BIOFUELSFROMCOCONUTS

KrishnaRaghavan

August2010

TABLE OF CONTENTS

POTENTIAL FOR BIOFUELS FROM COCONUTS

QUANTITYANDENERGYCONTENTOFPARTSOFTHECOCONUTPALM
POTENTIALFORPOWERGENERATIONFROMUNUSEDCOCONUTBIOMASS
DECENTRALISEDPOWERGENERATIONFROMCOCONUTRESIDUES
DIESELSAVINGSANDEMISSIONSREDUCTIONS

1
2
5
6

POST HARVEST TREATMENT AND PROCESSING

NUTSTORAGE
DEHUSKING
NUTTRANSPORTATION
CRACKING
COPRAMANUFACTURE

8
9
11
11
11

COCONUT OIL - COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES

13

COMPOSITION
FUELRELATEDPROPERTIES

13
13

OIL PRESSING & REFINING

15

4.1 DRYPROCESSANDOILREFINING
4.2 WETPROCESS
4.2.1 RamPress
4.2.2 DMEDirectMicroExpelling

15
17
17
18

1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
2
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
3
3.1
3.2
4

UTILIZATIONOFLIQUIDBIOFUELS
5.1 COCONUTOILFORDIESELENGINES
5.1.1 InternalCombustionEngines
5.1.2 FuelInjection
5.1.3 QualityStandardsforCoconutoil
5.2 BIODIESEL
5.3 CASESTUDIESINPACIFICANDLESSONSLEARNED
5.3.1 Islandfuel,Vanuatu
5.3.2 Cocogen,Samoa
5.3.3 CoconutoilforpowergenerationinFiji

UTILIZATIONOFSOLIDBIOFUELSSHELLS&HUSK
6.1 CHARACTERISTICS
6.2 BASICPRINCIPLESOFCOMBUSTION
6.3 CURRENTUSES
6.4 WASTEHEATUNIT(WHU)
6.4.1 WHUforCopraProduction
6.4.2 ProductRecovery

20
20
20
20
26
27
30
30
34
40
46
46
46
48
48
51
54

REFERENCES

58

ANNEXES

61


8.1 THECOCONUTPALM
8.1.1 PartsandUses
8.1.2 OriginandDistribution
8.1.3 WorldProduction
8.1.4 Plantingmaterial,SelectionandBreeding
8.1.5 Plantingpractices
8.1.6 Greenmanuring,OrganicManuring&ChemicalFertilizerapplication
8.2 DRYINGMETHODSOFCOPRA&STORAGE
8.2.1 BasicPrinciplesofCoconutDrying
8.2.2 TypesofDryers
8.2.3 CopraStorage

61
61
62
63
64
67
71
80
80
82
102

LISTOFTABLES

Table1CompositionofonematureCoconutbyWeight............................................................1
Table2QuantityandEnergyContentofpartsoftheCoconutPalm..........................................2
Table3PotentialforPowergenerationfromCoconutResidues...............................................4
Table4PowerGenerationPotentialfromUnusedResidues(1,000tonscopraequiv./year)......5
Table5DieselsavingsandEmissionsReductions.......................................................................6
Table6DieselPriceandSavings.................................................................................................6
Table7EffectsofStorageTimeonDehuskedNuts....................................................................8
Table8Thechemicalcompositionofcoconutoil.....................................................................13
Table9Fuelrelatedpropertiesofvegetableoilsandpetroleumdiesel...................................14
Table10DraftQualityStandardsforCoconutOilasaFuelinengines....................................27
Table11PhysicoChemicalpropertiesofCoconutMethylEster(CME)...................................28
Table12ComparisonofMoistureandOilContentfromWHUwithothermethods...............56
Table13Waterholdingcapacityofairinatropicalcountry....................................................80
Table14MaterialsrequiredforconstructionofaSolarDryer.................................................87
Table15PropertiesofLLDandLDPolyEthyleneplasticsheets............................................88
Table16AssumptionsforSolarDrying.....................................................................................89
Table17QualityStandardforCoprainthePhilippines..........................................................104
Table18GradesofCopraUsedinthePhilippines..................................................................105
Table19ContractTermsfortradingCoprainIndia................................................................105
Table20ClassificationofCopraforexportinPapuaNewGuinea.........................................106

LISTOFFIGURES

Figure1CompositionsofMatureandDryCoconutbyweight...................................................1
Figure2Ratioofweightsofpartsofthecoconutpalm..............................................................2
Figure3EnergyfromUnusedCoconutBiomass.........................................................................3
Figure4PowerGenerationpotentialofCoconutResidues........................................................3
Figure5Schematicofdryprocessforcoconutoilextraction...................................................15
Figure6DirectIgnitionengine..................................................................................................21
Figure7IndirectIgnitionengine...............................................................................................21
Figure8Effectofchambertemperatureoncombustionofcoconutoil..................................23
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Figure9A2tanksystemforusingCoconutOilinaDirectinjectionengine...........................25
Figure10Heatcontentsintheconversionofshellstocharcoal..............................................48
Figure11SchematicoftheWasteHeatUnit............................................................................51
Figure12TypicalTunnelDrierandLayoutofWHUbasedcopradryingsystem......................54
Figure13DryingCurve..............................................................................................................81
Figure14TheSeeSawDrier.....................................................................................................84
Figure15EnergyFlowsinaSolarDryer....................................................................................85
Figure16SolarDryerdesignedbythePhilippineGermanCoconutProject............................86
Figure17DryingCurvesforSunDryingandSolarDrier...........................................................88
Figure18SchematicofTapahandryer......................................................................................92
Figure19SchematicofUPLBdryer...........................................................................................94
Figure20VISCACopraDrier......................................................................................................97
Figure21SchematicofModifiedKukumdryer.........................................................................98
Figure22SchematicofCocopugonDryer...............................................................................101

LISTOFPHOTOS

Photo1ManualCoconutDehuskingTool...................................................................................9
Photo2CoCoMaNdehushingmachine................................................................................10
Photo3BreakingcoconutsformakingCopra...........................................................................11
Photo4EdibleBallcoprawholeandcutintohalves.............................................................12
Photo5CoconutoilextractionusingtheRamPress................................................................17
Photo6Effectsofimpropercombustionofcoconutoilinengine...........................................22
Photo7Heatexchangerusedforconversionofcarstorunoncoconutoil............................22
Photo8Auxiliaryequipmentusedwitha2tanksystem.........................................................25
Photo9IslandFuelFillingStation.............................................................................................30
Photo10RangeRoverandToyotaRunningonVanuatuCoconutOil......................................32
Photo11CumminsDirectInjection400kWDieselEnginetestedwith10%coconutoil.........35
Photo12FilteringofCoconutOilwithaSheetBeforemixinginthedaytank........................39
Photo13CoconutOilproductionequipmentatWelangi.........................................................41
Photo1445kVAdieselgensetatWelagi..................................................................................42
Photo15The90kVAdieselgensetatVanuabalavu..................................................................43
Photo16Traditionalmethodofburningcoconutshellsinapit..............................................49
Photo17PrototypeWasteHeatRecoveryUnittestedbyNRI,Culham,UK............................50
Photo18TraditionalCopraDrying............................................................................................52
Photo19AWasteHeatUnitinSriLanka..................................................................................55
Photo20CoprafromTraditionalsmokedriersandfromtheWHUprocess............................55
Photo21CharcoalproducedbytheWasteHeatUnit..............................................................57
Photo22Sundryingcopra........................................................................................................83
Photo23DirectSmokeCopraDryer.........................................................................................92
Photo24SemiDirectSmokeCopraDryer................................................................................95
Photo25ModifiedKukumhotairdryer...................................................................................99
Photo26CocopugonHotAirBrickCopraDryer.....................................................................100
Photo27CopraMoistureMeter.............................................................................................106

iii

POTENTIAL FOR BIOFUELS FROM COCONUTS

1.1

QuantityandEnergycontentofpartsoftheCoconutPalm

Whenamaturecoconutisharvestedafter11or12months,itisfilledwithcocowaterandits
kernel,shellandhuskareinawetcondition.Generally,thecoconutisdehuskedandtheshell
splitopensothatthekernelcanbetakenoutanddriedintocopra.Insomecountries,
especiallyinthePacific,thewholenutissplitopenwithoutdehusking.Compositionsofboth
thematurecoconutwhenharvestedandafterithasbeendriedareshowninFigure1.

Figure 1 Compositions of Mature and Dry Coconut by weight

Note:HusksarecomposedofCoirandCoirdust.
Theweightofacoconutdependsonthecultivarorhybrid.Thebreakupintoitscomponents
ofanaveragecoconutthatweighs1.2kgsisgiveninTable1.

Table 1 Composition of one mature Coconut by Weight

Part
Whole Coconut
1

Weight [kgs]
1.2

Husks (Coir + Coir dust)

0.39

Shells

0.17

Coco water

0.24

Green Copra

0.37

4a

Dry Copra

4b

Moisture

0.2
0.17

4a-1

Copra Meal

0.08

4a-2

Copra Oil

0.12

Note:Averagevaluesfor1,000nuts
Source:Cloin,2005

Copra,thedriedkernelthatisusedtoextractcoconutoil,isthemostimportantproductfrom
thecoconut,andcoconutproductionisveryoftengivenintonnesofcopraequivalent.The
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ratioofweightsofthedifferentpartsofacoconutpalmtothedriedkernelisshowninFigure2
andTable2.Thefronds(leaves)havethemaximumweightatover4timestheweightofthe
kernel,androughlyonenewleafisproducedandanoldonedropsonceeverymonth.The
trunk(stem)isnextat1.45timesthekernel,butthestemcanonlybeharvestedonceatthe
endofitslifetime.Theweightofthehusk(coir+coirdust)is1.3timesandoftheshellis0.9
timestheweightofthekernel,allthreebeingproducedtogetherinonenut.Finally,the
kernelitselfconsistsoftwoparts:
CoconutOilisroughly60%;
CoconutMeal(orOilCake)thatremainsaftertheoilisextractedweighsabout40%.

Table 2 Quantity and Energy Content of parts of the Coconut Palm

Dry Kernel

CN-Oil

CN Meal

Shell

Coir

Coir dust

Fronds

Trunk

Combined

100%

61%

39%

90%

39%

91%

426%

145%

991%

29.1

37.7

15.7

18.2

16.7

16.7

16.7

16.7

16.2

Ratio to "Dry" Kernel (%)

(@ 4% moisture content)
Energy Content (GJ /t)

Source:Hagen,1995

Figure 2 Ratio of weights of parts of the coconut palm

Source:DatafromHagen,1995.

1.2

PotentialforPowerGenerationfromUnusedCoconutBiomass

Globalannualproductionofcoconutsin2005wasaround59.6billionnutequivalentor11.9
milliontonnescopraequivalentharvestedfrom1.2billionpalmson12.2millionha(APCC,
2006).Thetotalbiomassproduction(excludingthecocowaterbutincludingthekernel)is
106,100kilotonnes,ofwhich60.5%amountingto64,200kilotonnesisunprocessed.To
estimatethepowerthatcanbegeneratedfromunusedcoconut,thefollowingprocedurehas
beenfollowed(Hagen,1995):

1. Estimatethequantityofbiomassproducedbythecomponents(CNoil,CNmeal,shell,
huskconsistingofcoiranddust,frondsi.e.leaves,andtrunk).
2. Estimatereportedindustrialproductionofcomponents.
3. Theunusedcoconutbiomassfromthepalmsprocessedistakenasindustrialwaste.
4. Estimatethequantitiesusedbysmallholders.
5. TheremainderisAvailableUnprocessedBiomass.
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6. MultiplyunprocessedportionofeachcomponentwithitsEnergyContenttogivethe
GlobalUnusedBiomassEnergy.
7. Estimatethebiomassenergyavailableforelectricitygenerationas70%oftheunprocessed
biomass.
8. CalculatetheElectricityGenerationPotentialinGigaWattHours(GWh)basedontheNet
Efficiencyofthetechnologyusedforpowergeneration(Steamengines:10%;Gasifier+IC
engine:18%)
9. EstimatethetotalcapacityofpowergenerationinMegaWatts(MW)bytakingaLoad
Factorof50%.
Figure 3 Energy from Unused Coconut Biomass

Figure 4 Power Generation potential of Coconut Residues

AsperSystemeInternational(SI)usage,tonnereferstothemetrictonof1,000kg;PJ=petajoule=1015
Joules.TJ=terajoule=1012J;GJ=gigajoule=109Joules;MJ=megajoule=106Joules.
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TheresultsaregiveninTable3:
TheGlobalUnusedBiomassEnergyis1,125PetaJoules(PJ)ofwhich70%amountingto
788PJisassumedavailableforpowergeneration.
Ifthisbiomassisburnedinasteamengine,itcangenerate21,900GWhofelectricity.Ifit
isburnedinagasifieritcangenerate39,400GWh.
Ata50%LoadFactor(12hoursperday),thetotalpowergenerationcapacityis5,000MW
usingefficientsteamengines.However,bygasifyingthebiomassandusingInternal
Combustionengines,thetotalcapacityis9,000MW.

Table 3 Potential for Power generation from Coconut Residues

CN
PORTION>

Kernel

CNOil

100%

kt

11,913

43%

Coir

Meal

Shell

Coir

dust

Fronds

Trunk Combined

95%

62%

62%

61%

39%

90%

39%

91%

426%

145%

7,267

4,646

4,646

10,841

50,749 17,274

43%

43%

55%

55%

AirDryMatter/FreshWeight
assumed*
Ratioto"Dry"Kernel(@4%
MC)*
Total

Global

Coconut

Production

10,722

106,144

Industrial "Production" % of
Total*

Industrial"Production"

55%

kt

4,776

2,917

1,761

DesiccatedCN+CNCream

kt

323

%Commercial/Total*

40.1%

40.1%

37.9%

10.5%

8.4%

0.1%

30.0%

2.7%

21.8%

%Commercial/lIndustrial

99.1%

93.0%

87.8%

15.2%

0.1%

54.6%

5.0%

2,555

5,962

291

5,145

Consumption

5,897

55%

Commercial

2,007

55%

kt

Copra

3,138

843

27,912

9,501

11,410

356

56,972

17,377

19.1%

Industrial"Waste"
%Industrial"Waste"*

%Smallholderuse*
Available
Global

46

221

245

4,771

2,167

5,956

12,672

9,026

35,058

0.9%

7.0%

12.2%

80.9%

84.8%

99.9%

45.4%

95.0%

61.5%

kt

3,574

2,180

1,394

536

232

542

13,854

864

19,602

30.0%

30.0%

30.0%

5.0%

5.0%

5.0%

27.3%

5.0%

18.5%

kt

3,194

1,948

1,246

9,060

4,023

10,288

21,670 15,944

EnergyContent*
Unused

64,179

Biomass

26.8%

26.8%

26.8%

84.5%

86.6%

94.9%

42.7%

92.3%

60.5%

GJ/t

29.1

37.7

15.7

18.2

16.7

16.7

16.7

16.7

16.2

PJ

93

73

20

67

172

362

266

Biomass

Energy
available

for

Electricity@70%

Generation

1,125

65

51

14

115

47

120

253

186

788

NE

GWh

10%

1,809

1,429

381

1,308

3,343

7,042

5,181

Electricity

165

PJ

Potential

Portion

Unprocessed
Global

40.0%

Unprocessed

Biomass

kt

Smallholder eating/cooking
etc.

