium
Magnesium
Aluminum
Silicon
Phosphorus
Sulfur
Chlorine
Argon
11
Na
12
Mg
13
Al
14
Si
15
P
16
S
17
Cl
18
Ar
7.
Chlorine
Na
Cl
Sodium Chloride
Na
Picture This
8.
Draw Conclusions
What happens to the one
electron in the outer
energy level of sodium
when it combines with
chlorine?
341
Nonmetal:
Metalloid:
Picture This
Apply On which side of
the periodic table would
you look for an element
that definitely will not
conduct electricity?
Metals
342
9.
Nonmetals
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Write a sentence using one of
the terms that shows that you understand the term.
2. Below is a blank periodic table of elements. On this table, label the different sections as
metals, metalloids, nonmetals, period, or group.
b.
a.
c.
d.
e.
3. Explain what is important about the rows and columns on the periodic table.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
343
Earth
Materials
20
chapter
Minerals
the characteristics of
all minerals
to identify minerals by
physical properties
some conditions of
mineral formation
uses of minerals
Study Coach
1.
Infer Three-fourths of
Earths surface is covered
by water. Water is made
of hydrogen and oxygen.
Why do you think hydrogen
is not listed as a major
element in Earths crust?
Read to Learn
Common Elements
Recall the periodic table of the elements. Of the first 92
elements, 90 are found in Earth, but only a few combine to
make Earths crust materials. The table below lists these
important elements.
344
1
section
Whats a mineral?
Atoms of different elements can join by bonding chemically
to form compounds. A mineral is a naturally occurring element
or compound that is inorganic, solid, and has a crystalline
structure. Each mineral has a set chemical composition. A
mineral may be a single element or a compound. For instance,
the element gold is a mineral with the chemical symbol Au. The
compound fluorite is a mineral that has the chemical formula
CaF2.
2.
Physical Properties
A Build Vocabulary
Reading Essentials
345
Uneven Breaks Some minerals do not split along welldefined flat surfaces. A fracture is an uneven break in a
mineral. Quartz is an example of a mineral that shows
fracture. This physical property is one way to identify quartz.
3.
1. Talc
6. K-feldspar
8. Topaz
4. Fluorite
9. Corundum
10. Diamond
4.
346
Picture This
Mineral Formation
A mineral crystal grows as atoms are added to its surfaces,
edges, or corners. The types of atoms that are added depend
on the kinds of atoms that are in the crystals surroundings.
Growth is controlled by how fast the atoms can move and by
the temperature and pressure of the surroundings. Some
minerals form by precipitating from hot, water-rich fluids.
Others form by solidifying from melted rock or when water
that is rich in dissolved salts evaporates near Earths surface.
5.
6.
Mineral Groups
About 3,800 minerals have been identified in nature. Some
minerals are so common that they are called the rock-forming
minerals. Recall that only a few elements are needed to make
up almost the entire crust of Earth. In the same way, a few
important groups of minerals make up most of Earths crust.
Reading Essentials
347
Picture This
7.
Mineral
Olivine
Photos
Silicate Structure
O
Si
Single tetrahedron
Pyroxene group
(Augite)
Single chains
Amphibole group
(Hornblende)
Double chains
Biotite
Micas
Muscovite
Sheets
Feldspars
Potassium
feldspar
Plagioclase
Quartz
Three-dimensional
networks
Explain When is a
mineral accepted as an ore?
Mineral Uses
For centuries, people have relied on minerals. Civilizations
have advanced themselves by using their mineral wealth.
Think of the exploration and conflict that took place over
gold. Europeans spent huge amounts of money and risked
many lives to search for gold.
People use minerals either as raw materials to make things
or as direct objects of wealth.
348
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Write two sentences that tell
how cleavage and fracture are similar and different.
2. Fill in the concept map with the physical properties of minerals. Add more rectangles
if needed.
Minerals
3. Review the questions you wrote as you read this section. Were you able to get answers to
your questions? How did your questions help you to understand the topics in this section?
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
349
Earth
Materials
20
chapter
Igneous Rock
Read to Learn
What is a rock?
A rock is a naturally formed, consolidated mixture
containing minerals, rock fragments, or volcanic glass. Most
rocks have crystals of minerals that may or may not be well
formed. The composition and texture of rocks are used to
identify them. Texture is a description that includes the size
and arrangement of the rocks components. The rock-making
process is a continuous cycle. Part of this cycle involves the
rock formed by magma inside Earth.
Make a
three-tab Foldable to record
information about igneous
rocks.
Igneous
350
2
section
Potassium feldspar
+
Muscovite mica
+
Quartz
Pla
gio
cla
se f
Con
eld
spa
of c tinuo
r
rys us s
tall eri
iza es
tion
a
e mic
Biotit
Cooling magma
Calcium-rich
ibole
Amph
Peridotite
ene
eries
Pyrox
ous s n
ntinu
Disco ystallizatio
of cr
Low temperature
(last to crystallize)
Resulting
Intrusive Rock
Picture This
1.
e
Olivin
High temperature
(first to crystallize)
Gabbro
Diorite
Sodium-rich
Granite
Reading Essentials
351
Picture This
3.
Name
Relative density
Granite
Low density
Large
Diorite
Medium density
Coarse
Gabbro
High density
Large
Peridotite
Highest density
Large
4.
352
Picture This
Name
Relative density
Rhyolite
Low density
Fine
Andesite
Medium density
Fine
Basalt
High density
Fine
5.
Summarize What
property do gabbro and
basalt share?
6.
Reading Essentials
353
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Explain the similarities and
differences between extrusive and intrusive igneous rocks.
Granite
No
Diorite
Medium
Gabbro
High
Peridotite
Highest
Rhyolite
Low
Andesite
Basalt
Extrusive Igneous?
Intrusive Igneous?
Yes
No
Yes
No
High
3. You highlighted the main idea of each paragraph as you read this section. How did that
help you remember important information about igneous rocks?
End of
Section
354
Name of Rock
Earth
Materials
20
chapter
3
section
Sedimentary Rocks
Read to Learn
Rocks From Surface Minerals
Recall that rock is a mixture of minerals. Some of the
minerals could be in bits and pieces of other rocks. Clasts are
small bits and pieces of other rocks in one rock.
Study Coach
Create a Quiz
As you read this section, try to
imagine the kinds of questions
the teacher might ask on a test.
Write those questions as you
think of them and look for the
answers as you read.
Sedimentary
Reading Essentials
355
Picture This
1.
Feldspar
Quartz
After deposition
Pore
space
Compaction
Cementation
2.
Determine How do
geologists use particle
size when studying rock
formation?
356
Clast Size
Rock Name
Gravel or larger
Conglomerate
Sand
Sandstone
Silt
Siltstone
Clay
Shale
3.
4.
357
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Explain the relationship
between clasts and porosity.
2. Organize the following terms in the concept map about sedimentary rock: clasts,
deposition, cementation, compaction.
Sedimentary Rock
3. Think about the questions you created. How did writing these questions help you
understand and remember the information in this section? Would you recommend this
method of studying to others?
End of
Section
358
forms from
Earth
Materials
20
chapter
4
section
Read to Learn
Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphic rocks are rocks that have been changed by
some combination of heat, pressure, and chemical activity. As
these forces act on existing rock, the rocks atoms rearrange
and sometimes form new minerals. The word metamorphic
comes from two stems meta, which means to change, and
morph which means form. Any igneous, sedimentary, or
metamorphic rock can be changed by the process of
metamorphism.
