Course book on

By

VIBROTECH
Chennai-91
Email : admin@vibrotechindia.com

VIBRATION ANALYSIS & DYNAMIC BALANCING

CHAPTER - 1
Introduction to Vibration Monitoring: This Programme Vibration Analysis &
Dynamic Balancing is conducted to give an input knowledge to your personnel in
Vibration Monitoring and thereby familiar with Vibration Analysis, In-situ
Dynamic balancing, On Line Monitoring Systems, Limits of Vibration etc. The
basic principles and theories are brought out to the need of a Vibration Diagnostic
Engineer. Thus, we believe that this Programme and this book increase the
competence of your personnel.
Condition Monitoring Through Vibration Measurement: Process Plant all over
the world have entered the era of high technology maintenance management in view
of the need for higher powers and speeds of machinery, utilization of complex
processes and desirability of minimum downtime and penalty costs. These are
practically true in areas with high volume oil production, offshore drilling, mass
rapid transport, mining and geotechnical applications, power plants and other
continuous process industries. Downtime in these industries causes enormous losses
in earnings. The availability required is largely determined by the application and
capital cost. High availabilities can only be obtained by long lives or short repair
times or both.
It is now well recognized that particularly in the case of large and expensive plant in
order to avoid unscheduled shutdown, it is much more economical to carry out
Preventive Maintenance (PM) so that major break downs are avoided. The problem
in preventive maintenance lies in the choice of an appropriate maintenance interval
for the machine, because the actual running time before maintenance is really
needed is not constant, but varies from one occasion to another in a very broad
interval due to the difference in the operation of the machine and in the behavior of
its components. If safe overhaul too early interval is chosen there will be occasions
when the machinery will be overhauled long before it is really necessary, while it
could have run on for much longer without failing. This situation wastes production
output and increased the incidence of human errors on reassembly of the machine.
Too long and interval results in an unacceptable number of machine failures during
operation.
A compromise between these two extremes can be established by experience but
machine failures continue to occur. Some machine failures are the result of sudden
events in which the condition deteriorates in a few minutes. The greater number of
machine failures however are the apex of a long slow deterioration during which the
machine gets progressively worse over a period of months or even years.
Therefore a more satisfactory strategy is to carry out preventive maintenance at
regular intervals and to determine these intervals by the actual condition of the
machine. In this method of Condition Based Maintenance (also known as Dynamic

Predictive Maintenance or Diagnostic Maintenance) the plant is maintained just after

some problems have arisen, but much before the possible break down. The
maintenance activity is directed towards curing the particular problem. Although
CBM is applicable to the random failure mode, characteristic of many plant items, it
also has an obvious application to age related failure of high cost plant such as
where the manufacturer runs a number of old machines and equipment and he needs
to be aware of the advent of deteriorating working conditions.
The savings in downtime that can be obtained from CBM can be considerable but
for the whole strategy to work there must be some means of knowing the condition
of the plant and getting a warning of problems sufficiently far in advance to arrange
a schedule shutdown, with the necessary maintenance staff and spare parts standing
by. A main function of condition monitoring is to provide the knowledge of
machine condition and of its rate of change which is essential to the implementation
of this method. The knowledge may be obtained by selecting a suitable parameter
such as vibration for measuring deterioration and reading its values at intervals. In
recent years improved diagnostic techniques have become available and the
condition of plant and machinery can be monitored with sufficient accuracy and
consistency to enable CBM of this kind to be widely used in Industry.
Vibration Monitoring Methods: There are two main methods used for Vibration
monitoring namely trend monitoring and condition checking. Trend monitoring is
the continuous or regular measurement and interpretation of data, collected during
machine operation, to indicate variations in the conditions of the machine or its
components, in the interests of safe and economical operation. This involves the
selection of some suitable and measurable indication of machine or component
deterioration, and the study of the trend in this measurement with running time to
indicate when deterioration is exceeding a critical state. This lead time is one of the
main advantages of using trend monitoring rather than the simple alarms of
automatic shutdown devised used in permanent monitoring. In some cases both
methods are used together. Permanent monitoring can prevent catastrophic failures.
As soon as the parameter chosen as representative of the machine condition exceeds
a predetermined level, an alarm can even stop the machine automatically. The
preset warning and alarm levels are based on the experience of the users and in this
way it is possible to optimize the life of wearing machine parts. With condition
monitoring, repairs are carried out only when the condition of machine has
deteriorated to a predetermined level. Thus, repairs of replacement of parts take
place only when it has definitely been proved that a fault exists and it left without
repairing would result in unsatisfactory operation or catastrophic breakdown with
possible damage to other machine parts and disruption of production
Vibration Monitoring of Rotary Equipment:
a) Continuous monitoring of vibration and bearing temperature of critical machines.
b) Vibration and noise measurement and analysis on all rotary equipments as per
schedule.
c) Bearing temperature monitoring by surface thermometers.
d) Condition monitoring of anti-friction bearings using shock pulse meters.

e) Lube oil quality monitoring of major equipments by periodical analysis for

sediments, moisture content, viscosity etc. Twice in a year analysis will be
conducted by external agencies like IOC.
f) Measurement of RPM by stroboscope/tachometer.
g) Measurement of shaft residual magnetism.
h) Detection of cavitations in pumps by SPM.
i)Dynamic balancing depending upon requirement and availability of equipment.