GWh

18%

3,256

3,209

2,573

685

5,776

2,354

6,018

21,893

12,676

9,327
Page4

39,408

PowerGenerationPotential

MW

10%

413

@50%Loadfactor

326

87

MW

18%

743

733

587

156

299

1,319

763

1,608

1,183

537

4,998

1,374

2,894

Coir

Fronds

2,129

8,997

Table 4 Power Generation Potential from Unused Residues (1,000 tons copra equiv./year)

CN
Portion>>

Kernel

EquivalentMassRate
@50%Loadfactor

CNOil

Meal

kg/hr

228

139

89

EquivalentHeatrate
MinimumEnergyAvailable

Shell

205

kW

1,846

1,458

388

15.1%

15.1%

15.1%

kW

18%

40

11

89

1,036

dust (Leaves)

Trunk Combined

208

973

331

960

4,504

1,535

0.0%

99.0%

42.7%

50.0%

148

172

2,988

412

79.4%

PowerwithGasifierGenset

Coir

13,445
37.7%

347

138

Source:AuthorscalculationswithAssumptions(*)fromHagen,1995;
Note:(a)NE=NetEfficiency;(b)AsperSystemeInternational(SI)usage,tonnereferstothemetricton
of 1,000 kg; PJ = petajoule = 1015 Joules. TJ =terajoule = 1012 J; GJ = gigajoule = 109 Joules; MJ =
megajoule=106Joules.

1.3

DecentralisedPowerGenerationfromCoconutResidues

Generally,thefarmerdriesthekernelandsellsthecoprathroughmiddlementothelarge
coconutoilmillsthatarelocatedinurbanareasandprocesscopraintococonutoilandmeal
(oilcake).Forexample,around100coconutprocessingplantsinthePhilippinesaregenerally
verylarge(500,000to5,000,000nuts/dayor30,000to300,000tonscopra/year).However,
over90%ofcoconutsaregrownbysmallholdersmanyofwhomdonothavepowersupply.
Coconutscanbeprocessedlocallyinsmallerprocessingplants,andtheenergyoftheunused
biomasscanbeusedtogeneratepowerforthepopulationresidingnearby.

Asmallprocessingplantthatcoverts1000tonnescopraequivalentperyearisanalysedin
Table4.Onanaverage,5millionnutsarerequiredtoproduce1000tonnescopra(5nutsper
kgcopra).Thiscancomefrom1,000smallholderseachproducinganaverageof1tonnecopra
peryear,orfrom2,000smallholderseachproducinganaverageof0.5tonnecopraperyear.
If70%oftheunusedbiomassisusedforpowergenerationinaBiomassGasifier+ICengine
systemoperatingatanetefficiencyof18%,1,000kWofelectricitycanbegeneratedfor10
hourseveryday(50%loadfactor).If25%oftheworldscoconutproductionisprocessedin
thisway,thereisaglobalpotentialfornearly3,000suchdecentralizedpowerplantsof1MW
capacity.

Evensmallermicroscaleprocessingunitsmaybethemostappropriatesolutioninmany
locationsespeciallyonsmalltropicalislandsmostofwhichgrowcoconuts.Thegasifier+IC
enginesystemalsoproduceswasteheatthatcanbeusedfordryingthecopra.Forexample,in
combinationwithanoilmillprocessing10tonnesofcopra/year,a10kWgasifier+gasengine
powerplantcanbeinstalled.Thiswillutilizethecoconutproductionofabout20smallholders
andcatertotheirelectricityneedsaswell.Ifonly1%oftheglobalcoconutproductionis
processedinsuchmicrooilmills,thereisapotentialfor12,000powerplantsof10kWcapacity
thatcanprovidepowerto240,000smallholders.
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855

Smallscalepowergenerationintheruralareascanstimulatedevelopmentofsmalland
mediumscaleindustriesthataddvaluetolocallyavailablerawmaterials.Byproviding
additionalemploymentopportunitiesandincomegenerationitcanalleviatepoverty.

1.4

DieselsavingsandEmissionsReductions

DieselSavings

Ifelectricityfromdieselpowerplantsisdisplacedbytheelectricityproducedfromcoconut
residues,then11.8billionlitresofdiesel(74millionbarrels)canbesavedinayear.Thiswill
leadtoareductioningreenhousegasemissionsof32milliontonnesofCO2(Table2).

Table 5 Diesel savings

ElectricityproducedfromResidues 39,408 GWh/year

Dieselsavings

11.8 billionlitres/year
= 74 millionbarrels/year

Assumptions:

Dieselusageforelecticitygeneration= 0.30

litres/kWh

Thevalueof11.8billionlitresofdieselatvariouscrudeoilpricesisgiveninTable3.Thevalue
ofdieselis5.2and10.4billionUS$atacrudeoilpriceof50and100US$/barrelrespectively.

Table 6 Diesel Price and Savings

CrudeOil
US$/bbl
50
100
150
200

Diesel
US$/litre
0.44
0.88
1.32
1.76

Dieselsavings
billionUS$
5.20
10.41
15.61
20.82

Assumption:DieselPriceis40%morethanCrudeOilprice
(Refining&Profit=32%;Distribution&Marketing=8%)
Source:EIA,USA

EmissionsReductions

Atareductionof2.7kgcarbondioxide(CO2)foreverylitreofdieselsaved,thetotalemissions
reductionsfromthedieselsavingsalonewillbe32milliontonnesCO2/year.

However, this is not the total CO2 emissions reductions resulting from electricity generation
usingbiofuelsfromcoconutinsteadofdiesel.ThereareCO2 emissionsduringtheproduction
and processing of coconuts, and usage of coconut biofuels in engines that have to be taken
intoaccount.Theseemissionsareduetofossilfuelsusedin:
Production of coconuts from fossil fuels used to produce fertilisers used, in farm
mechanisation,etc.;
Processing coconuts from fossil fuels used for transportation of coconuts and its
products,andforproducingheat&electricityatoilmill,etc.;
Page6

Engine modifications from fossil fuels used in producing biomass gasifiers,

componentsusedtomodifyenginestorunoncoconutoil,etc.

Togetafairpictureofcarbonsavingsbyreplacingdieselbycoconuts,afulllifecycleanalysisof
the coconut fuel chain has to be carried out in which all these CO2 emissions have been
accountedfor.

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2
2.1

POST HARVEST TREATMENT AND PROCESSING

NutStorage

Nutsaregenerallydehuskedsoonafterharvesting,ifpossibleonthesameday.Storageofthe
nutsisnotreallyrequiredbeforedehusking,exceptforverygreennutswhichareeasierto
dehuskaftersomestorage.Duringperiodsofpeakharvests,notallnutsharvesteddailycanbe
dehuskedthesameday,andstoragewillbenecessary.Tomaintainacertainstockmayalsobe
necessarytokeepthedehuskingteamconstantlysuppliedwithcoconuts.

Storageofnutsshouldbedoneinasdryconditionsaspossible,preferablyunderaroofand
closetothedehuskingsite.Toreducetransportationcosts,nutsaresometimesstoredunder
thetreesforlocaldehusking,butthisincreasestheriskofnuttheftandrodentattack.Local
experienceisthebestindicatorofthepossibilitiesforstorageduringthewetandthedry
seasons.

Table7givestheeffectsofstoragetimeonthegermination,moisturecontentandformation
ofballcopra.

Table 7

Effects of Storage Time on Dehusked Nuts

StorageTime(months)
1
2
3

Germination
1%
9%
27%

BallCopraFormation
10%
33%
70%
100%

MoistureContent
80%
66%
55%

Source:(Ohler,1999)

Theadvantagesofstoringorseasoningharvestednutsbeforetheyareprocessedfurtherare:
Moisturecontentofthemeatdecreases;
Germinationpercentageincreases;
Moreuniformcopraquality;
Dehuskingbecomeseasierespeciallywiththegreenercoconuts.Trialsindicatedthat
whole12montholdnutsdriedsufficientlywithintwomonthstofacilitatehuskingand
copraextraction.
Shellingbecomeseasierandcleaner;
Greatermeatresistancetobacterialslimingduringsundrying;
Underverydryconditionsnutsmaydryoutduringstoragewithoutgerminating.Thismay
facilitatedehuskingandscoopingoutofthecoprafromtheshell.
(Ohler,1999)

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2.2

Dehusking

Thesimplestmethodofremovingthekernelfromthenutisbysplittingthenutintotwo
halvesorthreepartswiththeuseofaaxewithoutdehusking,andthisisdoneinseveral
islandsinthePacific.Thekernelcanthenbescoopedwithaknifeouttobesundriedortaken
tothekiln,butmoreoftenitistransporteddirectlytoaprocessingfactorywithhotairdryers
forcopramanufacture.Thehuskwiththeshellattachedtoitisusedasfuelforthedryer
typicallyabout50%isrequiredfordrying.

Thismethodhasseveraldrawbacks:
Thewetendospermstickstotheshellandcannotberemovedinhalvesorlargepieces.
Thekernelisscoopedoutwithaflatmetalimplementresultinginfingercutkernels.
Theincreasedsurfaceofthecutendospermexposedtotheairincreasesdeterioration.
Thereisalsoanincreasedriskofcontaminationwithdirtintheplantation.
Whentheendospermistransportedinbagsandpoundedtoreduceitsvolume,
deteriorationwillbemuchincreased,particularlyifthesebagshavebeenusedbeforefor
thesamepurpose.
Bothhusksandshellsnotusedasfuelremaininthefield.Theshellwilltakealongtimeto
decomposeandmaybecomeanuisance.

In most of the coconut growing countries, the first step in the postharvest treatment of
coconutsisdehusking,oftendoneintheneighbourhoodofthecoprakiln.
Thisishardworkandistraditionallydonemanuallybylabourexperiencedin
dehusking.
Dehuskingreducestheweightofnutsbyabout40%andthevolumebyabout60%.
Thecostofnuttransportationtothekilncanbereducedbydehuskingthenutsunder
thetrees,sothatonlytheunopenednutsinshellshavetobetransportedtothekiln.
Thehusksremaininthefieldforuseasanorganicmulchandfertilizersinceitisrichin
plantnutrientsanddecomposeseasily.Whennutsaredehuskedinthefield,they
mustbeshaded,sothattheydonotburstwhenheatedbysunshine.
However,ifthehusksarealsotobeusedasfuelfordryingthendehuskingmightas
wellbedonenearthekilnsorhotairdryers.

Photo 1 Manual Coconut Dehusking Tool

Source:FAO

Themostfrequentlyuseddehuskingmethodisbytheuseofapointedmetalspike,securedin
thegroundinaslightlyslantingposition,withthepointupwards(Photo1).Thenutsare
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broughtdownwithforceonthespike,followedbytwistingthenutsidewaysagainstthespike,
looseningthehusk.Thismovementisrepeatedonceortwiceforthetotalremovalofthehusk.
Careistakenthatthepointofthespikeentersthehuskatthestalkendsoastoavoidthe
damagingtheshell.

Dehuskingishardwork;itislowpayingandnotverypopular,soitisoftendifficulttofind
labourforthisoperationeventhoughitcanprovidejobsfortheunemployed.Thenumberof
nutsonemancandehuskperdaydependsverymuchonthetypeofthenuts,thethicknessof
thehusk,andtheskillandenergyoftheoperator.Anaverageexperiencedworkeriscapable
ofdehusking1200to1500nutsperday.AnaverageworkerinMalaysiagenerallymanagesto
process1000MalayanTallnuts,1200MAWAhybridsor1500MalayanDwarfnutsperworking
day.Inmostcountries,dehuskingandsplittingareperformedbydifferentlabour.

Variousmechanizedsystemshavebeendevelopedduringthepastdecades,butnosystem
reallymadeanimpactanddehuskingisstilldonemanuallyinmostplaces.Majorproblemsfor
mechanicaldehuskingincludedifferentsizesofnutsandshells,andthedifferentstagesof
maturityoftheharvestednuts(thiscanbeovercomebystoringthenutsforafewweeks).
DevelopmentofdehuskingmachineshasbeencarriedoutinMalaysia,theUK,Indiaand
TrinidadandTobagobutusageinlargenumbershasbeenslow.Reasonsforlowacceptability
ofthemachinesincludelowprocessingcapacityandhighlabourandotheroperatingcosts.
(Ohler,1999)

TheCoCoMaNdehushingmachineavailablefromMethodMachineWorksSdnBhdin
MalaysiaisshowninFig.(http://www.coconutmachine.com/).FOBcostin6,5007.500
USD.

Photo 2

CoCoMaN dehushing machine

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Source:http://www.coconutmachine.com/

2.3

NutTransportation

Thesystemofnuttransportationdependsonthevolumeofnutstobehandledandthe
distanceoverwhichthisvolumehastobetransported.Insmallcoconutfarms,thefarmer
transportsthenutstohishousehimself.Asthesizeofthefarmsandthenumberofnuts
increases,othermodesoftransportationareusedincludinglargebasketsonbicycles,horses
ordonkeysandanimaldrawncarts.Inlargeholdingsnutsaretransportedbytractordrawn
cartstothedryingkilnwheretheyaresplitanddrainedbeforebeingplacedinthekiln.In
somelargeplantations,nutsarebrokenimmediatelyandplacedinbagsholdingabout40
brokennutseach.However,transportationhastobereadilyavailableandwaitinghoursat
thekilnmustbelow,otherwiseopenednutswillstartmouldingwithinoneday.Trucksare
normallyusedfortransportingnutstoacentralfactoryoutsidetheplantation.
2.4

Cracking

Thesecondsolidbiofuelfromthecoconutistheshell.Theshellisseparatedfromthekernel
by:
crackingifcopraorvirgincoconutoilistobeproduced;or
shellingifdessicatedcoconutistobeproduced.

Dehuskedcoconutsarecrackedorsplitintotwohalvesalongtheequatorwithasteelrodor
heavyknife.Thisisdoneformakingcopraortofacilitategratingfordomesticusesorfor
productionofvirgincoconutoil.Crackingiscarriedoutmanually,andthereisnoneedfor
mechanization.