Metamorphic rocks form in conditions that are between
those of igneous and sedimentary rocks. Sedimentary rocks are
formed from sediments at lower temperatures and pressures
than metamorphic rocks. On the other hand, igneous rocks
form at higher temperatures than metamorphic rocks. When
they form, igneous rocks first melt and then become solid.
Metamorphic changes occur while rock remains solid.
the physical
conditions that cause
metamorphism
where metamorphism
occurs
how metamorphic
rocks are classified
Sedimentary
Metamorphic
Reading Essentials
359
360
2.
3.
Reading Essentials
361
4.
Sediment
Sedimentary Rock
Compaction and
cementation
Uplift,
erosion,
and
deposition
5.
Lava
Cooling and
solidification
Heat and
pressure
Heat and
pressure
Magma
Melting
Metamorphic Rock
362
Picture This
bands
1. Review the terms and definitions in the Mini Glossary. Write a sentence or two that
explains the importance of the rock cycle.
sedimentary
metamorphic
3. In this section, you identified the main idea from each paragraph. How did this help you
understand the text? Explain which method was most helpful to you.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
363
Earths
Changing
Surface
21
chapter
how weathering
recycles Earths
materials
about mechanical and
chemical weathering
how different factors
affect soil formation
ways to control soil loss
A Organize
Chemical
Weathering
364
Read to Learn
Weathering
In nature, matter is recycled. You learn about many
different cycles in nature involving living things and
different forms of matter. These cycles are all connected. To
understand nature, it is important to learn about the
processes that connect these cycles. Weathering is an example
of physical and chemical processes that involve the interaction
of air, water, and rock over time.
Natural materials become unstable and break down when
they are exposed to conditions on Earths surface. Weathering
is the process of physical or chemical breakdown of a material at
or near Earths surface. Factors that influence weathering
include agents, such as water or air, the type of material being
weathered, climate, and time. Weathering varies from region to
region because of different weathering conditions.
1
section
Mechanical Weathering
You can think of mechanical weathering as turning big pieces
into little pieces. A force must be applied to the material for
this to take place. The force can come from impact, from
expansion or contraction of materials, or from living things.
The effect of these forces depends on the kind of material
being weathered, climate, and time. You may be unaware that
weathering is occurring because the changes occur slowly.
Over time, many small changes can result in large changes.
1.
0.5
Picture This
2.
4 square
units
0.5
1 square
unit
Reading Essentials
365
Chemical Weathering
3.
Explain Why is
chemical weathering
necessary for soil?
4.
366
Soil
Soil is a mixture of weathered rock, organic matter, water,
and air that is capable of supporting plant life. Soil is
somewhat like human skin. It has many layers and is only a
thin covering on the surface. Material for soil can come from
bedrock beneath it or the from materials transported from
another place. The raw materials for soil continuously form
from weathered bedrock below and organic material from
above.
5.
E-eluviation layer
B-subsoil
C-crumbled bedrock
Picture This
6.
R-bedrock
Reading Essentials
367
7.
Soil Conservation
368
Most soil erosion occurs because the plants that covered the
soil have been removed or because the land is steep. Modern
farmers use contour plowing to reduce erosion. In contour
plowing, furrows go around the hill, not up and down the
slope. Crops may be planted on ridges and rainfall allowed to
collect in basins. Slowing the downhill flow of water helps
reduce erosion.
1. Review the terms in the Mini Glossary above. Explain the connection between soil and
weathering.
2. Use information in this section to complete this web of factors that contribute to soil
formation.
Chemical weathering
3. How did the information you highlighted help you learn about soil formation? Was this a
useful method to help you learn?
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
369
Earths
Changing
Surface
21
chapter
2
section
Have you ever seen a landform that was shaped by the action
of wind or water? Describe the shape of the land, and tell how
you think it formed.
Read to Learn
Identify As you read this
B Build Vocabulary
Sedim
ring
e
Weath
Soil
Erosio
on
Depositi
Transport
370
Running Water
Running water is an important agent for erosion. In steep
areas, water cuts deep into the sediment and rock. This
creates V-shaped valleys. Look at the figure below to see how
a river changes when the slope is less steep.
When the slope is not as steep, the water runs more slowly.
It exerts a sideways force that makes the river valley wider.
Floodplains form around the wide river. Eventually, a river
reaches the body of water or land surface that the river flows
into. This is the mouth of the river. Near the mouth, the river
may wind back and forth or meander.
Tributaries
Picture This
Mouth
1.
2.
Define What is a
drainage basin?
Reading Essentials
371
3.
372
Glaciers
Picture This
Horn
Horn
Artes
Cirque
Artes
Cirque
4.
Trunk glacier
Tributary glaciers
5.
Define What is a
moraine?
Wind
Wind is not the most important agent of erosion in the
deserts. The running water that comes during occasional flash
floods erodes more of the land than the wind. Wind cannot
carry large sediments like water and ice can. Wind acts as a
sandblaster. Wind blows lighter sediments around and polishes landforms. In places with bare ground, wind can be an
important agent of erosion.
Reading Essentials
373
Wave Action
Waves can have a great deal of force when they strike land.
One cubic meter of water has a large mass. The force of
breaking waves is great and provides the energy to change
surface features.
Picture This
7.
Sediment
transport
374
Longshore
current
8.
Mass Wasting
Mass wasting is erosion caused mainly by gravity. Water,
earthquakes, or human activity can trigger the process. Mass
wasting can occur on slopes that are very steep or have little
vegetation. It starts when support at the base of a slope is
removed and the material above moves downhill.
9.
Reading Essentials
375
drainage basin: all the land that gathers water for a major
river
1. Review the vocabulary terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary above. Describe in
your own words how running water is an agent of erosion and sediment transport.
2. Complete the chart below to organize information about different forces that shape the
landscape.
How it
erodes
Wind
How it deposits
sediment
Landforms
it creates
Pick up small
sediments
Waves
Glaciers
Sandbars
Ice cuts into river
valleys or material
outward
Mass
waste
mudflow
3. As you read this section, you circled the names of all the different landforms you read
about. Did this help you to understand the process of land shaping? Why or why not.
376
End of
Section
Water
Earths
Changing
Surface
21
chapter
3
section
Groundwater
why groundwater is
important
how groundwater is
stored and obtained
some concerns about
groundwater use
Read to Learn
The Water Cycle
Picture This
1.
Reading Essentials
377
C Organize
Groundwater
Picture This
2.
378
3.
Compare an acquifer to
an aquitard.
Water Resources
Life depends on the availability of fresh water. Because of this,
supplies are monitored and attempts are made to preserve water
resources. People have a responsibility to protect freshwater, no
matter what is its source.
4.
379
5.
Pollution
Well
Wate
r tab
le
380
Picture This
1. Review the vocabulary terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary above. On the
lines below, write an explanation of the water table that someone could understand
without reading this section.
2. Complete the table below to compare and contrast aquifers and aquitards.
Aquifer
Aquitard
1.
1.
2.
2.
3. As you read this section, you underlined the answers to questions in the text. How did this
help you to understand or learn what you were reading?
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
381
Earths
Changing
Surface
21
chapter
Geologic Time
Before You Read
Read to Learn
Study Coach
1.
382
Time
You probably think of time in terms of hours, days, and
years. These units of time were established a long time ago.
People created these units by observing the relationships
between Earth and the Sun, as well as other astronomical
events.
4
section
What is uniformitarianism?