Categorisation of Rotary Equipment:

Rotary equipment will be classified into three categories depending upon critically
for on-stream condition monitoring as described below:
a) Category-I:(Critical Machines)
These are vital machines which will be generally of high cost, high speed, too large
and complex in their design and duties and does not justify the economics of having
another spare set and breakdown of which would result in immediate and serious
interruption in production.
These equipments will have continuous on-line vibration and bearing temperature
monitoring systems. However, these machines will be monitored for vibration on
bearing housings once in a week using portable monitoring instruments.
b) Category-II: (Semi-critical Machines)
These are essential machines which will be needed for normal operation of the plant,
but having stand by set, and also the running speed of which will not be very high.
Failure of such equipments will not cause immediate production loss as the stand by
set will come in line in case of failure. These machines will be monitored for
vibration on bearings housing once in tow weeks. However, some of the important
machines may be monitored once in a week depending upon the requirement and
equipment behavior.
c) Category-III; (Non-critical Machines)
These are desirable auxiliary and general purpose machines which, owing to its
function, can be allowed to remain temporarily out of operation without having a
serious effect on operations. These equipments will be normally having spare sets.
These machines will be monitored for vibration on bearing housings once in a
month.
Now in forthcoming chapters we see about vibration, in details.

CHAPTER-2
VIBRATION - PARAMETERS - TRANSDUCERS
What is Vibration?
Vibration is simply the back and forth movement of an object from its position of
rest. It is like an oscillatory motion. Vibration in machines above certain limits are
harmful to their functioning.
THE CAUSES OF VIBRATION
The most common problems which cause the Vibrations are:
Unbalance of motor
Looseness
Misalignment
Bend shaft
Eccentricity
Bad belt drive and drive chains
Electromagnetic forces
Hydraulic forces
Resonance
Rubbing
Torque variation, etc.
The causes of vibration must be a force which is changing in either its direction or
its amount. It is the force which causes vibration and the resulting characteristics
will be determined by the manner in which the forces are generated. That is why
each cause of vibration has its own individual characteristics.
Machine condition and Mechanical problems are identified by simply noting its
vibration characteristics. The vibration characteristics are,
1) Amplitude (Displacement, Velocity, Acceleration, etc.)
2) Frequency
3) Phase

AMPLITUDES
Vibration Displacement:
The distance traveled by the vibration part from the extreme of travel to the other
extreme limit of travel is referred to as the Peak-to-Peak Displacement. Peak
displacement is half of Peak-to-Peak Displacement.

Vibration of a loaded spring

In metric units the vibration displacement is usually expressed in Microns, where

one Micron equals one-thousandth of a millimeter. It is also expressed in mils
where one mil equals to one-thousandth of an inch.
Vibration Velocity
Velocity is the function of Displacement and Frequency. It is the measure of
displacement divided by time taken. It is a function of Displacement and Frequency.
The Velocity of the motion is definitely a characteristic of vibration but since it is
constantly changing throughout the cycle, the highest Peak Velocity or RMS (Root
Mean Square) Velocity is selected for measurement. RMS value gives an averaging
effect of vibration velocity. One RMS equals 0.7 times of Peak value.

Vibration Acceleration
Acceleration is rate of change of Velocity. Vibration acceleration is normally
expressed in gs peak when one g is the acceleration produced by the force of
gravity at the surface of the earth. By international agreement the value of 980.665
cm/sec/sec has been chosen as the Standard acceleration due to gravity.

CONVERSION OF MEASUREMENT PARAMETERS

The displacement, velocity and acceleration of a vibration are directly related,
In metric units,
D

19.10 x 103 x V
F

Where D is peak-to-peak displacement in microns

V is Peak Velocity in mm/Sec.
A is Acceleration in g-peak
F is Frequency in CPM

VIBRATION FREQUENCY
Each vibratory forces have its own frequency. This help us to identify the cause
forces of vibration. Machine generate number of frequencies related to various
forces which is acting and reacting in the machines.
It must be emphasized that the dominant frequency may not be the same as the
synchronous frequency. In fact the dominant frequency is the vibration peak which
is coincident with the major vibration source in the machine.

The synchoronous frequency is exactly equal to 1 X RPM of the rotating element.

There could be instances where the dominant frequency is the synchronous
frequency.
A machine with a running speed of say 1500 rpm, may have frequency of 1500 cpm.
It is probable that the machine will have higher order frequency of x2, x3, x4 and
higher multiples of the 1 x rpm speed. Then the first harmonic is called Fundamental
Frequency.
In order to have a correct interpretation of displacement or acceleration readings,
using the severity chart we must know which is the dominant frequency in the
machine. The dominant frequency is a result of problems occurring in the machine.
Dominant frequency can be assessed by measuring both displacement and velocity.

Let us see some brief definitions of frequency terms.

Natural frequency is a frequency at which the machine or structure will prefer to
vibrate. Driving frequency is the frequency of a forced vibration caused by
unbalance, misalignment etc.
Resonant frequency is a frequency at which coincidence occurs between a natural
frequency and a driving frequency.
Critical speed is a special case of resonant frequency that occurs when rotational
speed of a machine, which is a driving frequency, coincides with the natural
frequency of the machine. Most commonly, this is the natural frequency of the rotor
shaft that causes it to bend resulting large vibration amplitude.
Review
: To review, there are two factors to consider when selecting the
parameter of amplitude measurement. First, why is the reading being taken?
Secondly, what is the frequency of the vibration? With these two criteria in mind,
the following recommendations are offered:-1. For general machinery analysis, use Velocity whenever possible. Amplitude
readings in velocity are directly comparable to severity without the need to go to a
chart to cross-reference of amplitude with frequency, which must be done when
displacement or acceleration measurement are taken. Where vibration frequencies
are very low (below approximately 600 CPM) where stress is important, and where
velocity readings may be quite low, displacement should be used. For very high
frequencies (above approximately 60,000 CPM) where applied forces are important
and where velocity and displacement readings may be quite low, use acceleration.
2. For periodic vibration checks or continuous monitoring: use velocity where
possible-especially on machines where a number of potential problems may arise
(unbalance, misalignment, etc). A velocity reading will detect a significant
development of trouble from any one of these sources.
If displacement readings alone are taken, the relatively small increase in
displacement from a high frequency source such as a bearing problem may be
hidden by the larger unbalance or misalignment vibration. However, displacement
may be used if the machine problems are relatively low in frequency and well
defined as being unbalance or misalignment.
3. For period checks on machines with gearing or rolling element bearings: use
Spike energy (g.S/E) wherever possible. This provides the best means of detecting
the rate of change and state of change associated with very high frequency and low
amplitude signals.