Photo 3 Breaking coconuts for making Copra

Source:Breagetal,1994
2.5

CopraManufacture

Coconutoilismostlyproducedmadeinlargemillsfromthedriedkernelcalledcopra.When
makingmillcopra,theobjectiveistodrythekernelofthefreshlyopenednutfromthe50%
Page11


moisture level down to 6% as fast as is practically possible. The high moisture content and
presenceofproteinandsugarmakesthefreshkernelanidealmediumforthedevelopmentof
bacteria and fungi. It is therefore liable to deterioration and very susceptible to attack by
microorganisms,withthedevelopmentoffreefattyacidsandranciditythatdegradethefuel
qualityoftheoil,andalsotheformationofaflatoxinwhichisahighlypoisonouschemical.
Since copra is considered as a low value product, it is not economically viable to use
sophisticateddryers,oreventheuseofblowersforamoreconstantairflow.Therefore,for
makingcopra,naturaldraftdryersareused.Commonmethodsofdryingcanbeclassifiedas:

1) UsingHeatfromtheSun
a) Sundrying
b) Solardrying

2) UsingHeatfromburningBiomass
a) KilndryingusingSmokeDirectorSemidirectdrying
b) IndirectdryingusingHotair

DryingmethodsforproductionofcopraaredescribedinAnnex2.

Inadditiontothemillcoprawhichismilledforoilandcake,therearetwoothertypesofcopra
producedinmuchsmallerbutsignificantquantitiesforediblepurposes:
BallCopradryingiscarriedoutmainlybystorageontheplatformundercomplete
shadeforperiodsof68months.Duringtherainyseasonartificialdryingisdone.
Edible Copra the fuel used for drying is coconut shell charcoal, which produces an
evencleanerdirectheat.Sometimesasmallamountofsulphurisburnttoobtainan
attractivewhitecolour.

Photo 4 Edible Ball copra whole and cut into halves

Source:Rethinametal,2002

Page12

3
3.1

COCONUT OIL - COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES

Composition

Coconutoilisamixtureofchemicalcompoundscalledglyceridescontainingfattyacidsand
glycerol.ThedifferentfattyacidspresentincoconutoilrangefromC6C18carbonatom
chains.Theoiliscontainedinthekernelormeatofthenut.CoconutnutoilandPalmkernel
oilsarecalledlauricoilssincethemaincomponent(over50%)islauricacid.

Table 8 The chemical composition of coconut oil

Component

Fraction%(1)

Lauricacid
Myristicacid
Caprilicacid
Palmiticacid
Oleicacid

51.0
18.5
9.5
7.5
5.0

Capricacid
Stearicacid
Linoleicacid

4.5
3.0
1.0

ChemicalFormula
CH3(CH2)10COOH
CH3(CH2)12COOH
CH3(CH2)6COOH
CH3(CH2)14COOH
CH3(CH2)7CH=
CH3(CH2)7COOH
CH3(CH2)8COOH
CH3(CH2)16COOH
CH3(CH2)4CH=
CHCH2CH=
CH(CH2)7COOH

Systematicnamea

Dodecanoicacid
Tetradecanoicacid
Octanoicacid
Hexadecanoicacid
9ZOctadecenoicacid
Decanoicacid
Octadecanoicacid
9Z,12ZOctadecadienoic
acid

Acronymb
12:0
14:0
8:0
16:0
18:1
10:0
18:0
18:2

Source:Knotheetal,1997except(1)Hilditch,1956.
Note:a)Zdenotescisconfiguration;b)Thenumbersdenotethenumberofcarbonatomsanddouble
bondsinonemolecule.Forexample,inoleicacid,18:1indicatesthateachmoleculecontainseighteen
carbonatomsandonedoublebond.

3.2

FuelrelatedProperties

Thepropertiesofcoconutoilrelevantforitsuseasadieselsubstituteare:

SpecificEnergyindicationofthefuelsenergyreleasedwhenitisburned.Coconutoils
energy(38.4MJ/kgor34.9MJ/liter)isalittlelessthanpetrodiesel(46MJ/kgor38.6MJ/liter).
Theenergycontentofoneliterofcoconutoilistypically92%ofthatofoneliterofdiesel.

CetaneNumber(CN)indicationofthefuelswillingnesstoignitewhenitiscompressed.
CoconutoilsCN(60)isthehighest.

Viscosityindicationofthefuelsabilitytoatomizeintheinjectorsystem.Coconutoils
viscosityiscomparablewithotheroilsbutisseveraltimeshigherthanpetrodiesel.Higher
viscositywillcausepoorvolatilizationofthefuelintheinjectorsystemandpoorspraypattern.
Theviscosityofplantoilssuchascoconutoilcanbereducedbyheating,blendingortrans
esterification.

SolidificationPointindicationofthetemperatureatwhichthefuelwillturnsolid.Coconut
oilssolidificationpointalsocalledfreezingpointisaround24Csoitfreezesduringwinter
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timeeveninsometropicalcountries.Solidificationcanbepreventedbyblendingitwith
dieselorkerosene.Removingtheresidualwaterandfreefattyacidsfoundinmillrefined
coconutoilalsoreducesthefreezingpointtosomeextent.

IodineValue(IV)givesthedegreeofunsaturationofafatandisanindicationoftheability
ofthefueltopolymerizeduetothefuelsdegreeofbondsavailable.CoconutoilsIV(=10)is
thelowestamongalltheplantoilsshowninTable,soitislesslikelytocauseproblems
associatedwithpolymerisationofaplantoilintheengine.

SaponificationValue(SV)indicationofthefuelsabilitytovaporizeandatomizeduetothe
fuelscarbonchains.CoconutoilhasthehighestSV(268),soitwillignitemorequicklythan
otherplantoils.SVismeasuredbythenumberofmilligramsofpotassiumhydroxiderequired
toconvert1gramoffatintoglycerine/soap.

Table 9 Fuel-related properties of vegetable oils and petroleum diesel

Specific
Cetane
Energy,Gross Number
(MJ/kg)
4149
4555

Petroleum
Diesel
CoconutOil
42.0
PalmOil
39.6
RapeseedOil
39.7
SoybeanOil
39.6
LinseedOil
39.7
Source:Bradley,2004

60

38
37.9

Kinematic
Viscosity@
40C(cS)
4

Solidification
Point
(C)
9

Iodine
Value

Saponification
Value

20
37
37
33
29

24
35
10
16
24

10
54
125
130
179

268
199
175
191
190

Page14

OIL PRESSING & REFINING

Technologiesforproducingcoconutoilfallundertwocategories:
DRYPROCESSTheoilisextractedfromthedriedcoconutkernelcalledcopra.Thiscan
bedoneinlargeoilmills(1000litresoilperhourormore)orinMinimills(10100litresper
hour).Oilmillsaremechanisedandneedtheirownpowersupplytooperatethe
equipment.
WETPROCESSTheoilisextractedfromthefreshkernelaftergratinginitswetorasemi
driedstate.TheRampressandDirectMicroExpeller(DME)havebeenusedtoproduce
VirginCoconutOil(VCO)usinghandoperatedpressessuitableforhouseholdor
communityscale.However,VCOsellsatapricethatismorethandoublethepriceofoil
fromthedryprocess,andisthereforetooexpensivetobeusedasafuel.
4.1

DryProcessandOilRefining

Figure 5

Schematicofdryprocessforcoconutoilextraction

Source:CottorInternational

DriedCoprafromthefarmisstoredinwarehouses,sometimesupto2to3months,beforeitis
processedinamediumorlargescaleoilmillwhereitundergoesthefollowingmainsteps:
Cleaning:Copraistransferredfromthewarehousetoamillbyaseriesoffloorconveyors,
rotorliftandoverheadconveyors.Copraiscleanedofmetals,dirtandotherforeign
mattermanuallybypickingorbymeansofshakingorrevolvingscreens,magnetic
separatorsandothersimilardevices.
Crushing/Cutting:Copraisbrokenintofineparticlesizesofabout1/16"to1/8"byhigh
speedverticalhammermillsorcutterstofacilitateoilextraction;
Cooking/Conditioning:Thecrushedcoprathathasabout56percentmoistureispassed
throughasteamheatedcooker.Thisbringsthetemperatureofthecopratothe
Page15

conditioningtemperatureofabout104oC.Attheconditioner,thecopraismaintainedat
about104110oCforabout30minutestoinsureuniformheatpenetrationbeforeoil
extraction.Moderatelyhightemperaturefacilitatestheexpellingaction.Oilisabletoflow
outmoreeasilyduetodecreaseinviscosity.Moisturecontentofcopraisabout3percent
whenitleavestheconditioner.
Oilextraction:Intheexpeller,themilledcopraissubjectedtohighpressureoilextraction,
firstbyaverticalscrew,andfinallybyahorizontalscrew.Tocontrolthetemperature
duringextraction,themainshaftisprovidedwithwatercoolingandcooledoilissprayed
overthescrewcagebars.Thetemperatureoftheoilshouldbekeptatabout93102oCto
producelightcolouredoilandeffectgoodextraction.
Screening:Theoilextractedintheexpellerflowsintothescreeningtankstoremovethe
entrainedfootsfromtheoil.Thefootssettleatthebottomandarecontinuouslyscooped
outbyaseriesofchainmountedscraperswhichliftthefootstothescreenontopofthe
tank.Whiletravellingacrossthescreen,oilisdrainedoutofthefoots.Thefilteredoilflows
intoasurgetankfromwhereitisfinallypumpedtothecoconutoilstoragetank.
Filtration:Preliminaryfiltrationisdoneinoneofmoresettlingtanks.Theoiltakenfrom
thetopofthesettlingtankispassedthroughaplateandframefilterpresstofurther
removethesolidsintheoil.Maximumfilteringpressuresreachabout60psi.Thefiltered
oilflowsintoasurgetankfromwhereitisfinallypumpedtothecoconutoilstoragetank.

Coconutoilrefining
Goodqualitycoconutoilislowinfattyacidsandhasagoodaromaitcanonlybeproduced
fromgoodqualitycopra.However,afterseveralweeksormonthsinstorageand
transportation,copraislikelytobedark,turbid,highinfreefattyacids(FFA),phosphatides
andgums,andhaveanunpleasantodour.Theoilfromsuchlowqualitycoprahastoberefined
toproduceclear,odourfreeedibleoil.Lossesduringtherefiningprocesscanbe5to7.5
percentoftheweightofthecrudeoil.Themainstepsintherefiningprocessare:
Physicalrefining:Aweaksolutionofphosphoricacidisaddedtoremovephosphatides
andgumswhichareseparatedfromtheoilbycentrifugationorbydecantation.
Neutralisation:Sodiumhydroxideisusedtoconvertfreefattyacidintoanoilinsoluble
precipitatecalledsoapstockwhichsettlesdownandisremoved.
Bleaching:improvesthecolorofcrudeoilbyheatingedtoremoveexcessmoistureand
thenaddingeitheractivatedcarbonorbleachingearthsuchasbentonite.Thebleaching
agentsarethenremovedbypassingtheoilthroughafilterpress.
Deodorisation:removesvolatileodoursandflavoursaswellasperoxidesthataffectthe
stabilityoftheoiltherebyimprovingtheshelflifeoftheoil.Theoilisheatedtoa
temperaturebetween150250oCandcontactingwithlivesteamundervacuumconditions.

MiniMills
Mini Mills can be used to produce coconut oil on a small scale from copra using the Dry
process(10100litresoilperhour).Ifgoodqualitycopraisusedthentherefiningprocessis
notnecessaryandonlyfiltrationisrequiredtoproducefuelgradeoilthatislowinfreefatty
acids, moisture and particulates. An excellent discussion on MiniMills is given in the World
BankpublicationCoconutOilPowerGenerationahowtoguideforsmallstationaryengines
Page16


(World Bank, 2009). Details of mills available from manufacturers in China, India and other
countries are provided. Indian MiniMills are designed for copra feedstock but the Chinese
mills,whicharecheaper,aredesignedforsmallerandharderoilseedsandsotheyhavetobe
modifiedforusewithcopratoavoidjammingtheexpeller.TheWorldBankguideexplainsthe
modificationstobecarriedoutontheChineseMinimillssothattheycanbeusedforcopra.

4.2

WetProcess

Inthewetprocessthecoconutkernelisgratedanddriedtoamoisturecontentofaround12
14%onsheetmetalplatesheatedfrombelow.Atthismoisturelevelitispossibletousehand
operatedpressestoextracttheoilfromthegratedcoconuts.Twotypesofequipmenthave
beenused:
RamPress
DirectMicroExpeller(DME)

4.2.1

RamPress

Rampress(alsocalledBielenbergPress)isamethodofexpellingoilfromarangeofoilseeds
includingdriedcoconuteitherintheformofdriedfreshcoconutgratings,copraordried
residuefromaqueouscoconutprocesses.Inaqueousprocessescoconutmilkisremovedfrom
freshcoconutgratingsleavingbehindcoconutresiduecontaining47%to57%oiland4%
moisture.Thisresiduecannormallybesoldatalowprice,andprocessingitintherampressto
yieldoilcanprovidehigherreturns.

Photo 5 Coconut oil extraction using the Ram Press

Source:CFC,1998

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TheRamPressisamanuallyoperated,semicontinuous,lowcostoilpressdesignedtobeused
bysmallholderfarmers.Itcanbefabricatedandmaintainedbymostvillageworkshopsand
thesmallerversioncaneasilybeoperatedbyindividualwomen.

Feedstockpreparation
Bothfreshlydriedcoconutgratingsandground/gratedcopracanbeprocessedintheram
pressbutthefinancialreturnfromthecoconutresidueishigherthanfromcopra.Thecostof
copraismuchhigherthanthatofcoconutresiduefromtheaqueousprocessandthe
differenceisnotcompensatedbytheslightlyincreasedoilrecovery.

Coconutresiduefromtheaqueousprocessisusuallyallowedtodryoutinheapswithlittle
careorattention.Residuedriedinthismannerproducesoilwithahighleveloffreefattyacid
thatisnotsuitablefordirectedibleconsumption.Inordertoyieldoilofediblequality,the
residuehastobecarefullydriedsoonafterproductionbyspreadingitoutinthinlayersin
directsunlight.Athinlayerofcoconutresiduewillrequireaboutfourhoursindirectsunshine
tobringthemoisturecontentdowntoasatisfactorylevel.

ProductRecovery
Typicallyitispossibletoachieveathroughputof4kgcoconutresidueperhour.10kgsof
residuecanproduce3.9litresofoiland6.1kgofcake.Abouttwothirdsoftheoiloriginally
presentisextractedandapproximately1.65kg(1.8litres)ofoilremainsinthecake.