Uniformitarianism an idea which states that the laws of
nature operate today as they have in the past. The idea of
uniformitarianism allows scientists to use what they know
about rocks and nature today to understand events from the
past. Another way of stating the idea of uniformitarianism is
the present is the key to the past.
2.
H
G
Picture This
3.
C
A
Intrusion B
Fault D
383
Fossils
Fossils are the remains or traces of organisms found in the
geologic rock record. They can be direct remains, like an actual
bone or shell. They can be casts that formed from molds
when part of an organism filled with sediments that changed
into rock. A fossil can even be a trace like a footprint.
384
4.
E ra
Eon
E ra
M illions o f
y ears ag o
Cenozoic
65
Phanerozoic
Pe rio d
E po c h
Quaternary
Cenozoic
Age of
mammals
Tertiary
Mesozoic
248
Holocene
Pleistocene
Pliocene
Miocene
Oligocene
Eocene
Paleocene
Paleozoic
540
Late
144
Jurassic
206
Middle
Triassic
1600
Early
248
Permian
Age of
Amphibians
2500
290
Pennsylvanian
323
Mississippian
354
Late
Archean
Precambrian
0.01
1.8
5.3
23.8
33.7
54.8
65.0
Cretaceous
Mesozoic
Age of
reptiles
Carboniferous
Proterozoic
900
M illions o f
y ears ag o
3000
Middle
Paleozoic
Age of
fishes
Devonian
417
Silurian
443
3400
Ordovician
Early
Hadean
3800
Age of
Invertebrates
490
Cambrian
540
4500
Precambrian
Absolute Dating
The geologic time scale above shows that the Mesozoic Era
began 248 million years ago and ended 66 million years ago.
How can scientists know those exact dates? Geologists find
absolute ages of fossils by analyzing radioactive isotopes in
rocks. They measure how much the radioactive isotopes have
decayed, then find the age of the rocks.
Picture This
6.
Interpret Scientific
Illustrations Which
type of organism appeared
most recently?
a. fishes
b. mammals
c. amphibians
d. reptiles
Around how many years
ago did they appear?
385
Geologic Maps
Geologic maps show two-dimensional models of Earths
crust. Geologic maps can also show folds in the crust. These
folds come from pressure inside Earth, and they can make
horizontal rock layers appear in different ways.
7.
Compare and
Contrast What is the
difference between a basin
and a dome?
E
D
C
B
A
E
C
B
A
Undeformed
strata
Strata
Youngest exposed rocks
D
Dome
C
F
D
B
A
Picture This
8.
Basin
386
Oldest exposed
rocks
F
E
D
C
B
A
1. Review the vocabulary terms and definitions in the Mini Glossary above. Explain the
difference between absolute dating and relative dating.
2. Look at the rock layers below. Figure out the steps that had to happen to form these layers.
Put the following events in order by writing the numbers 1 through 5 in the blanks.
layer D forms from shale
3. After reading this section on geologic time, why do you think you have to learn about this
topic? Why is it important to know about the age of rocks and fossils, and about Earth's
history?
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
387
chapter
22
Chemical Bonds
1
section
Stability in Bonding
about elements in a
compound
chemical formulas
how electric forces help
form compounds
why a chemical bond
forms
Study Coach
Read to Learn
Combined Elements
Have you ever noticed that the Statue of Liberty is green?
Was it painted green? Is it made of green stone? Actually, the
Statue of Liberty is made of the metal copper. Copper is an
element. Pennies are also made of copper. If copper usually has
a shiny, metallic color, then why is the Statue of Liberty green?
Formulas
Atomic
Stability
388
Formulas
The formula for sodium chloride is NaCl. Na is the
chemical symbol for the element sodium. Cl is the chemical
symbol for the element chlorine. Written together, they make
up the formula for sodium chloride. A chemical formula tells
what elements are in a compound and how many atoms of
each element are in one unit of the compound.
1.
Picture This
2.
Atomic Stability
Recall that protons have a positive charge and electrons
have a negative charge. These opposite electric forces attract
each other. They are the forces that hold atoms and molecules
together. The kinds of electric forces that hold atoms together
also bring atoms together to form compounds.
Reading Essentials
389
13
14
15
16
17
18
Li
Be
Ne
Na
Mg
Al
Si
Cl
Ar
Picture This
3.
Interpret Scientific
Illustrations How many
electrons are in the outer
energy level of an atom
of carbon?
390
He
4.
5.
Ne
Ar
Kr
Xe
Rn
Picture This
gases stable?
Hydrogen and helium are the only elements in the first row,
or period, of the periodic table. Both hydrogen and helium
need only two outer electrons to be stable. Helium has two
electrons in its outer energy level and is stable. But hydrogen
has only one electron. Its outer level is not full. Therefore,
hydrogen is more stable when it is part of a compound.
Look at the periodic table again. You can see that none of
the elements in Group 13 through Group 17 have full outer
energy levels. These elements are more stable when they
form compounds.
391
Picture This
6.
Na
Cl
Na
Cl
Sodium
Chlorine
7.
392
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Find one chemical
formula you learned about in this section and explain the parts of the formula.
2. Complete the concept web to organize the information from this section.
Atoms
become more
stable by:
3. As you read this section, you made flash cards of the elements mentioned in the text.
Do you think that making flashcards would be a good way to learn the symbols of all
the elements in the periodic table? Why or why not?
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
393
chapter
22
Chemical Bonds
2
section
Types of Bonds
Read to Learn
Locate Information
1.
394
Potassium
Iodine
Potassium iodide
Picture This
2.
395
Ionic Compounds
B Build Vocabulary
Covalent
Bonds
Polar
Bonds
Nonpolar
Bonds
Picture This
3.
Think Critically
Explain why magnesium
chloride cannot be made
from one atom of
magnesium and one atom
of chlorine.
396
Cl
Cl
2 chlorine atoms
Cl
Mg2
Cl
Magnesium chloride
4.
Sharing Electrons
Some atoms of nonmetal elements become more stable when
they share electrons. Look at the elements in Group 14 of the
periodic table. These elements have four electrons in their outer
levels. They would have to gain or lose four electrons to have a
stable outer energy level. It takes a lot of energy for an atom to
lose or gain that many electrons. Each time an ion loses an
electron, the nucleus holds the remaining electrons even more
tightly. Once one electron is removed, it takes more energy to
remove a second electron. It takes even more energy to remove
a third, and so on. For elements in Group 14, it is much easier
for them to become stable by sharing electrons.
Atoms that share electrons form a covalent bond. A
covalent bond is the force of attraction between two atoms
that share electrons. A molecule is the neutral particle that
forms when atoms share electrons.
HO
H
Recall that ionic bonds help atoms become more stable by
filling their outer energy levels. Covalent bonds also help atoms
fill their outer energy levels and become more stable.
Picture This
5.
Reading Essentials
397
Picture This
6.
N N
398
Picture This
7.
Cl
8.
Reading Essentials
399
H2O
Water
O
Properties of Compounds
400
Picture This
Covalent Compounds
Ionic Compounds
Electron Sharing
Electron Transfer
Lower
Higher
Electrical
Conductivity
Poor
Good
State at Room
Temperature
Solid, liquid, or
gas
Solid
Forces Between
Particles
Strong attraction
between positive and
negative ions
Bond Type
Picture This
12.
Reading Essentials
401
compound
share electrons
1. Review the terms and definitions in the Mini Glossary. Choose two terms that are related
and write a sentence that uses those two terms.