TRANSDUCERS
Transducer is a sending device which converts one form of energy into another. The
Vibration Transducer (Pick-up) converts mechanical vibration into an electrical
signal. There are mainly three types of vibration Transducers:
1) Velocity Transducers
2) Accelerometer Transducer
3) Proximity Transducer
Velocity transducer and Accelerometer transducer are called Seismic transducers.
Proximity transducer is called Non-contact transducer.
Velocity Transducer (Moving coil type):The Seismic Velocity Transducer consists
of a coil of fine wire supported by springs with low stiffness. A permanent magnet
is attached to the case of the transducer and provides a strong magnetic field around
the suspended coil. When the case of velocity Transducer is attached to or held
against a vibrating part the permanent magnet being firmly attached to the case
follows motion of the vibration. The coil of wire (conductor) supported by spring
with low stiffness, stationary in space. Under these conditions, the relative motion
between the magnetic field and coiled conductor is the same as the motion of the
part relative to a fixed point in space; and the voltage generated by the transducer is
directly proportional to this relative motion. The faster this motion, the larger the
voltage. In other words, the voltage output of the transducer is proportional to the
velocity of the vibration. As the velocity of the vibrating part changes, the voltage
generated changes proportionately.

The sensitivity of the seismic velocity transducer is only constant over a specified
frequency range. At low frequencies of vibration the sensitivity actually decreased
because at the lower frequencies the transducer coil is no longer stationery with
respect to the magnet. This decrease in transducer sensitivity begins at a frequency
of approximately 600 CPM; Below 600 CPM transducer output drops exponentially.
The significance of this fact is that amplitude readings taken at frequencies below
approximately 600 CPM, using the standard seismic velocity transducer, are not true
readings. The amplitude meter of your instrument will indicate a value less than the
actual amplitude of vibration being measured.

Accelerometer Transducer: An Accelerometer Transducer is the Piezoelectric type

and is a self-generating devise with a voltage charge output proportional to vibration
Acceleration. Vibration acceleration is the measure of the rate of change of velocity
and is normally expressed in terms of gs. The g is the unit earth. The exact
value of one g will vary with the Latitude and Elevation of the point of
observation, however, by international agreement the value of 980 cm/sec/sec has
been chosen as the Standard acceleration due to gravity. Acceleration is a function
displacement and frequency. As a result Accelerometers are extremely sensitive to
vibration occurring at high frequencies.
Non-contact Transducers: Many high speed machines, such as turbines, centrifugal
pumps and compressors consist of relatively light weight motors mounted in
massive cases and rigid bearings.

CHAPTER - 3

Vibration Analysis
Analysis Procedure
The analysis procedure can be divided into two parts:
1. The Data Acquisition
2. The Data Interpretation
The Data Acquisition procedure is a means of systematic measuring and recording
of the vibration characteristics needed to analyze a problem.
The Data Interpretation involves comparing the recorded data with the details of the
machine, like its speed, its foundations, the construction details etc. then the
characteristic of vibration typical of various defects are compared with the
characteristics that have been measured. By this, one can pinpoint the trouble and
take corrective measures.
Data Acquisition can be done is several ways depending on the available
instruments. Apart from manual data acquisition, additional data acquisition
procedure such as semi-automatic, automatic and real time analysis are employed,
where the job can be quicker and more accurate.
In the Semi-automatic method, the operator manually adjusts the filter through the
frequency ranges, while the data is automatically recorded in a recorder. These type
of plots are the records of vibration amplitudes in the Y axis and the frequencies in
the X axis. Such a plot is called Machinery Vibration Profile (Signature) and the
analysis of the same is called as Signature Analysis.
Automatic data acquisition is the term used to describe the procedure of obtaining
the data, where the instrument automatically plots the vibration profiles. This type
of instrument incorporates and electronically swept filter as well as provisions for
simultaneous plotting of the data with the recorders.

A frequency analysis data

Another method of obtaining accurate data for vibration analysis is through Real
Time Analysis. In this, the Amplitude versus Frequency is displayed almost
instantaneously as it occurs on a oscilloscope. Permanent record may be made by
recording the displayed data. Such provisions are also built-in with these type of
instruments.
Once the necessary information have been collected, by manual, or semi-automatic,
or automatic, or real time analysis, the next step is to review and compare the
reading with the characteristics of vibration typical of various types of troubles. A
key to this comparison is the frequency. If a machine part has some defect, the
frequency of vibration resulting from this defect will be some multiple of the RPM.
This multiple is different for different defects. Also there are some defects, which
will produce vibration frequencies that are not related with the RPM.
The common causes of vibration on a Rotating machine are:
Unbalance
Mechanical Looseness
Misalignment
Defective Antifriction bearings
Defective Sleeve Bearings
Defective gears

Bad drive belts or chains

Electrical defects
Rubbing
Wobbling
Resonance/Critical speed
Bend shaft
Aero dynamic / Hydraulic forces
Cavitations
Flow turbulence / Recirculation
Eccentricity
Oil whirl

VIBRATION ANALYSIS PROCEDURES IN PROCESS PLANTS

The Vibration Analysis in Process Plants can be implemented effectively by
selecting all critical equipments for monitoring. The major equipments in a process
plant are:1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Compressors
Blowers
Pumps
Agitators
Centrifuges
Fans
Separators
Crushers

These equipments shall normally be a combination of Drive Motors, Gear Boxes,

Belt Driven Systems, etc. The rotating machines in a plant shall be either horizontal
or vertical types. Depending on the Process, submersible pumps shall also form an
integral part of various process plants.
Diesel Generating Sets are also an integral part of todays Process Industries,
because of the acute power shortage in our country. Therefore, the Vibration
Analysis Procedures for process plants should include the method of analysis on all
the above categories of machines.