Oilfromgoodqualitycopra,freshlydriedcoconutgratingsorfreshlydriedcoconutresiduecan
beusedasfuelorconsumedascookingoilorusedforcosmeticpurposes.Poorqualityoilcan
beusedinthemanufactureofsoap.Therampresscakefromcoconutgratings,coconut
residueorcopracanbeusedasacomponentofanimalfeeds.

FurtherdetailsoftheRamPresscanbefoundintheFACTJatrophaHandbookVol.4(FACT,
2009)andintheWorldBankCoconutGuide(WorldBank,2009).

4.2.2
DMEDirectMicroExpelling
TheDMEprocessextractscoconutoilfromfreshlygratedcoconutkernelthathasbeendried
toamoisturecontentof912%.ThesemidriedgratedcoconutenterstheDMEequipmentat
atemperatureof45600Cforoilextraction.Filtrationisdonebykeepingtheoilinsettling
tanksforaweek.

TheDMEequipmentconsistsofarackandpinionpresswithinterchangeablestainlesssteel
cylindersandpistons,anelectricalorenginepoweredgratingmachineandasurfacedryer.
TheAustraliancompanyKokonutPacificwhodevelopedtheDMEprocessistheonlyknown
supplierofsmallscaleDMEequipmentandtrainingservices.Typically,KokonutPacificDME
equipmentcanprocess3.5kgsofgratedcoconutperbatchtoextractaround1litreofcoconut
oilwithanoilextractionefficiencyofaround80%.Undernormalconditions,itispossibleto
processupto300600nutsdailywithanoutputof2050liters(L)ofoil.EachDMEunit
Page18


requires3to5workers.Skillsrequiredtooperatetheequipmentaresimpleandcanbeeasily
learned.

KokonutPacificisalsotryingtohelpcoconutfarmerssellthevirgincoconutoilfromDMEafter
localdemandissatisfied.Theyensurequality,purchasetheoilfromthefarmersandexportit
toEuropeanandothercountries,muchofitgoingtothecosmeticsindustry.Furtherdetails
canbefoundintheirwebsitewww.kokonutpacific.com.au/.

Page19


5
5.1

UTILIZATIONOFLIQUIDBIOFUELS
CoconutOilfordieselengines

The use of vegetable oils for engine fuels may seem insignificant today. But such oils may
become in the course of time as important as petroleum and the coal tar products of the
presenttime.RudolfDiesel(1912)

Theuseofplantoilsindieselenginesisasoldasthedieselengineitself.In1896whenthe
inventorofthedieselengineRudolfDieselfirstdemonstratedhisengineinParis,heraniton
peanutoil.However,thedieselengineasithasevolvedtilltodayisoptimisedandmeantto
usedieselfuel,andsoplantoilscoulddamagetheengineifcareisnottaken.

5.1.1

InternalCombustionEngines

Internalcombustionengines(ICengines)nowpowermostofourlandandseatransportand
someofourairtransportandpowerplantsaswell.ICenginesareclassifiedprimarilybythe
methodofignitionused:
a) Sparkignition(SI)enginesthatgenerallyusegasoline/petrolasfuel;theseenginesare
usedinautomobiles,smallboats,aircraftandsmallelectricitygeneratingsets;naturalgas
enginesarealsoSI.
b) Compressionignition(CI)enginesthatgenerallyusedieselasfuel;theseenginesareused
inmediumandheavydutytrucksandbuses,smallerautomobiles,boatsandships,and
dieselpowerplants.

Therearetwotypesofliquidfuelsderivedfromplantsthatcansubstitutegasoline/petroland
diesel:
Ethanolproducedfrom:sugar(sugarcane,sugarbeet),starch(maize,cassava),or
cellulose(bagasse,straw,wood).
Plantoilssuchasrapeseedoil,sunfloweroil,cottonseedoil,coconutoil,etc.and
theirderivativessuchasbiodieselproducedbyesterificationoftheseoils.
WhilethetechnologyforusingethanolinbothSIandCIenginesiswelldeveloped,pureplant
oilandbiodieselcan,atpresent,beusedonlyinCIengines.Inthissectionwelookattheuse
ofcoconutoilinCIengines.Section5.2looksbrieflyatbiodieselproducedfromcoconutoil.

Averygooddescriptionofthecomponents,fuelsystemandhowthecompressionignition
engineworksisgivenintheWorldBankpublicationCoconutOilPowerGenerationahowto
guideforsmallstationaryengines(WorldBank,2009).
5.1.2
FuelInjection
While using pure coconut oil in CI engines, it is very important to understand the difference
between direct injection and indirect injection engines, and the advantages that an Indirect
injectionenginehasoverDirectinjectionsothattheengineisnotdamaged.
Page20

DirectInjectionengine:thefuelisdirectlyinjectedintothecombustionchamber.

IndirectInjectionengine:thefuelisinjectedintoaprechamberwhichisconnectedwith
thecylinderthroughanarrowpassage.Rapidairtransferfromthemaincylinderintothe
prechamberpromotesaveryhighdegreeofairmotionintheprechamberwhichis
particularlyconducivetorapidfuelairmixing.Combustionbeginningintheprechamber
produceshighpressureandthefuelsaresubjectedtohighshearforces.

Figure6DirectIgnitionengine

(a) PistonHeadCavityCombustion
Chamber
Source:Kopial,2005

Figure7IndirectIgnitionengine

(b) CylinderHeadCombustionChamber

(a) PreCombustionChamber
(b) RotationalSwirlCombustionChamber
Source:Kopial,2005

Inordertoavoidenginedamagepropercombustionofcoconutoilinthecombustionchamber
hastobeensured.Impropercombustioncanresultincarbondepositsonthenozzlesand
valves(Photoa)andmechanicaldamagetothepistonringsandcylinder(Photob).

Propercombustionofcoconutoilinthechamberisensuredby:
a) Decreasingtheviscosityoftheoilbyheatingittoaround70oC.
b) Ensuring good atomisation of the fuel by increasing injection pressure to 180 200
bars
Page21


c) Ensuring that the temperature in the combustion chamber is high enough (above
500oC).
Photo 6

Effectsofimpropercombustionofcoconutoilinengine

a) Carbondepositsonthenozzleandvalves

b)Mechanicaldamageonpistonringsand
cylinder

Source:Vaitilingom,2009

DecreasingViscosityofCoconutOil
The viscosity of coconut oil can be decreased by using a simple shellandtube type heat
exchangerthattakeshotradiatorwatertowarmupthecoconutoil.Theinnercoiledpipeis
made of copper to facilitate good heat transfer while the outer cylindrical shell is made of
steel. Photo shows the components of the heat exchanger and when it is fitted in a car.
(Deamer,2005)

Viscocityofcoconutoilcanalsobedecreasedbyblendingitwithkerosene.TonyDeamerof
Vanuatu has found that a blend of 85% coconut oil and 15% kerosene works very well with
dieselengines.WiththisblendwhichhecallsIslandFuel,theheatexchangerisnotrequired,
buthestillrecommendsit.TheIslandFuelblendalsomakessurethatcoconutoildoesnot
freezeinthefueltankataround20oC.SeeSection5.3.1formoredetails.

Photo7Heatexchangerusedforconversionofcarstorunoncoconutoil

(a)ComponentsoftheHeatExchanger
Source:TonyDeamer

(b)HeatExchangerfittedinacar

Page22

CombustionTemperature
The temperature in the Combustion Chamber has to be high enough (above 500oC) for the
coconut oil to burn fully. Indirect injection engines have temperatures above 500oC
irrespective of the load, and so coconut oil can be used safely in these engines even at low
loads.

Figure 8

Effect of chamber temperature on combustion of coconut oil

IfTemperatureinCombustionChamberislow
(<300oC),
e.g.Directinjectionengineatlowloads<50%

IfTemperatureinCombustionChamberishigh
enough(>500oC)
e.g.Directinjectionengineathighloads>50%;
Indirectinjectionenginesatanyload

Source:Vaitilingom,2009

2tanksystemforaDirectinjectionengine
Since Direct injection engines have temperatures above 500oC only at high loads, to ensure
completecombustionof the fuel a2tank systemmustbe usedso that the engine isrunon
diesel fuel whenever the load is below 50%. Figure9 shows one way of doing this using a
solenoidvalveforfuelswitching.
Page23

Page24


Figure 9

A 2-tank system for using Coconut Oil in a Direct injection engine

Filter,heatexchangerandpump

Coconutoil
Bypass

2x3wayssolenoid

Controlmodule

Filter

engine

DieselFueltank

RPMsensor

Exhaustgastempprobe

EXAMPLE OF A 2-TANK SYSTEM

Photo 8

Auxiliary equipment used with a 2-tank system

Solenoid Valve

Heat Exchangers

Control Module

Coconut oil Pump

Coconut Oil Filter

Page25


Source:GillesVaitilingom
ApplicationsofDieselengines
Dieselenginesareusedmainlyfortwoapplications:
1. Stationerydieselenginescoupledwithgeneratorsforpowergenerationrefertothe
WorldBankCoconutGuidefordetails(WorldBank,2009).
2. Automotivedieselenginesfortrucks,buses,carsandshipsrefertoSection5.3.1for
details.

5.1.3

QualityStandardsforCoconutoil

The three most important parameters of coconut oil that need to be controlled for use in
dieselenginesare:
1) Freefattyacids,
2) Water,
3) Particulatematter.

FreeFattyAcids(FFA)andWater:
Normalfactoryproducedcoconutoilcontainsaround4%waterand2to3%FreeFattyAcids
(FFAs). These contaminants cause the oil to solidify when the temperature of the oil drops
below22oC,whichisquitecommonduringwinterintheSouthPacific.Onewayaroundthis
problemistoblendtheoilwithsomedieselfueltopreventsolidification.Thepresenceofthe
dieselfuelalsoaidscoldstartingwhentheambienttemperatureisbelow20oC.

TheotherproblemwithFFAsisthattheyblockthefuelfilterwhenthefuelsystemiscold.This
canbeovercomebyfittingasmallheatexchangerinthefuellinetowarmthefuelpriortothe
fuelfilter.FFAscanalsobeneutralizedwithanalkalisuchassodiumhydroxide(NaOH).The
removalofwaterandFFAseliminatesthesolidificationofthefuelat20oCandgivesthefuel
greatercalorificvalue.Moreover,afterthewaterandFFAhavebeenremovedfromtheoil,it
hasbeenfoundthatthefuelpreheaterisnotrequired.(Deamer,2005)

ParticulateMatter
Particulateschokeupthefuelfilters.Eventhoughasecondfuelfilterwithabypassvalveis
normallyaddedontoadieselenginethatrunsoncoconutoil,particulateshavetobereduced
to a manageable level. Since diesel fuel filters normally filter upto 10 microns, a 10 micron
filter for coconut oil will prevent the fuel filter on the genset or automobile from clogging
rapidly.ThiscanbedonebyaBagFilterasshowninPhoto(Vaitilingom,).Itcanalsobe
donebyusingaultrahighspeedcentrifuge(Deamer,2005).

AtpresenttherearenointernationallyacceptedQualityStandardsforCoconutOilasaFuelin
engines. Some standards proposed by Dr. Gilles Vaitilingom of the French research center
CIRADbasedonhisexperienceisgiveninTable.TheFijiDepartmentofEnergyandtheFiji
InstituteofTechnologyarecarryingoutsometeststoverifytheseDraftStandards.

Page26

Table 10 Draft Quality Standards for Coconut Oil as a Fuel in engines

Quality standard for Coconut oil as fuel (proposal)

Properties/content

Unit

Min.

Max.

Test method

0,915

ASTM D1298

210

ASTM D93

Calorific value

MJ/kg

37

Viscosity (Kin. @ 40C)

mm /s

30

ASTM D445

Carbon residue

Mass %

0,40

ASTM 4530

Sulphur content

mg/kg

20

ASTM D5453

40

ASTM D4737

Characteristic properties
Density at 25C
Flash Point

Kg/m

Cetane Index

Variable properties
Total contamination

mg/kg

25

ASTM 5452

mg KOH/g

10

ISO 660

mg/kg

15

ASTM D323

Ash content

Mass %

0,02

ISO 6245

Water content

Mass %

0,075

ISO 12937

Acid value
Oxidation stability
(110C)
Phosphorous content

ASTM D2274

Source:Vaitilingom,2008

5.2

Biodiesel

AhighcetanenumberandalowiodinenumbermakescoconutoilwellsuitedforCIengines,
butithastwomaindrawbacks:ahighmeltingpointandhighviscosity,bothofwhichcanbe
correctedbyesterifyingtheoilintobiodiesel.Biodieselmadefromcoconutoilby
transesterification,whichisalsocalledCoconutMethylEster(CME),hasameltingpointthatis
belowzerodegreeCanditscetaneandiodinenumbersarenearlythesameascoconutoil.
CMEhasotheradvantagesovercoconutoilitsviscosityandotherphysicalpropertiesare
similartopetroleumdieselsoitcanbeeasilymixed,transportedanddistributedwithdiesel,

Page27


anddieselenginesdonotneedanymodificationforusingblendsofbiodiesel.Formore
detailsaboutbiodieselreferBiodieselHandlingandUseGuide(NREL,2006)

PhilippineshasagovernmentsupportedprogramtoproduceCoconutMethylEster(CME)
fromcoconutoilandblenditwithdieselfuel.ThephysicochemicalpropertiesofCME
producedinthePhilippinesanditsblendswithdieselhavebeenmeasured.Resultsare
comparedinTable11withPhilippineNationalStandardfordieselfuelquality(PNS2020:2003)
andbiodieselproducedfromSoyabeanoil.

Table 11 Physico-Chemical properties of Coconut Methyl Ester (CME)

Source:AllemanandMcCormick,2006

Themainfindingsofthesetestswere:
CMEaswellasCMEblends(1%and5%byvolume)metthecurrentPhilippineNational
Standardfordieselfuelquality.
The5%blendofCMEindieselfuelincreasedthecetanenumberslightlyforeach
blend.
ThedieselfuelsandtheCMEdieselblendsdidnottakeupsignificantamountsof
water,norwerestableemulsionsformedforanyofthefuelsorfuelblendstested.
TheCMEsample,thedieselfuelsamples,andthe5%CMEdieselblendsexhibiteda
similarlevelofstability.Thetestresultsshowedfewinsolublesweregeneratedduring
thetests,whichunderstorageconditions,maycontributetopoorengineperformance
duetopluggedfuelfiltersorcloggedinjectors.

Page28

Sixteenindicatorsofmicrobialdegradationweremeasured.Theresultsshowedthat
theCMEsampleandtheneatdieselfuelsampleshavesimilarresistancetomicrobial
degradation,althoughthemechanismsfordegradationmayvary.
AFourierTransforminfraredtechniquewasfoundtobehighlylinearandcanbeused
toquantitativelydeterminethepercentageofCMEinadieselfuelsample.
(AllemanandMcCormick,2006).