2. Complete the outline to help you organize what you learned about chemical bonds.
Types of Bonds
I.
compound
End of
Section
402
B. Electrons are
chapter
22
Chemical Bonds
3
section
Read to Learn
how to determine
oxidation numbers
how to write formulas
and names for ionic
compounds
how to write formulas
and names for covalent
compounds
Study Coach
C Build Vocabulary
Ionic
Compounds:
Reading Essentials
403
1
Hydrogen
Helium
1
H
2
3
4
3
2
1
2
He
Lithium
Beryllium
Boron
Carbon
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Fluorine
Neon
3
Li
4
Be
5
B
6
C
7
N
8
O
9
F
10
Ne
Aluminum
Silicon
Phosphorus
Sulfur
Chlorine
Argon
13
Al
14
Si
15
P
16
S
17
Cl
18
Ar
11
Na
12
Mg
Potassium
Calcium
19
K
20
Ca
Rubidium Strontium
Gallium Germanium
Arsenic
Selenium
Bromine
Krypton
31
Ga
32
Ge
33
As
34
Se
35
Br
36
Kr
Indium
Tin
Antimony
Tellurium
Iodine
Xenon
37
Rb
38
Sr
49
In
50
Sn
51
Sb
52
Te
53
I
54
Xe
Cesium
Barium
Thallium
Lead
Bismuth
Polonium
Astatine
Radon
55
Cs
56
Ba
81
Tl
82
Pb
83
Bi
84
Po
85
At
86
Rn
Francium
Radium
87
Fr
88
Ra
Picture This
1.
Picture This
2.
404
Name
Oxidation
Number
Copper (I)
1+
Copper (II)
2+
Iron (II)
2+
Iron (III)
3+
Sodium Magnesium
3.
Applying Math
4.
405
5.
Now try these rules to write the formula for lithium nitride.
Lithium and nitrogen are the two atoms that make this
compound. Look at the periodic table. Lithium is in Group 1,
so it forms ions with a 1 charge. Write the symbol for
lithium, Li, first.
Find the oxidation number of nitrogen. Nitrogen is in
Group 15. It forms ions with a charge of 3. You now can
write LiN. Can you stop now? Look at the charges of the two
ions. Do 1 and 3 balance? No, you cannot stop yet.
Use the number of the charge of a nitrogen ion as the
subscript for Li. Use the number of the charge of a lithium
ion as the subscript for N. That gives Li3N. When an element
has no subscript, it means only one ion is in the compound.
Do 3(1) and 3 balance? Yes, this is the correct formula.
406
When you know the formula, you can write the name of a
binary ionic compound by following these rules.
1. Write the name of the positive ion.
2. Look to see if the positive ion is listed in the Special Ions
table. If it is not in the table, go right to Step 3. If it is, the
ion can have more than one oxidation number. To find
the correct oxidation number, look at the formula of the
compound. The charge of the compound is always zero.
The negative ion can only have one possible charge. From
the table, pick the charge of the positive ion that balances
the negative charge. Write that positive ions symbol along
with the correct roman numeral in parentheses.
3. Write the root name of the negative ion. The root is the first
part of the elements name. For example, the root name of
chlorine is chlor-. The root name of oxygen is ox-.
4. Add the ending -ide to the root name. For example,
write oxide.
Do not use subscripts in the name of an ionic compound.
Subscripts can be used in the formula to figure out the charge
on a metal ion with more than one positive charge.
7.
Element
-ide
Name
Oxygen
Oxide
Phosphorus
Phosphide
Nitrogen
Nitride
Sulfur
Sulfide
8.
Reading Essentials
407
Polyatomic Ions
Picture This
9.
Charge
Name
Formula
1
ammonium
NH4
1
acetate
chlorate
hydroxide
nitrate
C2H3O2
CIO3
OH
NO3
2
carbonate
sulfate
CO32
SO42
3
phosphate
PO43
Applying Math
10.
408
11.
Reading Essentials
409
13.
410
Prefixes for
Covalent Compounds
Number
of Atoms
Prefix
mono-
di-
tri-
tetra-
penta-
hexa-
hepta-
octa-
Picture This
Drop the last vowel of the prefix when the second element
of the compound begins with a vowel. In pentoxide, the a is
dropped from penta-.
There is a prefix to use when a compound has only one
atom of an element. The prefix is mono-. Many times monois not used. Instead, it is understood that if no prefix is used,
there is only one atom of that element in a compound. In
some cases, mono- is used for emphasis. Carbon monoxide is
one example.
1. Review the terms and definitions in the Mini Glossary. Write a sentence that explains in
your own words what a polyatomic ion is.
2. Complete the flow chart with the steps used in writing the name of a binary ionic
compound.
To write the name of a binary ionic compound
1.
2.
3.
4.
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
411
Chemical Reactions
23
Chemical Changes
1
section
Study Coach
Read to Learn
Describing Chemical Reactions
Dark, mysterious mixtures react. Gases bubble up and
expand out of liquids. Powerful aromas move through the
air. You are in your kitchen baking a chocolate cake. Many
chemical reactions happen in the kitchen.
Chemical reactions take place all around you. They even
happen inside your body. A chemical reaction is a change
in which one or more substances are converted into new
substances. A reactant is one of the substances that react.
A product is one of the new substances that are produced.
Wha
t?
412
n?
Whe
re?
Whe
chapter
Conservation of Mass
By the 1770s, scientists were beginning to study chemical
reactions more carefully. The French chemist Antoine
Lavoisier discovered an important rule, that the total mass of
the products of a chemical reaction always equals the mass of
the reactants. This principle is called the conservation of mass.
The figures below show an experiment Lavoisier performed.
The mass of the candle and the air in the jar (the reactants)
before burning is the same as the mass of the gases and the
candle (the products) after burning.
Burning a candle inside a closed glass container stopped
any of the reactants or products from escaping. By using a
sealed container for his experiment, Lavoisier could accurately
measure the masses of both the reactants and the products.
Before
burning
After
burning
Picture This
1.
2.
Draw Conclusions
Imagine that chemists did
not use the same rules to
name compounds. How
might this cause problems
for a chemist who tried to
repeat an experiment done
by the first chemist?
Reading Essentials
413
Picture This
3.
Compare Name
something in Lavoisiers
laboratory that you could
find in a present-day
laboratory.
oxygen
0.7 g
plus
mercury
9.3 g
4.
Writing Equations
It is important to include all the information when you
describe a chemical reaction. You need to know the reactants,
what was done with them, the reaction itself, and the
products. The full description of a reaction can be quite long
and complex. It may not explain the reaction clearly.
414
mercury(II) oxide
10.0 g
Picture This
5.
Summarize What
does the symbol (g) placed
next to a compound in a
chemical equation mean?
6.
Unit Managers
Look again at the chemical equation on the previous page.
What do the numbers to the left of NaOH and NaCl mean?
Remember the law of conservation of mass? Matter is not
made or lost in a chemical reaction. Atoms are rearranged,
but they are never created or destroyed. The numbers in the
equation are called coefficients. A coefficient shows the
number of units of a substance taking part in a reaction. You
can think of coefficients as unit managers.
Reading Essentials
415
7.
Picture This
8.
Na
Cl
Ni2
Cl
NiCl2
OH
OH
2NaOH
Na
Cl
Na
Cl
Ni2
Na
OH
OH
Ni(OH)2
2NaCl
416
You can see that one unit of NiCl2 and two units of NaOH
produce one unit of Ni(OH)2 and two units of NaCl. The
figure below shows you how the coefficients affect the
number of molecules in the reaction.
reaction
reactant: a substance that reacts in a chemical reaction
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Write a sentence describing a
chemical equation.