The working environment also plays a major role in Vibration Analysis of Process
Plants. Depending on the presence of explosive gases, chemicals, etc. the
instrument to be used for the monitoring shall be suitably selected. The usage of
electric power to connect the Instruments also may not be permitted in many
environments and therefore suitably designed flameproof battery operated
instruments are only permitted.
The method of vibration Analysis in Chemical Industries on individual equipments
is no way different from the other Industrial Sectors. Each one of the equipments

shall be sub-divided into drive, Intermediate and Driven parts. The selection of
measured location is to be carefully done to obtain the Vibration signals from
important parts of the machine. Normally, all the bearing locations are selected for
monitoring and vibration measurements are carried out in the horizontal, vertical and
axial directions.
The assessment criteria to identify the health condition shall be based on the
operating speed of the individual machines. The slow speed machines shall be
monitored by using Vibration Displacement values . The medium speed machine
shall be assessed based on the vibration velocity and the high speed equipments are
assessed based on the Vibration Acceleration. In categorization of low, medium and
high speeds machine, this slow speed shall normally be obtained from various
reductions through gears or other methods of transmissions. In such cases, even
though the final RPM falls in the category of very slow speed, the presence of
medium or high frequencies shall exist in most of the assessment criteria, the
vibration frequency/frequencies shall be considered instead of RPM.
Based on the list of equipments to be included for regular Vibration Analysis, a total
list of measurement locations for individual machines shall be numbered and
suitable data format shall be designed. An initial survey of the equipment can be
carried out to identify the machines in various categories like:Good
Satisfactory
Just Satisfactory
Unsatisfactory
Dangerous
Normally, in an old chemical plant, there can be many machines operating in
categories other than Good or Satisfactory. These machines are to be given priority
during the initial implementation phase. Detailed Diagnostic Studies especially by
combining the Frequency Analysis and Phase Analysis shall be carried out on all the
machines in the unsatisfactory category to diagnose defects. Based on the
Diagnostics, suitable action plan can be worked out so that various corrections can
be implemented during scheduled Maintenance stoppage.
It is possible to minimize the down time for these corrections, by suitably combining
corrections on various equipments. Since a proper diagnostics of various problems
are already carried out before the maintenance stoppage, it is possible to exactly plan
for various actions. All necessary spares and materials can also be procured before
the stoppage and manpower required can be correctly assessed to complete the job
within the stipulated schedules.
After attending to the machines in the unsatisfactory category, the effectiveness of
the corrections can be re-assessed during the next scheduled vibration analysis. If
any of these equipments are not indicating the desired effectiveness, the same can be
re-analyzed to review the accuracy of corrections and to plan further corrections

during a scheduled maintenance. The aim should be to achieve behavior of all the
machines in the unsatisfactory category.
After attending to the unsatisfactory category of machines, the machines in the just
satisfactory category shall be taken up for corrective actions during the available
maintenance schedules. The machines in the just satisfactory category can normally
be kept in service till a convenient maintenance stoppage is available for
implementation correction. It is very important to regularly monitor the machines in
the just satisfactory category to identify the deterioration and to assess whether any
of these equipments are reaching a stage of unsatisfactory health. If such machines
are identified, priority should be allotted for implementing corrections on these
equipments during a maintenance stoppage.
Machines in the good and satisfactory category can be kept in regular service but a
periodic monitoring can be implemented to assess the behavioral trend. Normally,
corrections are not required on machines in the good and satisfactory categories and
hence can be even excluded from the normal Preventive Maintenance Schedules.

GUIDE TO VIBRATION TOLERANCES FOR MACHINE TOLLS

Type of Machine
Displacement of vibration as read with pickup on spindle
bearing housing in the direction of cut
Tolerance Range
Thread Grinder
0.25
1.5 microns
Profile or Contour Grinder
0.75
2.0 microns
Cylindrical Grinder
0.75
5.0 microns
Surface Grinder (vertical reading)
0.75
5.0 microns
Centralizes Grinder
1.0
2.5 microns
Boring Machine
1.5
2.5 microns
Lathe
5.0
25 microns

VIBRATION LIMITS FOR TURBINES (Stiff foundations) given by Ray Beebe

Vibration Parameter
Good
Allowable Just Tolerable Unsatisfactory
__________________________________________________________________
RMS Velocity (mm/s)
<1.8
<4.5
<11.2
>11.2
50Hz only displacement
p-p(microns)
<16
<40
<100
>100
<10 HZ Max displacement
(microns)
<80
<200
<500
>500

DIESEL GENERATING SET LIMITS FOR DIESEL GENERATORS

(WARTSILA, YANMAR, FUJI, DAIHATSHU, MERLESS, BLACK STONE,
SKL, SKODA, CATTER PILLER ETC.)
Limit parameter is peak velocity in mm/sec.
S.NO.

LOCATIONS

S. LIMIT

J.S. LIMIT

1.

MACHINE BASE FIXING LOCATION

10

20

2.

CRANK CASE FIXING LOCATION

10

20

3.

CRANK CENTER LINE

10

20

4.

CYLINDER HEADS

10

20

5.