Page29


5.3
5.3.1

CasestudiesinPacificandlessonslearned
Islandfuel,Vanuatu

OneofthepioneersinusingcoconutoilindieselvehiclesisTonyDeamer,anAustralianwho
livesinVanuatuinthesouthPacific.Fornearlytenyearshehasbeenexperimentingwith
usageofcoconutoiltorundieselautomobilesandhasnowarrivedatamixthathesellsunder
thenameofIslandFuelwhichcanbeusedindieselengineswithoutanymodifications
(Deameretal,2005).Hestartedbyusingnormalfactoryproducedcoconutoilthatcontains
around4%waterand2%to3%FFAs(FreeFattyAcids).Hefoundthatthesecontaminants
causetheoiltosolidifywhenthetemperatureoftheoildropsbelow22oC,whichisquite
commonduringwinterintheSouthPacific.Onewayaroundthisproblemistoblendtheoil
withsomedieselfueltopreventsolidification.Thepresenceofthedieselfuelalsoaidscold
startingwhentheambienttemperatureisbelow20oC.TheotherproblemwasthattheFFAs
blockedthefuelfilterwhenthefuelsystemwascold.Thiswasovercomebyfittingasmallheat
exchangerinthefuellinetowarmthefuelpriortothefuelfilter.Thewaterfortheheat
exchangerwastakenfromthethermostatbypasscircuitsothatitwaswarmwithinaminute
orsooftheenginestarting.Thiseliminatedthefuelfilterblockages.

TonyDeamernowusesaproprietaryprocessthatremovesboththewaterandtheFFAsfrom
thecoconutoil.Thefuelisthenfilteredthrougha3micronfilter.Theremovalofwaterand
FFAslowersthesolidificationtemperatureofthefuelandraisesthecalorificvalueofthefuel.
Moreover,afterthewaterandFFAshavebeenremovedfromtheoil,ithasbeenfoundthat
thefuelpreheaterisnotrequired.

Photo9IslandFuelFillingStation

Page30


Source:TonyDeamer
Deamerhasbeenoperatinghisfleetofvehiclesonvariousblendsofcoconutoilanddieselin
severalratios,andalsoonacoconutoilandkerosenemix.Heeventried5%methanolfora
timebutfounditevaporatedouttooquickly,sointheendhedecidedtostickwiththeproven
15%keroseneblend.TonyDeamersIslandFuelmadeinVanuatucontains85%ofthe
purifiedandfilteredcoconutoilblendedwith15%kerosene.Nomodificationsarerequiredin
thedieselenginesthatuseIslandFuel;however,enginepreheatersarerecommendedfor
colderareas.

TonyDeamersaysthatthisfuelhasbeentriedandtestedovermanyyearsandisnowready
forretailsale.Unfortunately,thelawsofVanuatudonotallowthesaleofIslandFuel,sohe
sellsonlythecoconutoiltointerestedcarowners.TheminibusfleetownersinPortaVilahave
beenblendingtheirownIslandFuelsince1995.Thebusoperatorsarecompletelysatisfied
withusingitandtheyarereportinganincreaseinkilometersperlitrewhenoperatingwiththe
IslandFuel.

Basedonhisexperiencewithproducingfuelgradecoconutoilandblends,andinusingthem
asfuelsinallhisvehicles,TonyDeamerhasfoundthat:
a) Coconutoilhasbetterlubricatingqualitiesthanotherfuelsfordieselenginessoitcauses
lesswearoninternalenginepartsandprolongsenginelife.
b) Coconutoilburnsslowerthanotherdieselfuelssoitpushesthepistonallthewaydown
thecylinderinsteadofarapidexplosionatthetopofthestroke,resultinginaneven
powerrelease,lessfueluse,lessenginewearandaquieterrunningengine.
c) Coconutoilfuelleddieselenginesruncoolerduetolessinternalfrictionandtheslower
burnrate.
d) Coconutoilisnotanidealsubtropicalfuelasitwillsolidifyovernightiftemperaturesdrop
below24degreesCelsius.However,thegelpoint(thepointatwhichitbecomessolid)can
begreatlyreducedbymixingthecoconutoilwithkeroseneorbykeepingthefuelheated
usingheatingaccessoriescommonlyfoundongenerators,boatsandtransportvehicles.
e) Coconutoilbasedfuelsyieldover10%morekilometersperlitre(km/l)usedthan
petroleumdiesel.Datacollectedovera20,000km,6monthtestonanIsuzuDirect
injection2.5ltr4JAIdieselmotorinapickupthatwasgivinglessthan12km/ldiesel,
showedthatithadimprovedtoapprox13.5km/Ion"IslandFuel60".
f) AnoticeabletorqueincreaseisfeltwithIslandFuel.Itwasnoticedthat,whiledriving
uphill,achangedowntothenextgearwasoftennotrequiredastheenginekeeppullingat
thelowerRPM.Thisiseasilyexplainedbythefactthatthecoconutoilburnsslowerthan
diesel.
g) Theexhaustfumesfromcoconutoilarelessharmfulthanmineralbasedfuels.When
burntinadieselengine,cocodieselemits50%lessparticlematter(blacksmoke)andless
sulfurdioxide(SO2).Exhaustfromcoconutoilcontainsnopolyacrylichydrocarbons
(PAH's)themaincancercausingcomponentofmineraldieselfuelexhaust.
h) Coconutoilisnontoxicandfullybiodegradable.Itissafetostoreandtotransport.Oil
spillsonlandorwaterareharmlessandthereisareducedriskoffire.Nochemicalsare
requiredtoproducethefuelsotherearenoharmfulbyproducts.
Page31


i)

Theentireprocessofmakingcoconutbasedfuelfordieselenginescanbedoneinthe
islandscreatingjobsandstimulatingtheeconomy.Alltheincomefromtheproduction
andsaleofcoconutoilstaysintheislandsinsteadofgoingoverseas.Ahighpercentageof
theincomefromcoconutbasedfuelswillgotothelocalfarmersinruralareas.
j) Allthestepsintheproductionofcoconutoilcanbefuelledbycoconutoilorcoconut
residuessothereisnoadditiontogreenhousegasesduringtheproductionofthefuel
product.
k) Onthenegativeside,somedriversandpassengersofthecoconutoilblendpowered
vehicleshavereportedheadachesiftheexhaustgasleaksintothepassenger
compartment.TheMotorTradersfleethavemadechangestotheexhaustsystemtoclear
theexhaustgasesfromthevehicle.Thenatureoftheheadachecausingagentneedstobe
determinedandifagreaternumberofvehiclesareoperatinginanurbanareaitwillneed
tobedeterminedifthisagentwillcauseproblemsforthegeneralpublic.
[Deameretal,2005]

Photo10RangeRoverandToyotaRunningonVanuatuCoconutOil

Source:TonyDeamer

SomeoftheadvantagesofIslandFuelare:

EnvironmentalAdvantages
1) Coconutoildoesnotcontributetothegreenhouseeffect.Whenburnedinadiesel
engine,coconutoilreleasesthesameamountofcarbondioxide(CO2)thatwillbe
consumedbythenextbatchofcoconuts.Inthisway,thecocodieselcyclescarbon
throughtheatmospherefromplanttotheairandbacktotheplant.
2) WhenburntinaDieselengine,cocodieselemitslesssulfurdioxideSO2(theprimary
contributortotropicalplantandrainforestdepletion).
3) Coconutoilemits50%lessparticlematter(blacksmoke)thanconventionaldiesel.
4) Nochemicalsarerequiredtoproducethefuelsotherearenoharmfulbyproducts.
5) Allthestepsintheproductionofcoconutoilcanbefuelledbycoconutoilfuelsothere
isnoadditiontogreenhousegasesduringtheproductionofthefuelproduct.
6) Coconutoilisbiodegradable.

EconomicAdvantages
Page32


1) CoconutoilbasedfuelsyieldmoreKmperlitreusedthanotherfuelsfordiesel
engines.
2) Thecostofcoconutoilispresentlyloweronthanthecostofotherfuelsfordiesel
enginesinVanuatu.
3) Theentireprocessofmakingcoconutbasedfuelfordieselenginescanbedonein
Vanuatucreatingjobsandstimulatingtheeconomy.
4) AlltheincomefromtheproductionandsaleofcoconutoilstaysinVanuatu,insteadof
goingoverseas.SothetaxreceivedfromVATeachtimethemoneyisspentlocally
willexceedtheincomederivedfromthedutyontheimportedproduct.
5) Ahighpercentageoftheincomefromcoconutbasedfuelswillgotothelocalfarmers
inruralareas.

MechanicalAdvantages
1) Coconutoilhasbetterlubricatingqualitiesthanotherfuelsfordieselenginessoit
causeslesswearoninternalenginepartsandprolongsenginelife.
2) Coconutoilburnsslowerthanotherdieselfuelssoitpushesthepistonalltheway
downthecylinderinsteadofarapidexplosionatthetopofthestrokeresultinginan
evenpowerrelease,lessfueluse,lessenginewearandaquieterrunningengine.
3) CoconutoilfuelledDieselsruncoolerduetolessinternalfrictionandtheslowerburn
rate.

SafetyAdvantages
1) Theexhaustfumesfromcoconutarelessharmfulthanmineralbasedfuels.Exhaust
fromcoconutoilcontainsnoPolyAcrylicHydrocarbons(PAH's)themaincancer
causingcomponentofmineraldieselfuelexhaust.
2) Coconutoilissafetostoreandtotransport.Oilspillsonlandorwaterareharmless
andthereisareducedriskoffire.
3) Coconutoilisnontoxicandfullybiodegradable.Afterall,whatotherfuelcanyouboth
cookyourfishandchipsinandrunyourtruckon??

Disadvantages
Coconut oil is notan idealsub tropical fuelas it will solidifyovernightif temperatures drop
below14degreesCelsius.However,thegelpoint(thepointatwhichitbecomessolid)canbe
greatlyreducedbymixingthecoconutoilwithKeroseneorbykeepingthefuelheatedusing
heatingaccessoriescommonlyfoundongenerators,boatsandtransportvehicles.

Commentsonmotorperformance
DatacollectedontheIsuzuDirectinjection2.5ltr4JAIdieselmotorinapickupovera
20,000km6monthtestshowedanaverageof12.75kmperlitreon"CocoDiesel".This
hasimprovedon"IslandFuel60"toapprox13.5Km/I.OnDieselthevehiclewas
achievinglessthan12Km/I.(AFullsheetofallfuelusedandKmdrivenwithcomentsis
available.)
TheTwoToyota"L"and"2L"2.2and2.4ltrenginesonlyaveraged7.5Km/l.onCoco
dieselandabout8Km/lon"IslandFuel60".Topendhorsepowerwasslightlydown.
Page33

i.e.accelerationwasnotsobriskon"CocoDiesel60/70butalmostnormalon"Island
Fuel60".Anoticeabletorqueincreasewasfelt.Itwasnoticedthatachangedownto
thenextgearwasoftennotrequiredastheenginekeeppullingatthelowerRPM.
ThisiseasilyexplainedbythefactthattheCoconutoilburnsslowerthantheDiesel
(i.e.moreora"WhooshandlessofaBang").
After12monthsofuseonUnprocessedCocoDiesel(NotIslandFuel)aNissanLD28
2.8ltrnaturallyaspirateddieselengineoperatingwithinaRangeRoverwasstripped.
Thepistons,rings,bearings,valvesandinjectorswereremovedforexamination.All
wereinmuchcleanerandbettershapethanexpectedfromadieselengine.Thebore
marksstillshowedthecrosshatchhonemarks,thevalvesandcamgearwasallclean
andinperfectorder.Theonlyproblemwasthattheenginewaspurchasedsome10
yearsagosecondhandsoTonydoesnotknowhowitwasusedinthepast.Buthe
guessesthatithadatleast100,000Kmbeforehegotitandapprox30,000Kmfromthe
timehehadittothetimehestartedusingCocoDieselinit.Themotorwasputback
togetherwithnewpistons,ringsbearingsandinjectorsnozzlesandanewtimingbelt.
Itisnowusing"IslandFuel60"inwinterand"IslandFuel70"duringwarmerweather
inthesummermonths.

At the start of 2003 Deamer ordered his own Processing Equipment and continued to make
andsupplyprocessedcoconutoilonly,toanyonewantingit,andleftittothemtomixtheir
ownpetroleumproductwithit.
InhisownUnitshetriedmixingMethanolat5%foratimebutfounditevaporatedouttoo
quickly.Sointheendhedecidedtostickwiththeproven15%keroandsosince2003the
RangeRoverandallourotherUnitshavebeenrunningonthismixaswastheVolvofrom
thestartoftheexperimentin2001.
In2005ColdpressedCrudecoconutoilwassellinginSantofor65Vatualitre(approx
US$0.59perltr).Dieselwas132VatuatthepumpsCNOrefinedsoldforabout90Vatua
ltr.andtheKerowasat120VatusoaBlendedfuelcostapprox95Vatuperltr.
DeamersvehicleshavenotexperiencedanyCNOrelatedproblemsinthepastfewyears.
TheydidreplaceaHeadGasketontheVolvoduetoanoverheatingproblemthatresulted
intheenginerunningdryofwaterforalongperiod,butitdidnotseizeup.
BothVolvoandRangeRoverarerunninganLD28NissanenginewithPercombustion
chambersandtheyarenotDirectinjection.
TheIsuzuwithDirectinjectionengine2/5ltrisnowonthe15%keromixandtheyareno
longerhavingtheboreglazingproblemstheywerehavingwhendrivenlightlyonthe
60/40CNO/Dieselmixinthefirstyearoftheexperiments.

5.3.2

Cocogen,Samoa

TheSamoanElectricPowerCorporation(EPC)hasbeenlookingintoalternativesfordieselfuel
electricitygenerationincludingbiofuels,solarandwind.Intheearly1980s,EPChadcarried
outtrialsonusingcoconutoilfordieselengineoperationoveraperiodofsixmonths,butno
recordsorresultsofthesetestsareavailabletoday.Becauseofthetechnicalrisksassociated

Page34


withusingfuelsthatarenotrecommendedbythemanufacturerofthegeneratingunits,these
trialswerenotcontinued.

From20022005EPChasgeneratedalittleover120GWh/yrofwhichroughlyhalfisfrom
hydropowerandtheotherhalffromdieselpowerplants.Thecurrentbaseloaddeliveredby
thedieselpowerstationisapproximately8MW,withamorningpeakof13andanevening
peakof17MW.