2. Complete the concept web by writing three ways that Antoine Lavoisier helped make
chemistry a modern science.
Lavoisiers
Contributions to
Chemistry
3. You created a quiz with questions about important topics from the section. Which
question was the hardest for you to answer? Why do you think this was?
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
417
Chemical Reactions
chapter
23
2
section
Chemical Equations
what a balanced
chemical equation is
how to write a balanced
chemical equation
Read to Learn
Study Coach
Balanced Equations
The equation below is for Lavoisiers mercury(II) oxide
reaction.
heat
B Organize Information
418
2nd
step
3rd
step
4th
step
Atoms
HgO
Hg
Hg
O2
1
2
2HgO
Hg
Hg
O2
1.
1
2
2HgO
Hg
2Hg
O2
2
2
419
Applying Math
2.
Mg
Mg
O2
MgO
1
Applying Math
3.
Fe
Fe
Cl
Cl2
FeCl3
1
a.
b.
(a.)
c.
420
Atoms
1. Review the term and its definition in the Mini Glossary. Use the term in a sentence that
shows you understand what it means.
2. Complete the flow chart with the steps to balance a chemical equation.
3. You made an outline of the section as you read it. How did this strategy help you learn the
material in the section?
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
421
Chemical Reactions
chapter
23
3
section
Read to Learn
read this section, highlight the
headings that are questions in
one color. Then highlight the
answers to those questions in
another color.
Types of Reactions
You may have noticed there are all sorts of chemical
reactions. Millions of chemical reactions occur every day.
Scientists organize, or classify, reactions into five types
combustion, synthesis, decomposition, single displacement,
and double displacement. Organizing reactions in this way
helps scientists use the knowledge they gain, just as classifying
books in the library helps you use the books.
busti
Com
is
Synthes
position
Decom
Single
ent
isplacem
Double
ent
Displacem
422
1.
Picture This
2.
Interpret Illustrations
Look at the coefficients
of the products in the
equation. Which test tube
has hydrogen in it, the left
one or the right one? How
do you know this?
Battery
Beaker
423
Picture This
3.
Lithium
Potassium
Calcium
Sodium
Aluminum
Zinc
Iron
Tin
Lead
(Hydrogen)
Copper
Silver
Gold
MOST ACTIVE
LEAST ACTIVE
4.
424
5.
Draw Conclusions
Chlorine has seven electrons
in its outer energy level. In
reactions, chlorine usually
gains an electron. In a
redox reaction, would
chlorine be oxidized or
reduced? Explain.
Picture This
6.
Reading Essentials
425
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Choose two terms that are
related and write a sentence using both of them.
2. Write the letter of the description in Column 2 that matches the reaction in Column 1.
Column 2
1. decomposition reaction
a. A + B AB
2. single-displacement reaction
b. AB + CD AD + CB
3. synthesis reaction
c. burning
4. combustion reaction
d. A + BC AC + B
5. double-displacement reaction
e. AB A + B
3. How did highlighting the questions and answers in different colors help you learn the
material in this section?
End of
Section
426
Column 1
chapter
23
Chemical Reactions
4
section
Read to Learn
onic
Exerg on
ti
Reac
Both
Endergonic
Reaction
Reading Essentials
427
Activation Energy
1.
Endergonic Reactions
Compare and
Contrast What is the
difference between an
endergonic reaction and an
endothermic reaction?
428
Exergonic Reactions
An exergonic (ek sur GAH nihk) reaction releases energy. In
an exergonic reaction, less energy is needed to break the bonds
in the reactants than is released when new bonds form in the
products. Exergonic reactions give off energy, such as light or
heat. An exergonic reaction produces visible light in a glow stick.
3.
Explain What do
burning wood and rusting
iron have in common?
Picture This
4.
429
E Compare and
Inhibitors
Define What is an
inhibitor?
430
start a reaction
catalyst: a substance that speeds up a chemical reaction
without being permanently changed itself
endothermic reaction: a reaction that absorbs energy,
usually as heat
usually as heat
inhibitor: a substance that slows down a chemical reaction
rate of reaction: the rate at which reactants are changed
into products
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Write a sentence giving an
example of the type of reaction that can cause its container to get cold or even freeze water.
2. Complete the table. The first row gives examples of different kinds of reactions. Name the
type of reaction for each example. Then describe the reaction.
Example of
Reaction
Glow Stick
Type of reaction
Description of
the reaction
Dynamite
Exploding
Exergonic
reaction
Electroplating
Metals
Cold Pack
Endergonic
reaction
Release energy
in the form
of heat
3. What idea was the hardest for you to understand in this section? How would you explain
that idea to a friend?
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
431
chapter
24
1
section
Read to Learn
Locate Information As
What is a solution?
Many people like to watch hummingbirds and put up
feeder bottles in their yards. They fill the feeders with a red
liquid made of water, sugar, and red food coloring. The
colored liquid attracts hummingbirds. To make this food, you
add sugar to water and stir. When you stir, the sugar crystals
disappear. Next, you add a few drops of red food coloring
and stir again. The red color spreads evenly. Why does this
happen?
The mix of sugar and red dye in water is a solution. A
solution is a mixture that has the same composition, color,
density, and taste spread evenly throughout it. You cannot
see the sugar crystals in the solution because they have broken
up into molecules. The food coloring also breaks up into
molecules. The sugar molecules and the food coloring
molecules mix evenly among the water molecules in the
solution, as the figure shows.
Dissolving:
432
1.
Identify What is a
solvent?
Picture This
2.
Reading Essentials
433
Picture This
4.
434
3.
5.
Rate of Dissolving
Sometimes a solute dissolves quickly into a solvent. At
other times, it dissolves more slowly. Stirring or heating a
solution makes a solute dissolve faster. If the solute is a solid,
you can break it into smaller pieces.
Stirring Stirring a solution speeds up the dissolving process
by making the solvent and solute particles move faster. More
solvent particles come into contact with more solute
particles. The solid solute dissolves more quickly.
6.
435
1. Review the terms and definitions in the Mini Glossary. Select two terms and write
definitions of the terms in your own words.
2. Complete the outline to help you organize what you learned about solutions.
Solutions
I.
Solutions
A. A solution is
B. An example of a solution made with a liquid and a solid is
C. An example of a solution made with a liquid and a gas is
D. An example of a solution made with two solids is
Copyright by Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
436
End of
Section
chapter
24
2
section
what solubility is
about the concentration
of solutions
three types of solutions
factors that affect
solubility of gases
Read to Learn
Check for Understanding
Concentration
Suppose you and a friend are making lemonade. You add
one teaspoon of lemon juice to a glass of water. Your friend
adds four teaspoons of lemon juice to the same amount of
water. Your friends is more concentrated because it has more
solute dissolved in the solvent. Your lemonade is more
dilute because it has less solute dissolved in the solvent. The
concentration is a measure of how much solute is in a
solution compared to how much solvent there is.
Saturated
Unsaturated
Supersaturated
Reading Essentials
437
Types of Solutions
Identify Which of the
following does not describe
a solution according to the
amount of solute
dissolved?
a.
b.
c.
d.
saturated
soluble
unsaturated
supersaturated
Applying Math
2.