TURBO CHARGER

15

30

6.

PILLOW BLOCK BEARING

15

25

7.

ALTERNATOR BEARING

05

15

8.
GENERATOR BEARING
05
15
__________________________________________________________________

RECOMMENDED METHOD OF VIBRATION CLASSIFICATION

(For purpose of Guidance only)
In order to show how the recommended method of classification may be applied,
examples of specific classes of machines are given below. It should be emphasized,
however, that they are simply examples and it is recognized that other classifications
are possible and may be substituted in accordance with the circumstances concerned.
As and when circumstances permit, recommendations for acceptable levels of
vibration severity for particular types of machine will be prepared. At present,
experience suggests that the following classes are appropriate for most applications.

Class I :
(Group-K)

Individual parts of engines and machines, integrally connected

with the complete machine in its normal operating condition
(production electrical motors of up to 15 KW. are typical
examples of machines in this category.

Class II :
(Group-M)

Medium sized machines(typically electrical motors of15-75KW.

output) without special foundations rigidly mounted engines or
machines (up to 300 KW.) on special foundations.

Class III :

Large prime movers and other large machines with rotating mass
mounted on rigid and heavy foundations which are relatively stiff
in the direction of vibration measurement.

Class IV :
(Group-T)

Large prime movers and other large machines with rotating

masses mounted on foundations which are relatively soft in the
Direction of vibration measurement (eg. Diesel-generator sets,
Specially those with lightweight substructures)

Class V :
(Group-S)

Machines and mechanical drive systems with unbalance able

inertia effects (due to reciprocating parts) mounted on
foundations which are relatively stiff in the direction of vibration
measurements.

Class VI :

Machines and mechanical drive systems with unbalance able

inertia effects (due to reciprocating parts) mounted on
foundations which are relatively soft in the direction of vibration
measurements Machines with rotating slack-coupled masses
such as beater shafts in grinding mills; machines like centrifugal
machines with varying unbalances capable of operating as self
contained units without connecting components; vibrating screens,
Dynamic fatigue testing machines and vibration exciters used in
process plants.

In practice, instead of good/Allocable/ Just Tolerable/Not permissible, the following

colloquial is used to stipulate the health condition of machine.
Good
Satisfactory
Just satisfactory
Unsatisfactory
Dangerous

Class
I

FOR HEALTH AND TREND

CLASSIFICATION OF MACHINES AS PER ISO 2372
(Velocity - Peak in mm/sec)
S-Limit
JS-Limit
Category
2.30
04.2
J

II

4.30

10.0

III

6.30

15.8

IV

10.0

25.5

15.8

39.6

VIBRATION TROUBLE SHOOTING CHART

Frequency of dominant
vibration (rpm)
1 x rpm

Direction

Remarks

Radial

A common cause of excess

vibration in machinery

Radial &
Axial

A common fault

Radial &
Axial

Uneven vibration level,

often with shocks, impact
rates.

Journal bearing loose

in housing

Usually 1 x rpm. Often 2 x

rpm. Sometimes 3 & 4 x
rpm
Impact rates for the
individual bearing
component. Also vibrations
at high frequencies (2 to 60
kHz) often related to radial
resonance in bearings
Sub harmonics of shaft
rpm, exactly or 1/3 rpm

Oil film whirl or whip

in journal bearing
Hysteresis whirl

Slightly less than half

speed (42% to 48%)
Shaft critical speed

Nature of Fault
Rotating members out
of balance
(Uneven distribution
of mass about rotors
rotating centerline.)
Misalignment & Bent
shaft
Damaged Rolling
Element Bearings
(Ball, Roller etc.)

Primarily
radial

Looseness may only

develop at operating speed
and high temperature. (e.g.
turbo machines)
Primarily Applicable to high speed
radial
machines.
Primarily Vibrations exited when
radial
passing through critical
speed are maintained at
higher shaft speeds.
Radial
Side bands around tooth
& Axial meshing frequencies
detectable with very narrow
band analysis and spectrum.

Damaged or worn gear

Tooth meshing frequency

(Shaft rpm x number of
teeth) and harmonics

Mechanical looseness

2 x rpm

Radial
& Axial

Also sub harmonics for loose

journal bearings

Faulty belt drive

1,2,3,4 x rpm of belt

Radial

The precise problem can

usually be identified with the
help of a strobe light

Unbalanced
reciprocating forces

1 x rpm and/or harmonics

Radial
& Axial

Easily felt by hand touch

Increased turbulence or
recirculation

Blade passing frequencies

and harmonics

Radial
& Axial

Increased level indicate

increasing turbulences.

Cavitations

Random frequencies

Radial
& Axial

Vibration will be more on

pump body.

Eccentricity

1 x rpm

Radial

No phase difference with

strobe light

Electrical Induced
vibrations

1 x rpm or 1 or 2 times
synchronous frequency

Radial
& Axial

Disappear immediately when

turn-off the power.

It appears that identifying the cause of vibration is easy; but practically it is difficult
to pin point the exact cause of vibration since more than one force make the machine
to vibrate abnormally.

Phase Measurement
Phase measurements are important when analyzing mechanical problems in
machinery. Further to Frequency analysis, Phase analysis will help us to do further
diagnosis to pinpoint the exact cause of vibration. Phase is defined as the position of
a vibrating part at a given instance with reference to a fixed point or another
vibrating part.

In a practical sense, phase measurements offer a convenient way to determine how

one part is vibrating relative to another part.
Phase information is obtained using a stroboscopic light triggered by the Vibration
signal from a pick up. A common practice is the think of the end of the shaft, when
a reference mask is made, as the face of a clock and the phase is read as hour-hand
clock positions or in degrees.