Throughacombinationofcostsavingsandenvironmentalconsiderations,EPCaimstoutilise
alternativefuelsfromdieselwillbeapart.Inaddition,theincreasingdependenceonimported
fossilfuelsisanothermainreasontocarryoutafeasibilitystudyintotheuseofalternative
fuelsintheEPCgenerators.Byaimingforapartialdisplacementofdieselfuel,EPCcangain
valuableexperiencebasedonwhichfurthersubstitutioncanbeconsidered.Thepricevolatility
onboththecoconutoilmarketandthefossilfuelmarketdonotsupportthecompleteswitch
tococonutoilfuel.

Dr.GillesVaitilingom,theBiofuelSpecialistintheCOCOGENteamfoundthatnoneofthe
gensetscurrentlyrunningatTanugamanonoorSalelologaPowerStationscouldusestraight
coconutoilasfuelwithoutchemicaltransformationsoftheoilormechanicalmodificationsof
engines.However,basedonhisexperiencewithrunningdieselgensetswithpureplantoils
includingcoconutoil,hepredictedthattherewerehighchancesofsuccessforusinga10%
blendofcoconutoilwithdieselfuel,iftheloadonthegensetiskeptover50%ofitsrated
load.Incasebadcombustionoccurs(misfiringorcyclicaldispersion)theamountofunburnt
fuel(blendofcoconutoilanddiesel)wouldbehigherthan1/1000.Thatmeans,outofthe
10,000litresoftheblendusedinthetest,10litreswouldremainunburnt,andthis10litres
wouldcontain1litreofcoconutoil.Inasumpofaroundthan100litresoflubricantcapacity,
thiswillleadtoapollutionofthelubebytriglyceridesandfattyacidsof1%,andthislevelof
contaminationiseasytodetectaccurately.Iftheanalysisofthelubesamplesrevealthatthe
levelofcontaminationbyunburntcoconutoilislessthan1%,itcanbeconcludedthatthe
combustionwasgoodand,thatforthisgenset,underthecurrentoperatingconditions,a10%
blendofcoconutoilcanbeusedsafely.

Photo 11 CumminsDirectInjection400kWDieselEnginetestedwith10%coconutoil

Page35

Source:SOPAC,2005

SpecificationsoftheDieselGeneratingSet
Usage(Feb05)
179hrs
PercentofProduction
4%
EngineMaker
Cummins
EngineModel
KTTA19G2
EngineSerial#
37155000
SONo
62222
CPL
1170
HP/RPM
1500rpm
ManufacturingDate
8/11/94
RatedSpeed
1500
IdleSpeed
800(low)
#ofCylinders
6
Bore[mm]
158.75
Stroke[mm]
158.75
4cycleverticalinlinecylinder
Type
CoolingSystem
WaterRadiator
CompressionRatio
13:8:1
Aspiration
Turbo/cooled
Displacement[l]
18.7
Rotation(flywheel)
CCW
InjectionMethod
CommonRailHVT
TypeofNozzle
DirectInjectionHoleType
TypeofFuel
BS2869A1
Governor
Electric
StartingMethod
Electric24V
Maker
ONAN
Page36


GeneratorModel
SerialNumber
Rating
Spec
KVA
Amps
KW
KW(derated)
Volts

450DFFB
A92A001721
Standby
5673G
563
783
400
250
415

AfterconsultationwiththeGeneralManager,itwasagreedthattestswith10,000litresofa
10%blendpilotwouldbecarriedoutwithengine#2A,comprisingof1,000litresofcoconutoil
blendedwith9,000litresofdieselfuel.Forthepilot,thefollowingrisks(andriskreduction
strategies)wereidentified:

NoCoconutoilavailable; ContactedandvisitedCOPStorequestthedeliveryofoilfrom
currentproduction.
BadQualityCOPSoil;Prefilteringofoilwithexistingfuelfilterstoavoidparticlesinthe
fueltank.
CarbonDeposits; Themachineshavetoberunabove50%oftheirratedcapacityto
avoidexcessivecarbondeposits.Withthederatingofthemachines,thismeansthey
shouldrunatmaximumpower.
Filterclogging;Ifcoconutoilismixedwithwaterbyaccident,theresultingmixturecan
leadtocloggingoffilters,therefore,goodworkinghygieneisrequired.
Blendpercentagenotright;Asthepilotisdesignedtominimisetheriskforthe
machines,itisimperativethattheoperatorstickstothe10%blendofcoconutoiland90%
regulardiesel.Forhigherpercentagesofcoconutoilinthefuel,engineadaptationsmaybe
required.
Lubeoilsamplenotright; Itisimperativethatthesampleofthelubeoilafterthetestis
takenaccordingtoinstructionssothattheanalysiscanbecarriedoutcorrectly.

Inordertoreducetheserisks,thetechnicalconsultantwaspresenttoinstructtheoperators
onthefirstdayofthepilottest.Secondly,clearworkinginstructionsforthepilottestwere
provided:

WorkingInstructionsfortheCoconutOilPilotTest

Engine:Lubricantandoilfiltersmustbeneworhavinglessthan250runninghours.

Fuel:Atotalvolumeof10,000litreswillfeedengine2A.Itiscomposedof1,000litresof
coconutoiland9,000litresofdieselfuel.Themixturewillthenbepreparedas1volumeof
coconutoilplus9volumesofdiesel.Thiswillrequirethefollowingsteps:
1) Pour1volumeofcoconutoilinthedailytank;
2) Pour9volumesofdieselfuelinthedailytank;
3) Stirthedailytankfor2minuteswithastick.
Page37

Lubricant:
1) Thesamelubricantwillbeusedduringthedurationofthetest.
2) Addedvolumeoflubricantmustbeloggedexactly.
3) Twosamplesoflubeoilwillbecollectedinthesumpofthetestengineandsentto
SOPAC/Fiji:(a)onesamplebeforestartingthetest,and(b)thesecondsampleafter
completionofthetest.
Operationofthetestgenset:TheGeneratorSetbeingtestedmustnotbeusedunder
50%ofitsoriginalrating,i.e.200kW.Thegensetcanonlybeallowedtorunforuptoone
houronaloadbelow200kW,afterwhichitmustbeshutdown.
Mechanical:Incaseofamechanicalinterventionontheengine,collectasampleoflube
oilbeforestartingagain.Thissamplewillbejoinedwiththesampletakenattheendofthe
test.
DatarequiredTheLogbookmustcontain:
AttheStartofthetest:
1) Typeoflubricant;
2) Gradeoflubricant;
3) #ofrunninghoursofthelubricantinthesump;
4) Collectofthesampleoflubeoil.
Daily:
1) Date;
2) #ofkWh;
3) #ofrunninghours;
4) Volumeofblendused;
5) Volumeofaddedlubricant;
6) #ofstartsduringtheday;
7) Observation/troubleshooting.
AttheEndofthetest:
1) Collectofthesampleoflubeoil;
2) Indicatethenumberofrunninghours;
3) Completethedailylogbook;
4) SendthesampleandthelogdatasheettoSOPACinFiji.

Immediatelyafterthefieldwork,lubeoilsamplesbeforeandafterthepilotweresentthrough
tothelaboratoryoftheUniversityoftheSouthPacificinFijiandtoaspecialisedlaboratoryin
France.Thelubeoilanalysespointedthatnoharmfullevelofcontaminationof(unburnt)
coconutoilcouldbedetectedinthelubricant.Therefore,thetestcanbedescribedas
successfulandtherecommendationsoftheSalelogaPowerStationmanagercanbefollowed
tocontinuethepilot.TheCocogenteamproposescontinuationoflubeoilanalysisatregular
operationintervals.

Page38


Photo12FilteringofCoconutOilwithaSheetBeforemixinginthedaytank

Source:SOPAC,2005

Testingofa10,000litresBlendof10%CoconutOil+90%DieselFuelinGenset2A

Test:
TheteststartedonSaturday2ndofApril2005inthepresenceofDrVaitilingom.He
recommendedstronglythattheloadoftheengineshouldnotbebelow80%ofnormalload.
Forthisengine,thenormalloadis200kWandthereforetheloadshouldbeabove150kWat
anytime.Iftheloadisbelow150kW,thentheenginemustbeshutdowntoavoidanysignof
unforeseenfailure.Thetesttookabout3weekstocomplete6x44gallonsofcoconutoilthat
isonApril23,2005.

ResultsoftheTests
BetweenApril2andApril232005,atotalof1,018litresofcoconutoilwasblendedwith9,167
litresofdieselinthedaytankofengine#2inSalelogaPowerStation.Theoverallfuelusage
forthetrialengineforthewholemonthofAprilwas17,162litres.Totally10,185litresofblend
wasusedduringthetest.

ThelubeoilsamplesafterthetestweresenttolabsinFijiandtoFranceforanalysis.Thelevel
ofcontaminationofthelubeoilbyunburntcoconutoilindicatedthatitwasadvisableto
continueusingacoconutoilblendinmachine#2.

Statistics:
Durationoftest(days):
22
Amountofcoconutfuelused:
1,000Litresapproximately
Amountofhoursduringtest:
245
Page39


Averagehourperday:
TopupOilduringtest:
TotalkWh:

11
26litres
46,278kWh

Comments:
Thesuccessfulcompletionofthetestrevealspositivedirectionofcoconutoilasanalternative
fuel, provided that it is less expensive that diesel fuel. Mechanically speaking, there was no
signofanydefectduringthetest.

Recommendations:
1) Thetestisnotlongenoughtofindouttheimpactofthetesttoenginecomponents.It
issuggestedofatleast1,000hrsofrunningisappropriate.
2) After1000hrsoftest,theengineshouldbeinspectedwiththoroughchecksonits
cylinderheads,injectors,liners,pistons,pistonrings,andfuelpumpetcforany
abnormalsignsordefects.
3) Theexhaustgasduringthistestwasnotsatisfactoryandthereforesuggestedstrongly
thattherecommendedsulphurcontentofthefuelshouldbebetween0.25and0.50
percentagebyweight.

Thefinancial,economicandenvironmentalimpactsoftheCocogenprojectaregiveninthe
FinalReport(SOPAC,2005).ThisreportalsocontainsdetailsoftheGISstudy(Geographical
InformationSystem)usedtoassesstheCoconutResourcesofSamoa.

5.3.3

CoconutoilforpowergenerationinFiji

CoconutsaregrownonalltheFijianislands.Coconutoilisalocalresourcethatisabundantly
availableespeciallyintheruralcoastalcommunities.Aprojecttousecoconutoilforvillage
electrificationwasplannedin199899jointlybyFijiDepartmentofEnergy,theSecretariatof
thePacificCommunity(SPC)andCIRAD.Thetechnicalexpertiseandtechnologywere
providedbyCIRADFrancethroughFrenchGovernmentfunding.TheMinistryofAgriculture
(TaveuniCoconutCentre)andPublicWorksDepartment(Electrical)werevitalpartnersinthe
projectimplementationwhichcoveredfourvillages.

Theprojectinvolvedthemodificationoftwodieselgensetsofcapacities45kVAand90kVAso
thattheycouldrunonpurecoconutoil.Twositeswerechosenfortheproject:
1) Lomaloma,NaqaraandSawanavillagesinVanuaBalavuand
2) WelagivillageinTauveni.

CIRADhadalreadysuccessfully installedthreedieselgensetsmodifiedforcoconutoilonthe
islandofOuvainNewCaledonia:
1. In1995a90KVAgensettoprovideelectricityforacopramillwithacapacityof350
kgcopraperhour.
2. In1999one180KVAandone45KVAgensettoprovideelectricityforadesalination
plant.
Page40

The coconut oil gensets that CIRAD provided for Fiji were identical to the ones that CIRAD
installedinNewCaledonia:
These gensets were designed for fully automatic operation after a push button start
evenattemperaturesbelow24oCwhenthecoconutoilisfrozen.
Thereweretwofueltanksonefordieselandtheotherforcoconutoil.
Thegensetisstartedandstoppedondieselfuelfor10to15minutes.
Thecoconutoiltankhadelectricheatersbelowthetanktomeltthecoconutoiland
alsoanelectricheater inthewellofthetankwheretheoutletpipeemerged.Once
the coconut oil had been heated to the required temperature the control system
switchesthefuelsupplytococonutoilbymeansofasolenoidvalve.
Coconutoilisutilizedastheprimaryfuelsourcefor90%95%ofthetotalrunning
timeofthegenerator.
Asecondextrafuelfilterisfittedwithabypassvalve.
Alargerfuelpumpisfitted.
Yearlyinspectionsarecarriedoutontheprojectsitesforrepairsandtrainingof
technicianstorunthegenerators.

Welagi

The45kVAWelagiCopraBiofuelProjectwascommisisionedinJuly2001,anditrantrouble
freeforafewyearsafteritsimplementation.Thisprojectservesavillagewith58households
andoilproductionisthroughasmalloilmillthatwasbuildaspartoftheproject.Thevillage
hasaspecialcommitteethatlooksaftertheaffairsofthecopraproductionandsubsequentoil
productionthatareusedtogenerateelectricityinthebiofuelgenerator.

Photo9showstheequipmentinstalledinWelangiforproducingfuelgradecoconutoil.Copra
cutintosmallpiecesbytthecopracutter(notinpicture)isfedintotheoilexpellerontheleft
ofthephoto.Theprefilteredcoconutoil(drumontheleft)ispumpedbyanelectricaldriven
pump(betweendrumandfilter)andpushedthroughaflowlinebagfilter(ontheright).The
hoseatthebottomrightisconnectedtothecoconutoilmaintankofthegenerator.

Photo 13 Coconut Oil production equipment at Welangi

Page41

Source:GillesVaitilingom

Photo 14
45kVAdieselgensetatWelagi

Source:GillesVaitilingom
VanuaBalavu

TheLomalomaCopraBiofuelProjectwascommissionedinApril2000.The90kVALomaloma
CopraBiofuelProjectservesthreevillages(Naqara,SawanaandLomaloma).Sincethisisthe
administrativeheartofVanuaBalavu,electricityisalsosuppliedtotwogovernmentschools,
theLomalomaHospitalandthePostOfficealongwith200customers.

AnElectricityCommitteeformedbythethreevillagesandotherconsumersintheprojects
overseestheprojectmanagement.Apowerhouseoperatorandhisassistantarebeingpaidto
maintainthegeneratorwhileameterreaderhasthetaskofbillingconsumersthrough
readingsofindividualkWhmetersandanotherpersoncollectsthesebills.Thusfourvillagers
areemployedbytheElectricityCommitteeandtheirwagesarepaidthroughthebillscollected
monthly.

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ThecoconutoilmillonVanuaBalavucloseddownshortlybeforethisprojectwas
commissionedandallcopraproducedwassentoutsidetheislandforprocessing.Leftover
coconutoilfromtheoilmilllastedabout8monthsafterwhichoilforthegensetwas
purchasedfromtheSavusavuoilmillonVanuaLevu.