438
Compound
0C
20C
100C
Copper(II) sulfate
23.1
32.0
114
Potassium bromide
53.6
65.3
104
Potassium chloride
28.0
34.0
Potassium nitrate
13.9
31.6
245
Sodium chlorate
79.6
95.9
204
Sodium chloride
35.7
35.9
39.2
Sucrose (sugar)
179.2
203.9
487.2
56.3
1.
Potassium
nitrate
(KNO3)
200
160
120
80
40
0
Sodium
chlorate
(NaClO3)
Applying Math
3.
4.
Potassium
bromide
(KBr)
Sodium chloride
(NaCl)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Temperature (C)
Reading Essentials
439
Explain Compared to a
saturated solution, the
supersaturated solution
contains what amount of
solvent? Circle the correct
answer.
a.
b.
c.
d.
the same
less
more
does not matter
Solubility of Gases
6.
Draw Conclusions
How could you make the
bubbles come out of
solution before you drink
a soda?
440
5.
1. Review the terms and definitions in the Mini Glossary. Write a sentence using one of the
terms that describes a type of solution.
2. Complete the table below to help you organize the information you learned about solubility and types of solutions.
Type of Solution
How is it made?
Does it depend
on temperature?
Does it depend on
the amount of solute?
Saturated
Unsaturated
Supersaturated
3. As you read this section, you highlighted the sentences that you read more than once. How
could you use this strategy if you were studying with a friend?
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
441
chapter
24
3
section
Read to Learn
Underline As you read,
underline any words or
sentences you think might be
important to remember. When
you finish reading, look back at
what you underlined to make
sure you understand it.
Acids
What do you think about when you hear the word acid? Do
you think of a substance that can burn your skin or put a hole
in metal? Many sour foods contain acids. Some acids are
dangerous, others are safe, and some are good to eat.
Bases
442
Properties
Common
Examples
Name, Formula
Use
Other Information
Food preservation
and preparation
Acetylsalicylic acid,
HOOCC6H4OOCCH3
Known as aspirin
Antioxidant, vitamin
Called vitamin C
Carbonated drinks
To make fertilizers
To make detergents,
fertilizers and soft drinks
Picture This
1.
2.
Bases
Bases can be defined in two ways. A base is any substance
that forms hydroxide ions, OH, in a water solution. A base is
also any substance that accepts H+ ions from acids.
Unlike acids, not many foods are bases. Egg whites and
baking powder are two foods that are basic. Some medicines,
such as antacids, are basic. A common base is soap. A
characteristic of bases is that they feel slippery, like soapy
water. Many cleaning products contain bases. Bases are
important in industry, also. For example, sodium hydroxide is
a base that is used in the paper industry. It separates cellulose
fibers from wood pulp. Then the cellulose fibers are used to
make paper.
Reading Essentials
443
Picture This
Identify Look at the
Name, Formula
Use
Other Information
Aluminum
hydroxide,
Al(OH)3
Color-fast fabrics,
antacid, water
purification
Laxative, antacid
Magnesium
hydroxide, Mg(OH)2
444
3.
Picture This
H3O
Cl
Cl
6.
Determine Why is
5.
Cl
Na
H
O
NaOH
Na
O
H2O
Na
H
OH
H
O
O
H2O
Neutralization
Neutralization is a chemical reaction between an acid and a
base that happens in a water solution. The products of the
reaction are not acids or bases. One of the products is always
water. For instance, the base sodium hydroxide, NaOH,
neutralizes hydrochloric acid, HCl. Hydronium ions from the
acid combine with hydroxide ions from the base. The product
is neutral water.
H3O+(aq) OH 2H2O(l )
Antacids are popular medicines. They contain bases or
other compounds that neutralize the acids in your stomach.
One of these popular antacids is sodium bicarbonate,
NaHCO3.
Reading Essentials
445
Name, Formula
Picture This
7.
Uses
Salt
Food, manufacture
of chemicals
Sodium hydrogen
carbonate, NaHCO3
Sodium bicarbonate
Baking soda
Food, antacids
Saltpeter
Fertilizers
Sal ammoniac
Dry-cell batteries
446
Common Name
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Write a sentence using the
term for the substance that makes many foods taste sour.
2. Fill in the Venn diagram with properties of acids and bases. Be sure to put any properties
that acids and bases have in common in the part where the ovals overlap.
Acids
Form
in water
Taste
Turn litmus
Bases
ions
Cause
Form
ions in water
Taste
Turn litmus
Feel
3. You underlined words and sentences in this section that you thought would be important
to remember. How did this help you learn about the topics in the section?
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
447
24
4
section
Read to Learn
Study Coach
Concentration:
448
chapter
1.
dissociates completely
partly dissociates
forms an acid
does not dissolve much
The words strong and weak refer to how easy it is for the
acid or base to dissociate in solution. Strong acids and bases
dissociate completely. Weak acids and bases dissociate only
partially. The words dilute and concentrated tell how much
acid or base is dissolved in the solution. A dilute solution
means there is a small amount of acid or base in the solution.
A concentrated solution means there is a large amount of acid
or base in the solution.
You can have dilute solutions of strong acids and bases. You
also can have concentrated solutions of weak acids and bases.
The figure below, at left, shows a dilute solution of a strong
acid. The figure below, at right, shows a concentrated solution
of a weak acid. Notice which acid is more dissociated.
Chloride
ion
Acetic
acid
2.
Acetate
ion
Hydronium
ion
Hydronium
ion
Picture This
Reading Essentials
449
Vinegar
Picture This
3.
Gastric contents
Egg white
Milk
Tomatoes
Baking
soda
Analyze Which
substance is more basic:
baking soda or milk of
magnesia? Which
substance is more acidic:
soft drinks or tomatoes?
Soft drinks
Blood plasma
Ammonia
10
11
12
Drain cleaner
13
14
Milk of
magnesia
Blood pH
4.
450
Solution pH
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Choose two related terms and
use them together in a sentence.
Description
Strength
Concentration
pH
3. As you read this section, you wrote down the main points of the section. How did these
help you understand the section better?
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
451
Nuclear
Changes
25
chapter
Radioactivity
Study Coach
Read to Learn
The Nucleus
Even though you may not know it, particles are constantly
hitting you. Most of these particles are from stable atoms.
But some of these particles are from unstable atoms in soil,
rocks, and the air. Which atoms are unstable? What particles
do they emit, or give off? The answers to these questions
begin with the nucleus of an atom.
1.
452
1
section
Picture This
Strong force
No strong force
Electric force
Electric force
Total force
Total force
2.
Interpret Scientific
Illustrations In the
figure, circle the example
showing that the strong
force is greater than the
electric force.
Reading Essentials
453
3.
Total force
Electric force
Strong force
Electric force
Picture This
4.
Radioactivity
When the strong force can hold a nucleus together forever,
the nucleus is stable. If the strong force is not large enough to
hold the nucleus together, the nucleus becomes unstable and
can break apart or decay. When a nucleus decays, it emits
particles and energy. Radioactivity is the process of a nucleus
decaying and emitting particles and energy. Large nuclei are
more unstable than small nuclei. All nuclei with more than
83 protons are radioactive. Some smaller nuclei are also
radioactive. Even a nucleus with only one proton could be
radioactive.
454
Total force
Picture This
6.
Compare and
Contrast How are the
two helium isotopes
different?
Helium-3
Helium-4
455
7.
mass number 14
atomic number 6 C element symbol
The name of this isotope is carbon-14. The mass number
tells you it has a total of 14 neutrons and protons in its nucleus.