BEARINGS
It is through the bearings that vibration forces are transmitted.
Bearing life: Why load is criteria for failure?
3
Bearing Life (Hours) = 16,666 X
rpm

Rated Load capacity of Brg(Lbs)

Static Load of Rotor + Dyn.Load of Forces

From this we know, rather than speed, When static load is not changing, the
Dynamic Load forces ( Vibratory Forces) is the main cause for Bearing Failures.

Bearing machine part designed to reduce friction between moving parts or to

support moving loads. There are two main kinds of bearings: the antifriction
type, such as the roller bearing and the ball bearing, operating on the principle
of rolling friction; and the plain, or sliding, type, such as the journal bearing and
the thrust bearing, employing the principle of sliding friction. Roller bearings
are either cylindrical or tapered (conical), depending upon the application; they
overcome frictional resistance by a rolling contact and are suited to large, heavy
assemblies. Ball bearings are usually found in light precision machinery where
high speeds are maintained, friction being reduced by the rolling action of the
hard steel balls. In both types the balls or rollers are caged in an angular
grooved track, called a race, and the bearings are held in place by a frame,
commonly called a pillow block or Plumber block. Ball bearings or roller
bearings reduce friction more than sliding bearings do. Other advantages of
antifriction bearings include ability to operate at high speeds and easy
lubrication. A journal bearing usually consists of a split cylindrical shell of
hard, strong metal held in a rigid support and an inner cylindrical part of soft
metal, which holds a rotating shaft, or journal. A self-aligning journal bearing
has a spherically shaped support that turns in a socket to adjust to movements of
the shaft. Slight misalignment of the shaft can be accommodated in the ordinary

journal bearing by wearing of the soft bearing material, often an alloy of tin or
lead. Less frequently used are aluminum alloys, steel, cast iron, or a thin layer
of silver covered with a thin coating of a soft bearing material. Ideally, a film of
lubricant, normally oil, separates journal and bearing so that contact is
prevented. Bearings that are not split are called bushings. A thrust bearing
supports an axial load on a shaft, i.e., a force directed along a shaft's length. It
may be a plate at the end of a shaft or a plate against which the collar on the
shaft pushes. Large thrust bearings, such as those used to transmit the motive
force of a ship's propeller from the shaft to the hull, have blocks that are
separated from the collar on the shaft by wedge-shaped spaces filled with oil.
Graphite bearings are used in high-temperature situations. Certain plastics make
satisfactory self-lubricating bearings for low speeds and light loads and, if
additionally lubricated, work at higher speeds and carry greater loads. Rubber
and a naturally oily wood, lignum vitae, are used in water-lubricated bearings.
Watches and other precision instruments have glass or sapphire pivot bearings.
In gas-lubricated bearings a film of gas separates the bearings from the moving
machine parts. Magnetic bearings employ magnetic repulsion to separate
journal from bearing, reducing friction still further
Types of Defects in bearing

Wear the relatively softer surface of the bearings rub against the harder surface to
which they are providing the bearing surface. Hence when two metals of different
hardness rub together, the one with the lesser hardness wear more and this wear is
accelerated by the fact that impurities and abrasive particles can enter between these
surfaces thus speeding up the wear.

Corrosion bearings are lubricated with lube oil rom the engine systems and this
lub oil can turn acidic in due course of time with effect of combustion products,
temperature and so on. This acidic lub oil can cause corrosion of the bearings
especially the white metal parts of the bearings.

Overloading/Overheating a bearing can get damaged due to local

concentration of stress or temperature and certain regions which in turn can be due
to several factors. This can lead to various types of defects such as galling, scuffing,
scoring and so forth.

Electrical Damage: When welding works carried out, proper grounding should
be given nearer to welding area.
Defects of AF bearings:
UB dents, Misfit spalls, Debris dents, scoring, abrations, corrosions, Electrical
damages,
Brinelling , spalling, fretting
Fretting corrosion:A special wear process that occurs at the contact area between
two materials under load and subject to minute relative motion by vibration or some
other force.Occurs out surface of Inner & outer races.Between bearing bore anf
bearing outer and between shaft and bearing inner race.

Spalling: Otherwise called flaking (as patch)

Peel off: for thin layer.

Checking for Defects

Since the main engine bearing is made out of two shells they need to be inspected
for wear and tear. The bottom shell of the bearing is more difficult to remove and the
sketch below shows two methods to do this. Firstly you can use a jack arrangement
or you can use oil pressure which makes the shell come out of its seat.

A bridge gauge is also used to take the reading while the bottom shell is in its
genuine position plus taking another reading after removing the shell and seeing the
difference between them.
If the bearing is found to be too much worn or having other defects and needs
replacement, the same should be done by removing the bottom shell, and fitting a
new shell of similar dimensions after scraping it with a mandrel cutter or such tool to
ensure proper alignment of the crankshaft journal.
Causes for High Temp:
Defective Brg
*Defective Lubrication(insufficient, Excess, spurious)
Faulty alignment
Thrust loads
Improper selection of Brg
Improper Cooling
Effect of ambient temp
Lack of expansion clearance
Excessive clearances between outer race and Housing bore.

ROLLING ELEMENT BEARING VIBRATION

Rolling element bearings, which have flaws on the raceways, balls or rollers cause
high frequency vibration. The frequency of vibration my not be a direct multiple of
shaft rpm. This could be caused by the tendency for the elements (i.e. balls or
rollers) to stick or slide in certain situations. This can generate frequencies relative
to the rubbing action.
The component parts of the bearing will each have its own natural frequency. When
a damaged element strikes the inner or outer race this may excite the raceway at its
natural frequency. A vibration due to resonance will then occur.