Photo 15
The90kVAdieselgensetatVanuabalavu

Source:GillesVaitilingom

InMarch2005the90kVAcommunitygensetfacedseriousmechanicalproblemsandwas
shutdown.SubsequentlythisgensetwassenttoSuvaforrepairsbutnothingwasdoneabout
itforseveralyears.ItwasrustingawayattheWaluBayworkshoptill2008whentheBiofuel
AdvisorattheDeptofEnergy,KrishnaRaghavan,arrangedfortheFrenchengineerGilles
VaitilingomtocometoFijiandhelprepairthisgenset.SincethisisheavydutyDeutzindirect
injectiongensetitcanbeoperatedatevenlowloadsoncoconutoil.Sotheoperating
procedurewaschangedtoamuchsimpler,manualoperationwithonlyonefueltank
containingcoconutoil.Theheatersbelowthefueltanktomeltcoconutoilinwintercanstill
beusedifrequiredbymanuallyoperatinganonoffswitch.Meanwhilethethreevillageson
VanuaBalavuhavegottheirownseparategensets,sotherepaired90kVAcoconutoilgenset
willbeinstalledatanotherlocationwherecoconutoilisavailable.

ASOPAC studyteam visitedthetwo sites in 2005toevaluatethesetwoprojectsfor the Fiji

DepartmentofEnergy.Theirconclusionsaregivenbelow:
ThebiofuelprojectsinTaveuniandVanuabalavuhavesuccessfullydemonstratedthe
technicalpossibilitytousecoconutoilasafuelforruralelectrification.Theyhavehowever
notresultedintheexpectedsocioeconomicdevelopmentasanticipated.
Provisionofreliableandaffordableelectricityservicestotheremotecommunitiesof
TaveuniandVanuabalavuisahighlyvaluedservicetoimprovestandardofliving.
Dieselhasbeenfoundthemostappropriateandlowestcostfueloptionfortheprovisionof
electricityatbothsitesresearched.
Page43

Eventhoughthoroughfeasibilitystudiesontechnology,socioeconomicsandhavebeen
carriedoutbeforetheimplementationoftheprojects,theexpectationsofthevillagersand
theresultsoftheprojectshavenotbeeninlinewitheachother.
IftheautomaticfuelswitchontheTaveunigeneratorisrepaired,thevillagershavethe
optiononwhethertouse(commerciallyproduced)coconutoilordieselasfuel.For
Vanuabalavutoutilisecoconutoilasafuel,anoilmillwouldhavetobeboughtandoil
millingorganisedasitdoesnotappeartobeeconomicallyattractivetoimportcoconutoil
fromotherislands.
TheevaluationfindingsandsocialsurveyconductedbyPCDFclearlyoutlinesthesocial
constraintsandnoncooperativenessbetweenthe3villagesparticularly,thatofLomaloma
andSawana.Theideaofhavinganelectricitycommitteecomprisingofmembersfromthe
3villagesisnotpractical.Thus,itisunlikelythatacommongeneratorforthevillagesis
suitable.
Thecurrenttariffstructureisnotsustainableasrealcostsareneithercovered,nor
equitablebecauseallhouseholdspaythesameamountirrespectiveoftheirusage.
Generally,newtechnologycansurviveandoperateasdesignedprovideditisused
accordingtoitsspecifications.Theabsenceoftechnologyinacommunitywillonlyhinder
(wo)menseffortstodevelopsocially,economicallyandsustainably;
(SOPAC,2006)

Fijiscoconutindustryrevivalprogram

Fijiscoconutindustryhasbeendecliningoverthelast40yearsbecauseoflowproductivity,
lowpricesandcompetitionfromotheredibleoilssoldontheworldmarket.Althoughthere
havebeensomeeffortsinthelastfourdecadestorevivetheindustry,thelackofasustained
longtermnationalpolicyfordevelopmentofthecoconutsectorhasmadeitdifficultto
reversethedecline.Intheearly1960scopraproductionwasover40,000tons/yr;nowitis
lessthan15,000tons/yr.Moreover,abouttwothirdsofthetreeswillgooutofproduction
overthenext20years.Theoldertreesneedtobereplacedsoonotherwisetheindustrywill
declinefurtherandtheruralpeopledependentontheindustrywillmigratetourbanareas
lookingforalternativelivelihoodsaddingmorepressureonthelimitedresourcesoftheurban
centers.Inresponsetothisproblem,theFijianGovernmentcreatedtheCoconutIndustry
DevelopmentAuthority(CIDA)underanActofparliamentinNovember1998,withamandate
torevitalizetheindustry.However,CIDAhasnotbeenabletotakeovertheentire
administrationoftheindustryfromtheMinistryofAgriculturebecauseofthelackof
budgetarysupport.From2005onwards,theGovernmenthasagreedtohandovertoCIDAthe
fullresponsibilitytoadministerallaspectsoftheindustrywithadequatefundingtoenable
CIDAtoperformitsfullroleasrequiredundertheAct.

CIDAhasdrawnupa25yearCoconutIndustryMasterDevelopmentPlanthatincludesa
NationwideCoconutIndustryPromotionsProgram(NCIPP).CIDAaimstorestructurethe
coconutindustry,register20,000coconutgrowersandestablishanetworkofCoconutPlanters
Associationsthroughoutthecoconutgrowingareas.ThiswillassisttheExtensionand
Research&DevelopmentDivisionstoachievetheirtargetsfortheplantingof6milliontrees
Page44


andtherehabilitationofanother2milliontrees.TheTaveuniCoconutCenterwithitsfour
seedgardenswillbeprovidedfinancial,manpowerandlogisticalsupporttoplayakeyrolein
thiscampaign.Amanpowerdevelopmentplanandraisingofpublicawarenessthrough
postersinschools,restaurants,hotels,publicmarketsandgovernmentoffices,etc.arealso
beingplanned.

CIDAaimstoincreasetheproductionofcoprato50,000tons/yr,ofcoconutoilto24,000tons
/yrandoftendernutsforthelocalandexportmarketto40millionnuts/yr.Product
diversification,intercroppingpractices,wholenutpurchasecentersandacentralizedcopra
dryingfacilityareenvisagedtogetherwithalargenumberofminimillsandtwobigcoconutoil
(CNO)mills.CIDAwantstoimprovethelifestyleof100,000ruralpeopleinvolvedinthe
coconutsector,empowerwomen,reducepovertyandimprovetheeducationofruralchildren.
OtherambitioustargetsofCIDAincludeearningsofF$15m/yrinforeignexchangethrough
salesofcoconuttimber,over$100m/yrfromsaleofCNO,tendercoconutsandproducts
madefromCNO,$10m/yrfrombiodieseltoreplace10%ofimporteddiesel,and$34m
annuallyfromsalesofcoconutmeal.[CIDA,2004]

Page45

6.1

UTILIZATIONOFSOLIDBIOFUELSSHELLS&HUSK

Characteristics

Thehuskofthematurecoconutconsistsofnumerousfibersembeddedinasoftcorklikegroundtissue
usuallyreferredtoaspith.Thefibresare15to35cm.Long,haveahightensilestrengthunaffectedby
moisture,andconsistmainlyofligninandcellulosewithabout10percentpectins,tanninsandother
watersolubleandinsolublesubstances.Thepithontheotherhandismostlymadeupofpectins,
tanninsandotherwatersolublesubstancesandhemicelluloses.Theenergycontentofcoconuthuskis
16.7GigaJoules/Tonne.

Theshellofthematurecoconutisauniformlydensemateriallikehardwoodthatconsistsmainlyof
ligninandcellulose.Theenergycontentofcoconutshellis18.2GigaJoules/Tonne.

6.2

BasicPrinciplesofCombustion

Thereare4differentwaysofburningcoconutshells:

1) CombustionCoconutShellsareburntcompletelywithexcessairinafurnaceto
provideprocessheat.Dischargeofcharandtarismoderateifproperlycontrolled.

2) GasificationCoconutShellsarecompletelyburntwithlimitedairinagasifiertogive
producergaswhichisthenburntforprocessheat.Dischargeofcharandtartothe
atmosphereisverylightifproperlycontrolled.

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3) Carbonisation(Traditional)Coconutshellsarepartiallyburntwithlimitedairinapit
toproducecharcoal.Dischargeofcharandtartotheatmosphereisveryheavy.

4) CarbonisationwithWasteHeatRecoveryCoconutshellsarepartiallyburntwith
limitedairinaCarbonisertogivecharcoal.Alltheemittedgasesarecollectedand
burntinaFurnacetorecoverthewasteheat.Dischargeofcharandtartothe
atmosphereisverylight.

Coconutshelltypicallycontainsabout21,000kJ/kg(kiloJouleperkilogram)ofdrymatter.
Duringcarbonizationbythetraditionalmethod,approximately60%ofthisenergyislosttothe
surroundings.ByuseofthewasteheatrecoverytechnologydevelopedbyNRIthisheatis
recoveredasusefulenergyforusebytheindustry.

DuringthecarbonizationprocessusingtheWHU,approximately59%oftheheatintheshellis
evolvedandtheremaining41%isretainedinthecharcoalproduced.Ofthe59%oftheheat
generated,75%isrecoveredinthecombustedgas/airmixturewhichcanthenbeusedto
provideheatfordryingapplicationsinthecoconutandotherindustries.(Figure)

Page47

Figure10Heatcontentsintheconversionofshellstocharcoal

Source:Breagetal,1984
6.3

CurrentUses

Presentlythetwomainusesofcoconutshellsandhuskasafuelarefor
1) Smallholderdomesticusesuchascooking,etc.
2) Copradrying

Besidesbeingusedasafuel,shellsandhuskhavenumerousotherusesthatprovideadditional
incometofarmers.Oneoftheseotherusesofthecoconutshellistoproduceshellcharcoal
thatisoneofthebestrawmaterialsforproductionofactivatecarbon.Onemethodofusing
coconutshellstoproducebothafuelgasandalsoshellcharcoalisbymeansoftheWasteHeat
Unitthatisdescribedinthenextsection.

6.4

WasteHeatUnit(WHU)

Traditionally,charcoalisproducedfromcoconutshellusingthedrumorpitmethods
(Photo16).Thesemethodsarequiteinefficientandresultinalotofnoxioussmokeemissions
totheatmosphere.Becausetheseoperationspollutethesurroundingareas,charcoalmaking
isbannedinurbanareasandneartovillages.Moreover,thetraditionalmethodsproduce
charcoalofvariablequalitywhichischarcoaloftencontaminatedwithextraneousmattersuch
asearth,leavesandtwigs.

Toaddresstheseproblemsandalsotorecoverthesubstantialamountofenergythatislostin
thesmokeemissions(about60%oftheenergyintheshell),theNaturalResourcesInstitute
(NRI)whichisfundedbytheBritishGovernment'sOverseasDevelopmentAdministration,
beganthedevelopmentofcoconutshellcarbonizationwithwasteheatrecoveryunit(WHU)in
Page48


theearly1980s.ThefirstprototypewasbuiltandtestedbyNRIintheUK(Photo17).Pilot
demonstrationunitswereinstalledatthecoconutindustryinSriLanka,andNRIalsoimparted
traininginoperationandmaintenanceandcloselymonitoreditsperformance.Local
workshopswereprovidedwithdetailedtechnicalknowhowtomanufacturetheunits.Twenty
WHUunitswereinstalledbetween1983and1989fifteenatDessicatedCoconutprocessing
plants,twoforcopradrying,twofordryingcoconutparings,andoneforaoilmill/sterilizer
unit.Allunitsexceptonewerestandardcapacityof1.5tonnesofcoconutshell;oneunitused
ascaledupwasteheatrecoveryunit(SWHU)thatcouldprocess3.5tonnesofcoconutshell.
(Adair,1989;BreagandJoseph,1989;Tillekaratne,1989)

Photo16Traditionalmethodofburningcoconutshellsinapit

Source:Breagetal,1994

ThedevelopmentoftheWHU,theSriLankapilotandthetransferoftechnologywasasuccess,
andalluserswereverysatisfiedwiththeperformanceoftheWHUs.Financialappraisalofthe
standardWHUandthescaledupSWHUindicatedverygoodreturnoninvestmentforboth
units.CapitalrecoveryperiodfortheWHUwas7monthsandfortheSWHU15months.
Breakevencapacitywas13%ofthecapacityfortheWHUand22%ofthecapacityforthe
SWHU.Forbothunits,InternalRateofReturn(IRR)wascalculatedtobeover500%
(Tillekaratne,1989).

Inthe1990s,NRIbegantransferringtheWHUtechnologytothecoconutprocessingindustry
inIndonesiaunderaProjectpartfundedbytheCommonFundforCommodities(CFC)ofthe
UnitedNationsinAmsterdamandtheInstituteforResearchandDevelopmentofAgroBased
Industry(IRDABI)inBogor.UnlikeSriLankawherethedessicatedcoconutindustrywasthe
majoruserofWHU,theIndonesiancoconutindustrywasmoreinterestedinusingthewaste
heatfordryingcopra.Oneoftheoutputsofthisprojectwasthepublicationofa
comprehensiveProject/CountryManualforIndonesiaonWHUTechnologyforCopra
Production(Setiawanetal,1997)

Page49

Photo17PrototypeWasteHeatRecoveryUnittestedbyNRI,Culham,UK.

Source:Breagetal,1994

TheWasteHeatUnit(WHU)

TheWHUconsistsofaverticalkilnconnectedtoaburnerandfurnacesystem(Figure11).The
kiln(1)iscylindricalandisapproximately8m3capacity.Twohatches,(2)and(3),areprovided:
oneontopofthekilnloadingthecoconutshellcharge,andtheothernearthebaseofthekiln
fordischargingthecharcoal.Thecharcoalissupportedbyremovablerods(4)thatformagrid
overthegasoutletport.Sixports(12)areequallyspacedaroundthecircumferenceofthekiln
forlightingthecharge.

Theseflangedportsarehingedsothatrightangledbends(5),fittedwithdamperstocontrol
finelytheflowofairintothekiln,canbeswungintopositionafterlighting.Metalmeshcages
(6)arealsofittedattheinletofthebends.Thebendsdirectany"blowbacks"downwardsand
themeshcagescontaintheflameorhotcharwhichmaybeejected.

Thegasoutlet(7)islocatedatthebaseofthekilnconnectedbyapipe(8)totheburnerviaa
damper(9),acondensationtrap(10)andflametrap(11).Thedamper'sfunction(9)isto
controltheflowofkilngasintothefurnace.Thekilngasisignitedbythethimbles(14)of
burningcharcoalinsertedthroughtheroofofthefurnace.