The atomic number tells you that carbon-14 has six protons.
If you subtract the atomic number (6) from the mass number
(14) you find that carbon-14 has eight neutrons in its nucleus.
The ratio of neutrons to protons is 8 to 6, which is not a 1-to-1
ratio, so this isotope is unstable, or radioactive.
8.
456
Applying Math
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Write a sentence on the lines
below that shows your understanding of the term radioactivity.
2. Complete the table below to organize information about stable and unstable nuclei.
Type of Nucleus
Comparison of
Strong Force v.
Electric Force
Radioactive?
Example
Stable
Unstable
3. Think about what you have learned. How did making flash cards of important terms help
you learn the content?
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
457
Nuclear
Changes
25
chapter
2
section
Nuclear Decay
Read to Learn
Identify the Main Idea
Nuclear Radiation
When an unstable nucleus decays, it breaks apart. As it
decays, the nucleus emits particles and energy called nuclear
radiation. The three types of nuclear radiation are alpha, beta
(BAY tuh), and gamma radiation. Alpha and beta radiation
are particles. Gamma radiation is an electromagnetic wave.
Alpha Particles
B Compare and
458
B
e
t
a
G
a
m
m
a
1.
What is transmutation?
Recall that an alpha particle is made up of two protons
and two neutrons emitted from a decaying nucleus. The
nucleus now has two fewer protons and two fewer neutrons
than it had originally. When an atom loses protons, it
becomes a different element. Transmutation is the process of
changing one element to a different element by the decaying
process.
The nucleus that emitted the alpha particle has changed.
It now has two fewer protons. Its atomic number is two less
than the atomic number of the original element. The new
element also has two fewer neutrons. Its mass number is
four less than the original element.
The figure shows a polonium nucleus. Polonium has 84
protons and a total of 210 protons and neutrons. During
transmutation, the nucleus gives off an alpha particle. The nucleus
now has 82 protons and a total of 206 protons and neutrons. The
element with an atomic number of 82 and a mass number of 206
is lead. The polonium atom has become a lead atom.
210
84
Po
4
2
He
206
82
Pb
Picture This
2.
Transmutation
Reading Essentials
459
Beta Particles
3.
b. beta particle
c. gamma rays
0
1
Picture This
4.
131
54
Xe
Gamma Rays
The third type of radiation is gamma radiation. Gamma
radiation is not emitted as particles, like alpha and beta
radiation. Gamma radiation is emitted as electromagnetic
waves called gamma rays. Gamma rays are electromagnetic
waves with the highest frequencies and the shortest
wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum. The symbol for
a gamma ray is , which is the Greek letter gamma.
460
131
53
Radioactive Half-Life
If an element is radioactive, how can you tell when its atoms
are going to decay? Not all radioactive isotopes decay in the
same amount of time. Some decay in less than a second.
Others continue to decay for millions of years. The measure
for the time it takes a radioactive nucleus to decay is called a
half-life. The half-life of a radioactive isotope is the amount of
time it takes for half of the nuclei in a sample of the isotope to
decay. The nucleus left after the isotope decays is called the
daughter nucleus.
In the figure below, radioactive hydrogen-3 (H-3) is decaying
into helium-3 (He-3). Notice that there are eight H-3 atoms in
the beginning. The half-life of H-3 is 12.3 years. After the first
12.3 years have passed, the amount of H-3 left has been reduced
by half. Now there are four H-3 atoms and four He-3 atoms.
After the second 12.3 years have passed, there are two H-3
atoms and six He-3 atoms. The amount of H-3 in the sample
has been reduced by half again.
5.
H-3
H-3
He-3
H-3
H-3
H-3
H-3
He-3
H-3
12.3 years
H-3
12.3 years
H-3
H-3
He-3
He-3
He-3
He-3
He-3
H-3
He-3
H-3
H-3
He-3
He-3
H-3
1 half-life
1 half-life
Reading Essentials
461
Radioactive Dating
6.
7.
462
1. Review the terms and definitions in the Mini Glossary above. Choose two of the terms
that are related and write a sentence using both terms.
2. Complete the table below to organize what you learned about different types of nuclear
radiation. Some of the table is filled in to help you start.
Alpha
Radiation
Beta
Radiation
Symbol
How it forms
What its
made of
Gamma
Radiation
Speed it travels
Moves at the
speed of light
Mass
Has no mass
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
463
Nuclear
Changes
25
chapter
Detecting Radioactivity
Locate Information
Underline every heading in the
section that asks a question.
Then highlight the answers to
the questions as you find them.
Read to Learn
Radiation Detectors
You cant see or feel alpha particles, beta particles, or
gamma rays. You must use special instruments to tell if they
are present. These instruments detect radioactivity. Some
radioactive particles have an electric charge. The charged
particles form ions in the matter they pass through. Radiation
detectors are instruments that detect newly formed ions.
464
3
section
1.
Make a Drawing In
the space below, draw the
leaves of the electroscope
above without an electric
charge.
Picture This
Reading Essentials
465
Measuring Radiation
It is important to keep track of the amount of radiation a
person receives. Large amounts of radiation can harm the
human body.
2.
Electrons
Radioactive
particle path
Window
Amplifier
and counter
Voltage
source
e
e
Background Radiation
3.
466
The air, the ground, and even the walls of your house give
off radiation. This type of radiation is background radiation.
Background radiation is found in small amounts. Radioactive
isotopes that occur in nature emit background radiation.
Rocks, soil, and air contain these isotopes. Bricks, wood, and
stone also contain small amounts of radioactive isotopes.
Even the food, water, and air used by animals and plants have
them. As a result, all animals and plants have small amounts
of these isotopes.
Picture This
Applying Math
4.
Inside
the body
11%
5.
Reading Essentials
467
1. Review the terms and definitions in the Mini Glossary. Write a sentence about one of the
devices used to measure radiation.
2. Complete the graphic organizer below to organize what you have learned about detecting
radiation with a cloud chamber. Fill in the boxes with the following sentences. Place them
in the order that they happen.
Water or ethanol vapor condenses around the ions.
Condensed water leaves a path of small drops.
Radioactive sample creates ions in the air.
2. As you read this section, you underlined the answers to questions in the text. Was it
difficult to find the answers to any questions? Explain.
End of
Section
468
Nuclear
Changes
25
chapter
4
section
Nuclear Reactions
Read to Learn
Nuclear Fission
In the 1930s, the physicist Enrico Fermi tried bombarding
uranium (U) nuclei with rapidly moving neutrons. He
incorrectly thought the neutrons would combine with the nuclei
and form larger, heavier nuclei. In 1938, Otto Hahn and Fritz
Strassmann found that when a neutron hits a uranium-235
(U-235) nucleus, the nucleus splits apart into smaller nuclei.
In 1939, Lise Meitner theorized that when a neutron hits a
uranium-235 nucleus, the nucleus becomes so unstable that it
splits into two smaller nuclei. The process of splitting a nucleus
into smaller nuclei is called nuclear fission. The word fission
means to divide.
Study Coach
Fission
Fusion
Reading Essentials
469
Picture This
1.
91
36
Kr
n
energy
n
n
235
92
U
236
92
U
(Unstable nucleus)
142
56
Ba
2.
Illustrate Draw a
diagram of a chain reaction
in the space below.
470
Nuclear Fusion
You have learned that nuclear fission releases great amounts
of energy. When one nucleus of uranium-235 splits, it releases
about 30 million times more energy than when one molecule
of dynamite explodes. Another type of nuclear reaction, called
nuclear fusion, releases even more energy than nuclear fission.