Due to fatigue or overloading some part of the bearing element may crack or a piece
of metal could chip and break away from a rolling element. This particle break off
may become trapped in the bearing, which can lead to the seizure of one or more of
the elements and cause it to slide around the races. The particles can create a flaw,
which acts much like a flat spot on the ball or roller. This outer flaw will strike the
inner and outer race each time the element rotates.

This can result in a vibration at 1 or possibly 2 times the element rolling frequency
because the rolling frequency of the element is several times the RPM of the shaft.
With reference to the following formulae you will find it possible to calculate the
theoretical frequencies, which can occur in a rolling element bearing. However it
should be remembered that the calculated frequencies may be rendered inaccurate by
elements which have seized and are sliding rather than rolling in the raceways.

The amplitude of vibration will depend on the extent of the bearing fault. Also the
momentary impacts may excite resonant vibrations. This is vibration which is
similar to the vibration which occurs when ringing a bell. By striking the bell we
cause it to vibrate at its natural frequency. Since every object has a natural frequency
including the inner and outer races of a bearing. You will therefore appreciate that
the impactive forces, which can be imposed by rolling elements may cause
resonance to occur. The natural frequencies of the bearing components will be quite
high compared to the RPM of the machine. Therefore the vibration frequencies
measured from the faulty bearing will also be high. It is unlikely that these natural
frequencies will be exact multiples of shaft RPM. Since there are a number of parts
such as the inner and outer race plus the bearing cage, bearing housing and rotor
shaft, any of these parts may be excited into a resonant condition by the bearing
fault. This can cause the frequency to be unsteady and appear as a twisting on an
analyzer frequency meter.

Severe misalignment in machines equipped with rolling element bearings will

sometimes result in a high frequency bearing vibration, which is not the fault of the
bearing. For example, a high frequency was detected on the he bottom bearing of a
900-RPM motor, which drives a vertical pump. In this instance, it was noted that
the vibration frequency was steady at 12,600 CPM or 14 times motor RPM and high
in the axial direction. Because of the high amplitude of vibration, the motor was
removed and the bearing replaced. However, after the motor was reinstalled, a
vibration check revealed that the high axial amplitude at 12,600 CPM was still
present - just as before. Further investigation disclosed that the motor mounting
flange was being distorted when the mounting bolts securing the motor to the pump
were tightened. The vibration frequency generated was equal to the number of balls
in the bearing (14) times the motor RPM (900). Proper shimming to avoid

distortion in the motor flange corrected the misalignment and eliminated the high
frequency bearing vibration.

It should be remembered that bearings are one of the most precisely made devices
available. They do not fail prematurely unless some force or forces are responsible.
Such forces are often the same as those, which cause vibration. A careful check for
other difficulties such as unbalance and misalignment should be made after the
bearing has been replaced, particularly where premature failures have been frequent.
This will help to ensure longer, trouble-free service.

The life of a rolling element bearing depends on the conditions under which it was
stored and the way it was installed, as well as its load and its operating environment.
Although some rolling bearings fail through wear, most bearings never achieve the
maximum life of which they are capable.

Often the cost of the bearing is only a small part of the cost of the failure.
Downtime is expensive, and a bearing failure may result in damage to other parts,
most frequently the shaft. If repair consists only of replacing the failed bearing with
a new bearing of the same type, the new bearing will probably last no longer than
the original one did, initiating another cycle of unscheduled costs.
Bearing Excitations Frequencies:

BPFI = Ball pass frequency of Inner race

BPFO= Ball Pass Frequency of Outer race.
BSF = Ball Spin Frequency
FTF = Fundamental Train Frequency (Cage frequency)
Nb = Number of Balls
Bd = Ball/ roller dia
Pd = Bearing Pitch dia.(Ball center to ball center)

CHAPTER - IV
INSITU DYNAMIC BALANCING
Site Dynamic Balancing is an important step in vibration elimination because
unbalance has been the most common cause of vibration in our machines.
Before we proceed to balance a rotor at site, certain conditions must be verified.
1. The vibration must be due to unbalance.
2. We must be able to make weight corrections on the rotor.
IN SITU DYNAMIC BALANCING
The process of Balancing a part without taking it out of the machine (i.e. the
unbalance part mounted in its own bearings) is called Site dynamic Balancing or
In-place Balancing or In-situ Dynamic Balancing.
In Place Balancing eliminates the need to disassemble the machine transport the
rotor assembly to a balancing machine and balance under artificial conditions on a
balancing machine.
The following methods of balancing can be applied in site conditions:
1. Static balancing at site.
2. Three point method of balancing
3. Dynamic balancing with vibration analyzer/In place Balancers.
TYPES OF UNBALANCE:
There are four types of Unbalances:
1. Static Unbalance
2. Couple Unbalance
3. Quasi-static Unbalance
4. Dynamic Unbalance
STATIC UNBALANCE
Static Unbalance is that condition of unbalance for which the central principal axis is
displaced only parallel to the shaft axis. Static unbalance sometimes called Kinetic
Unbalance can be detected by placing the rotor on paralleledges.

The heavy side of the rotor will come to the bottom. Correction weight can be
added or removed as required. The part is considered statically balanced where it
does not rotate on knife-edges or rollers regardless of the position in which it is
placed.
Actually static unbalance can be corrected by adding or removing weight in only one
correction plane. However, it is important that the balance corrections be made in
the same place that includes the center of gravity of the rotor.
Attempting to correct static unbalance in plane other than that containing the rotor,
center of gravity create another type of unbalance
This rotor might be considered statically balanced due to the fact that no heavy spot
would move to the bottom if the rotor were placed on level parallel knife edges or
rollers. However, when the work piece is rotated, (if the original heavy sport and
the correction weight are located in different planes) unequal moments of inertia
shall be produced and the central principle axis will intersect the rotating center line.
This creates another type of unbalance.

COUPLE UNBALANCE
Couple unbalance is that condition of unbalance, in which the central principal axis
intersects the shaft axis at center of gravity.

A couple is simply two parallel equal forces acting in opposite directions but on the
same straight line. Couple unbalance is a condition, created by heavy spots at each
end of the rotor but on opposite sides of the center of gravity.

QUASI STATIC UNBALANCE

Quasi Static Unbalance is that condition of unbalance, for which the central
principle axis intersects the shaft axis at a point other than the center of gravity.
Quasi-static unbalance can be considered as a combination of static and couple
unbalances, where the static unbalance is directly in line with one of the couple
moments.

DYNAMIC UNBALANCE
Dynamic Unbalance is that condition in which the central principle axis is not
intersecting the shaft axis.

Dynamic unbalance is the most common type of unbalance and exists whenever
static and couple unbalance are present in the rotor, but where the static unbalance is
not in direct line with either couple component. As a result, the central principle
axis will be displaced but not parallel to the shaft axis. Dynamic unbalance can only
be corrected by making balance weight corrections at least in two places.

DYNAMIC BALANCING BY VECTOR TEHNIQUES

The vector balancing method minimizes the number of trial runs by eliminating all
guesswork. You begin by measuring the original amplitude and phase, add a trial
weight, and run the machine to measure the new values. You then use this
information to calculate the final amount and position of the balance weight.
The following discussion describes these steps in detail and illustrates them with
specific examples.
Step 1: Observe and record the original unbalance. For example, assume an original
unbalance of 175 microns at 40 degrees. Taking a scale value for microns, say 1cm
equals to 25 microns., mark it in a Polar graph as the line O.
Step 2: Select a trial weight, fix it at an arbitrary location of the part, and note the
new unbalance. This represents the unbalance due to a combination of original
heavy spot and the trial weight. For example, assume a trial weight of 30 grams that
results in new unbalance of 100 microns at 120 degrees. This measurements are
drawn in polar graph as line O+T

Step 3: The vector representing the original unbalance is the O (original) vector.
The vector representing the combined unbalance of the original heavy spot and trial
weight is the O + T vector. Finally, join the tips of these two vectors with a line
T (trial weight vector).
In order to determine the correct balance weight, first measure the length of the T.
This example shows T to be 9.5 cms. Then,
Correct weight = trial weight x O / T.
One you know the correction weight, the next step is to determine where it should be
located on the part. Mathematically speaking, the objective is to adjust the T
vector, so that it has the same length as the O vector, but points in the opposite
direction. This would cancel out the O vector to achieve perfect balance.
The angle between the O and T vectors is equal to the amount of adjustment you
should make. This shows an angle of 30 degrees. This means the the weight must be
shifted 30 degrees from its present position.
The T vector has to be rotated 30 degrees in the counter clockwise direction in
order to make it equal and opposite the O vector. Bearing in mind that the phase
angle always shifts in the direction opposite the shift in weight location..

For trim balancing, use the current amount of weight as the new trial weight, and
proceed the aforesaid procedure.

Balancing by three point Method

Due to disturbances by other forces, sometime freezing cannot be achieved by strobe
light and balancing by vector method will be difficult. In this occasion, balancing by
three point method is suggested. The procedure for three point method is as follows;
Draw a circle (O) with radius(R) of maximum displacement (D) taken to a scale.
Add a trial weight at a point (1) as far as possible away from center of rotor. Take
the displacement readings with the pickup measured originally. Take two more
readings

by replacing the weight to the locations 2 and3 (each point with 120 apart). Draw a
circles with the radius of measured displacements which has taken to scale at
locations (angles) 1,2 and3. The center of these circles should be on the periphery of
circle O. After drawing circles at point 1,2and3 take the center point of
intersection of these three circles. Connect this point with a line T to the center of
original circle O. Then the correction weight is calculated as follows;
Correction weight = ( R / T ) x trial weight.This correction weight is to be added at
the same (trial weight) radius and at the angle of T
Note: Though balancing procedures seems to be easy to carryout, it needs more
experience to assess the trial weight, location of trial weight etc. Sometimes trial
weight adds to the heavy spot may leads to disaster to rotor. Hence to start with,
carryout balancing for smaller machines.

CHAPTER VI
Bode Plot: It is a graph in Cartesian format representing the running rpm component
vibration vector response as a function of shaft rotative speed. One Y axis represents
1x amplitude, a second Y axis represents phase lag angle and a common axis represents
shaft rotative speed. This plot is sometimes called an Imbalance Response Plot. The
main application is to see the critical speed of rotor. It reveals resonate and critical
frequencies excited by 1x component frequencies by the characteristic peak vibration
amplitude and corresponding 180 deg phase shift.

Nyquist Plot (Polar Plot): A type of graphical presentation in polar format used to
evaluate the stability of an electronic serve design. It shows the vibration amplitude
as well as phase at different speeds.

Cascade Plot: It is a graph in Cartesian format displaying a series of frequency

spectra versus shaft rotative speed. This XYY presentation shows amplitude (Y)
versus Frequency (X) incremented along a second Y-axis, rpm. This data format is

used to evaluate the change in vibration frequency characteristics during machines

transient conditions.

Water fall Plot: It is similar to cascade plot, except that one vertical axis is usually
time instead of shaft rotative speed.
Raster Plot: It is a type of cascade or waterfall plot, usually with shrewd Y-axis so
that the plot has an isometric appearance.
Orbits: Orbit, also called Lissajous pattern is the dynamic path of the shaft centerline
displacement motion as it vibrates during shaft rotation. The orbit can be observed
on an oscilloscope connected to XY proximity probes. Orbit is very useful to
identify the instability in the system, preloads, etc.