In a nuclear fusion reaction, two small, light nuclei combine
to form one large, heavy nucleus. Fusion combines atomic
nuclei, and fission splits nuclei apart.
3.
He-3
Picture This
4.
H-2
Reading Essentials
471
5.
6.
472
smaller nuclei
1. Review the terms and definitions in the Mini Glossary above. Write a sentence using the
terms chain reaction and critical mass.
2. Complete the Venn diagram by listing one thing that fission and fusion have in common,
one thing that applies only to fission, and one thing that applies only to fusion.
Fission
Fusion
Both
3. Think about what you have learned. You stopped after each paragraph and put what you
have just read into your own words. Would you recommend this strategy to a friend?
Why or why not?
End of
Section
Reading Essentials
473
Stars
and
Galaxies
26
chapter
Study Coach
Read to Learn
Constellations
You have probably looked at the clouds and thought that
they had the shape of something familiar. Perhaps youve seen
a cloud that looks like a whale or a rabbit. Long ago, people
saw shapes in the patterns of the stars in the night sky. They
named these star patterns after characters in myths, or stories,
or after the animals they resembled. Many of the names given to
star patterns by ancient cultures survive today. Constellations
are the named star patterns we still recognize. Astronomers use
constellations to find and name stars.
From Earth, the stars in a constellation appear to be quite
close to each other, though in reality they are extremely far
from one another. Although you can see that some stars in a
constellation are brighter than others, you dont see the
distance they are from each other or from you.
The constellation Orion, shown on the next page, has stars
of different brightness.
Like to Know
Learned
474
1
section
Picture This
1.
2.
Reading Essentials
475
4.
476
6.
Spectroscope
A spectroscope is a device that uses a prism or diffraction
grating to disperse the light into its component wavelengths.
When a spectroscope is connected to a telescope, the light
entering the telescope from stars or other bodies in outer
space is separated into its electromagnetic spectrum.
Separating light into its different wavelengths tells scientists
a great deal about a star. For example, scientists can find out
what a star is made of, its surface temperature, and whether it
is moving away from or toward Earth. Astronomers can even
tell how fast a star is moving in relation to Earth.
a fillspectrum lightbeam
does?
Reading Essentials
477
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Explain why it is more likely
that people would see star patterns when they do not use a telescope than when they look
through a telescope. Use two vocabulary words in your answer.
2. Complete the table below to describe how each type of telescope works.
HOW IT WORKS
Reflecting telescope
Refracting telescope
Radio telescope
Spectroscope
3. You used two-column notes as you read this section. How did using two-column notes
help you understand constellations and telescopes?
478
End of
Section
TELESCOPE
chapter
26
2
section
Evolution of Stars
Read to Learn
Study Coach
Giants
White
Dwarfs
Reading Essentials
479
Picture This
1.
Luminosity ( L )
10,000 L
100 L
L
1
L
100
1
L
10,000
Giants
Sun
Main sequence
White dwarfs
O
B
A
25,000 10,000
G
6,000
M
3,000
Temperature (K)
2.
480
3.
4.
Compare What
determines whether a star
becomes a white dwarf or a
supergiant?
What is a supernova?
The heavy elements in your own body formed during
supernova explosions. Type I supernovas form from hydrogenpoor, low-mass stars that have pulled in matter from a nearby
red giant star. The star is destroyed completely by a process
called carbon detonation. A Type II supernova forms from
hydrogen-rich, high-mass stars. Type II leaves a collapsed core,
which can form a neutron star or black hole.
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5.
6.
Define What is a
sunspot?
7.
Compare and
Contrast How do solar
prominences differ from
solar flares?
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1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Use some of the terms to
describe the surface of the Sun.
White dwarfs
3. You summarized paragraphs and passages as you read this section. How did summarizing
help you understand stars?
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Stars
and
Galaxies
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chapter
3
section
Read to Learn
Galaxies
Do you know where you are in the universe? You are on a
planet called Earth that orbits a star we call the Sun. Yet the
Sun orbits something also, and it interacts with other objects
in the universe. The Sun is just one star among billions of
stars in its galaxy. A galaxy is a large group of stars, gas, and
dust held together by gravity. The Milky Way,the name of our
galaxy contains about 400 billion stars. Countless other galaxies exist in the universe, and about 40 billion can be seen.
Each of the billions of galaxies contains the same elements,
forces, and types of energy as our galaxy. There are three
major types of galaxies: spiral, elliptical, and irregular.
Study Coach
Authentic Questions As
you read, write down any
questions you have about
the text. Discuss your questions
with the class or find out their
answers after youve read this
section.
1.
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Categories of galaxies
C Observe Make a
Spiral
Irregular
Elliptical
Spiral
Irregular
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3.
4.
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6.
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5.
Milky Way: the name of our galaxy, which contains about 400
billion stars
Local Group: the galaxy cluster to which our Milky Way galaxy
belongs
1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Describe our place in
the universe using at least two of these terms.
2. What type of galaxy is shown below? Write the galaxy type and then label the different
parts of this Milky Way galaxy diagram.
This type of galaxy is called a(n)
C. ____________
A. ____________
B. ____________
3. You wrote down important questions as you read. How did writing down questions help
you understand the information in this section?
End of
Section
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Stars
and
Galaxies
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chapter
Cosmology
Study Coach
Read to Learn
How did it begin?
Cosmology is the study of how the universe began and has
evolved. There have been several models of the origin of the
universe. A 1948 steady-state model suggested that the universe
always was and forever will be as it is now.
Another theory, called the oscillating model, proposed
that the universe began with expansion everywhere and that,
over time, the expansion slowed and matter contracted. After
ultimate contraction, the whole process of expansion and
contraction happened again, and again, for all time.
Big Bang
Theory
Expanding
Universe
490
The big bang theory is the theory that the universe started
with a huge explosion and has been expanding ever since.
The big bang was not like an ordinary explosion of matter
but a fast expansion of space itself and of matter into that
space. Scientists continue to look for evidence to support
this theory.
4
section
1.
Picture This
3
Red shift
2.
Blue shift
B
1 2 3 4
Wavelength
Wavelength
appears shorter.
appears longer.
Bulb moves from 1 to 4
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Scientists are not really sure what dark matter is, but the
concept of dark matter helps explain the universe. Gravity from
dark matter may have led to the condensation of dust and gas
clouds to form galaxies. Dark matters gravity may also explain
the clumping of galaxies into clusters.
Temperature differences might have led to density
differences in the early universe. As the universe expanded,
gravity from dark matter in high-density areas could have
pulled matter together to form galaxies. Thus, the regions of
the universe that currently have galaxies were also regions of
dense dark matter. This would explain the distribution of
galaxies in the universe.
The Great Wall is a sheet of galaxies that has large empty
areas, or voids, around it. Scientists suggest that the region of
the Great Wall had great density that pulled matter together
to form galaxies. Lower-density areas lack galaxies.
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1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Use one or two of the terms to
describe the origin or expansion of the universe.
__________ in
high-density regions
of the universe
causes matter to
come together to
form galaxies.
The force of
__________ from
galaxies is able to
overcome the forces
of expansion.
As expansion
continues, gravity can
no longer overcome
the energy of
expansion that comes
from _________.
3. As you read, you made a map to help you learn the definitions of new words. How did
making a definition map help you understand the information in this section?
End of
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