Combustionairisdrawnintothefurnacethroughtheslots(15)onthefrontofthefurnace.
Eachslotisfittedwithslidingplatestocontroltheincreaseofair.Thedrawofthecombusted
gasesisadjustedbymeansofthedamper(16)locatedintheoutletoftheexhaustgaspipe
linefromthefurnace.Thisgaspipelineisconnectedtoacentrifugalexhaustfan(17)which
providesaninduceddraughtthroughthekiln/furnacesystem.(Breagetal,1994)

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Figure11SchematicoftheWasteHeatUnit

Source:Breagetal,1994

SafetyFeatures
ThefollowingspecialsafetyfeatureshavebeenincorporatedintothedesignoftheWHU'sto
ensurethesafeoperationoftheunit.
Aflametrap(11)isfittedinthegaspipelineextendingfromthebaseofthekiln,and
istohelppreventthepassageofaflamebackfromthefurnace.
Aspringreliefvalveishousedonthetopofthekilnandisdesignedtoventgases
shouldthepressureinsidethekilnexceedapredeterminedlimit14kg/m2.
Avent(2)issituatedadjacenttothereliefvalveandisdesignedtoburstandsafely
releasethecontentsofthekilnintheeventofanexplosion.Twootherventsare
incorporated,oneinthefurnaceandtheotherattheheatexchangertoprovide
explosionprotection.

6.4.1
WHUforCopraProduction
ThemainequipmentrequiredforusingaWHUforcopradryingare:
1. Kiln,8m3
2. Kilngasfan,0.75Hp
3. Inducedraughtfan,11Ho
4. Furnace
5. Heatexchanger,80tube,diameter2"
6. Blower,20HP
7. Tunneldryer
8. Trolley,12units
9. Genset50kW
Page51


10. Thermometer
Photo18TraditionalCopraDrying

Source:Breagetal,1994

Thecoconutshellcarbonizationwithwasteheatrecoveryunit(WHU)isproducedintwosizes:
8m3and16m3.Astandardkilnwithacapacityof8m3isdesignedtoproduceapproximately
0.450.5tonnesofcharcoalfrom1.5tonnesofshellper10to12houroperation.TheWHU
systemforcopradryingconsistsoftwoWHUskilnsoperatedalternatelyonasemicontinuous
basis,aheatexchanger/furnacesystem,adryerfanandtunnelcopradryeritiscapableofa
producingapproximately0.9tonnesofgoodqualitycharcoaland3tonnesofcopraperday.
(Figure12)

Eventhoughthesystemdescribedbelowisforcopraproduction,theWHUsystemcanbe
adaptedandusedforprovidingprocessheatforotheroperationssuchasdualfiring(kilngas
plussolidfuel)boilersforraisingsteam,forprovidingheatforhotoilimmersiondrying(fry
dryingkernels),orfordryingotherproductsandcrops.

ThetwinWHUsusedforcopraproductionrequiresatotalelectricalloadof25kW,consisting
of0.50kWforrunningthekilngasfan,8.25kWfortheinduceddraughtfanand15kWfor
drivingthedryerfan.Theremainderisforlightingandminorpowerpoints.

TooperatethecoprafactorywithtwinWHUsfor250daysoperationwithathroughputof3
tonnescopraperdayrequiresapproximately750haofcoconutarea.ItisassumedthatIha
coconutplantationcanproduce5,000nuts/year.ThecapacityoftwinkilnWHUis15,000
wholecoconutshells/day.

Thecoconutshellcarbonizationwithwasteheatrecoverysystemvirtuallyeliminatesthe
smokeproblemandsimultaneouslyenablestheheatgeneratedintheprocessingtobeusedin
copradrying.Thegasevolvedduringthecarbonizationofthecoconutshellsconsistsofcarbon
Page52


monoxide,hydrogen,methane,carbondioxideandnitrogen.Thisgashasacalorificvalueof
approximately3.5MJ/m3andisreadilycombustible.Sincethetechnologyinvolvesburningof
combustiblegases,caremustbeexercisedandsafeoperationproceduresmustbefollowed.

TunnelDrier

Thesystemconsistsofaforcedconvectiontunneldryer(size.2.5x2.5x18m)equippedwith
12trolleys(Figure12).Thedryer,constructedofwood,isconnectedtotwowasteheat
recoveryunitseachwithashellcapacityofapproximately1.5tonnes.TheWHUsprovideheat
toatubularheatexchangerwhichindirectlyheatsdryingairtoaround65to80C.TheWHUs
areoperatedalternatelytoenablesemicontinuousoperationofthedryer.Thecoprashould
bedrieddowntoatleast8to10%moisturecontent;itwillthendrydownfurtherwhenitis
storedindryconditions.

Theoperationofthissystemrequiressemiskilledworkerswhoaretrainedinthesafe
operationoftheunit.Theoperationrequiresatotalof10personsfor:
LoadingandpreparationofWHUkilnandcopradryer.
Startupandoperationofthekilnandintandemwiththecopradryingprocess.
ShuttingdowntheWHUkiln.
Unloadingthecharcoal,andstorageandbaggingofcopra.

CopraDrying

1) 5tonnes(equivalentcoprainhalfshells)areloadedinthefirstsixtrolleysofthedryer.
Afterapproximately8hoursofdryingthehalfcoconutsareunloadedfromthefirstsection
ofthedryersonetrolleyatatimethusmaximizing'thetimeofdryingofthefreshly
loadednuts.
2) Thekernelisscoopedoutoftheshellandloadedintothreetrolleys.Thetrolleysarethen
wheeledintothefrontsectionofthesecondhalfofthecopradryerreplacingthreeofthe
sixtrolleyshousedtherein.
3) Thefirststageofthedryerthereforealwayscontains1.5tonnesoffreshlyloadedkernels
inshell;andthesecondhalfofthedryerholdsatotalof3tonnesofkernelshalfofwhich
hasbeendriedforoneWHUheatingcycleandtheotherhalffortwodryingcycles.
4) Thecopraremovedfromthedryerforsubsequentstorageandbaggingthereforeis
subjectedtothreeWHUfiringcycleswhichcanvaryfrom8to10hours.Thecyclethus
continuesproducingapproximately3tonnesofcopraeverytwentyfourhours.

TheWHUkilnrequiresapproximately1.5tonnesofdryshellperbatch.Thisshellmustbedry
fortheunittoworkeffectively.Halfcupsofcoconutshellandbrokenshellfromcoprakiln
maybeused.Coprashellneedsnofurtherdrying.Howeveritshouldbestoredundercoverin
sacks.Acoconutshellstorageareaofatleast100m2isrecommendedwitheachWHU
installed.

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Freshcoconutswhichhavebeendehuskedandsplitintohalfcupsareused.Tomakegood
qualityofcopraitisimportanttousematurenuts.Dehuskedfreshcoconutsshouldnotbe
splitunlessdryingcanproceedshortlythereafter.Ifthereismorethanfourhoursbetween
splittingthenutsandapplyingtheheat,thequalitywilldeteriorate.

Figure12TypicalTunnelDrierandLayoutofWHUbasedcopradryingsystem

Source: Breag et al, 1994

ThetotallandareaneededtoestablishacoprafactoryusingtheWHUtechnologyis
approximately450m2.Approximately150m2isrequiredforanareawheretheworkers
preparetherawmaterialwhichisfreshsplitcoconutsandseparationofdryshellfromthe
kernelforcarbonization.Theremainderoftheland(300m2)isforprocessing,productstorage,
byproductstorageandanoffice.
6.4.2

ProductRecovery

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Copra
Approximately48005100nutswillproduce1tonneofcopra.Thequalityofcopraproduced
comparedwithtraditionalcopraisshowninFigures(a)and(b).Tthecopraproducedbythe
WHUsystemissuperiortotraditionalcopraincolour,aromaandappearance.Incontrastitis
importanttonotethattraditionallypreparedcopratendstobeasmokybrownincolour,often
mouldy,withvariablemoisturecontentandhighfreefattyacidcontent.Thequalityofcoprais
affectedbyseveralfactorsuchasmaturitycoconut(oilcontent),efficiencyofdryerandvariety
ofcoconut.

Photo19AWasteHeatUnitinSriLanka

Source:Breagetal,1994

Coprawhenremovedfromthedryershouldhaveamoisturecontentbelow8%ifitistobe
storedwithoutbecomingmouldy.Copramustbewelldriedbeforeitisbagged.Acopradryer
initselfisnotsufficienttomaintaingoodcopraqualityaccordingtothebestgradestandard:
Oncecoprahasleftthedryeritmustbeallowedtocoolinbulkinawellroofedandventilated
storageshedwitheitheraraisedconcreteorwoodenfloor.

Thecopraproducedisofgoodqualityandmuchsuperiortothatproducedlocally.Inthe
Palembangareasamplesofthecopraweretakentoseveralcompanies.Thesurveyrevealed
thatonly1to1.5%premiumcouldbeobtainforthecopra.InWestJavatradersand
producers,inspiteofthemuchimprovedqualitydidnotofferapricepremIUm.

Photo20CoprafromTraditionalsmokedriersandfromtheWHUprocess

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(a)CoprafromSmokeDrier
(b)CoprausingWHU
Source:Breagetal,1994

Iflargepremiumsaretoberealized,coprawouldneedtobemadeavailableinsufficiently
largequantitiestohavesignificantimpactontheoilmilloutputs.Thisraisesthequestionof
whethercopraproductionbytheWHUwouldeverrealizeapremiumsunlesslargequantities
weresold,exceptinsitespecificcasewheremarketforediblecoprawereestablished.

Table12ComparisonofMoistureandOilContentfromWHUwithothermethods
Criteria

Copra

WHU
Traditional
Traditional
WHU&

indirectfired
directfired
Traditional

indirectfired
Moisture(%)
4.5
6.01
7.5
5.6
Oilcontent(%)
70.85
66.03
59.5
66.1
Source:Setiawanetal,1997

Charcoal

Twokilns(about3tonnesofshellforcarbonization)canbeusedtoproduceapproximately2.8
3tonnesofcopra.TheWHUcharcoalkilnstypicallyyielded380to400kgofcharcoalper1.4
tonnesshell.

Twocarbonizationcyclesareconductedevery24hoursallowingtimeforthecharcoalwithin
thekilnfromthepreviouscarbonizationcycletocooldownandbeunloaded.Thecharcoal
makingcycleshouldthereforebestartedevery12hoursalternatingbetweenthekilns.The
bulkdensityofhybridshellsarelowerandhavethinnershellsthanthatofthetallvarietyof
coconutandgiveacharcoalyieldof26to28%.

Charcoalproducedwilltypicallyhaveafixedcarboncontentof68.5%andacalorificvalueof
30MJ/kg.Approximately400kgofcharcoalisproducedperbatch.Whenfirstunloadedthe
charcoalmayieigniteanditshouldbeheldforatleast24hoursinsealedairtightdrums.
Thereafter,thecharcoalmaybesievedandbagged.Dustmasksshouldbeusedforthese
operations.Itshouldalsobenotedthatathighconcentrationsofcharcoaldustintheairthere
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isapotentialexplosionhazard.Therefore,forbothhealthandsafetyreasons,operating
proceduresshouldbeplannedtominimizedustlevelsandworkshouldonlybecarriedoutin
wellventilatedareas.Acoveredstorageareaforcharcoalof40m2isrecommendedwitheach
WHUinstalled.Fireprecautionsshouldbetakenincludingtheprovisionofwatertypefire
extinguishers.

Charcoalmadefromtheprocessisparticularlygoodfeedstockforthemanufactureof
activatedcarbon.InIndonesiapricesforcharcoalvaryconsiderablyfrom.regiontoregion.In
addition,withtheincreasingpriceoffirewoodanddemandforcharcoalinthemoredensely
populatedarea,thepriceofcharcoalishigherthanintheouterislands.
(Breagetal,1994)

Photo21CharcoalproducedbytheWasteHeatUnit

Source:Breagetal,1994

Page57

REFERENCES

Alleman T.L. and McCormick R.L. (2006), Analysis of CoconutDerived Biodiesel and
ConventionalDieselFuelSamplesfromthePhilippines,NationalRenewableEnergyLaboratory
ReportNo.NREL/MP54038643,January2006

Bradley,WL(2004),InvolvingStudentsinAppropriateTechnologyProjectsintheUniversity,
EngineeringDepartment,BaylorUniversity,Waco,Texas

Breag G.R, Harker A.P, Paddon A.R. and Robinson A.P. (1984), The design, construction and
operation of a unit for the carbonization of coconut shell wioth recovery of waste heat,
TropicalDevelopmentandResearchInstitute,London,April1984.

Breag G. R, Harker A. P. and Smith, A. E. (1985) A case study of the TDRI Carbonization and
Waste Heat Recovery Unit: technoeconomic evaluation of the use of a prototype for the
carbonizationofcoconutshellinSriLanka.TropicalScience,1985,24,pp167187.

Breag G.R, Hollingdale A.C, Lipscombe R.J.. and Robinson A.P. (1994), Waste Heat Recovery
Unit(WHU)forCarbonizationofCoconutShells,AsiaPacificCoconutCommunity

Castro M.M. and Thampan P.K. (1996), Coconut Harvesting and Copra Making, Asia Pacific
CoconutCommunity,CoconutProcessingTechnologyInformationDocument

CFC(1998),CommonFundforCommodities,CFCReportNo.107.

CIDA(2004),CoconutIndustryDevelopmentAuthority,CorporatePlan20042008,FijiIslands.

Cloin,Jan(2005),CoconutoilasafuelinthePacificIslands,SOPAC

DeamerT,NewellR,DeamerZ,DeamerE,WhiteJ(2005),IssuesinusingCoconutOilasa
FuelinVanuatu,NationalWorkshopTowardsincreaseduseofliquidBiofuelsintheFiji
Islands,Suva,Fiji,16th17thMarch,2005.

Dippon,K.andVillaruel,R.(1996).CopraDriersandCopraDryingTechnology,Proceedings
oftheXXXIIICOCOTECHMeeting,

FACT(2009),JatrophaHandbookVol.4,FACTFoundation,Netherlands

Foale, M (2003). The Coconut Odyssey. Australian Centre for International Agricultural
Research.Canberra,Australia.

Hagen, D. (1995). Coconut Biomass Energy Resources: Overview, from Proceedings of the
UNIDO APCC interregional workshop on The Use of Coconut Industry Waste for Energy,
Bali,Indonesia.619November1995.
Page58

Hilditch T.P. (1956), The Chemical Constitution of Natural Fats, 3rd ed., Chapman & Hall,
London,

KnotheG,RobertO.D.andBagbyM.O.(1997),Biodiesel:TheUseofVegetableOilsandTheir
Derivatives as Alternative Diesel Fuels, National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research,
AgriculturalResearchService,U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture.

NREL(2009),BiodieselHandlingandUseGuideFourthEdition,NationalRenewableEnergy
LaboratoryReportNo.NREL/TP54043672,December2009.
http://www.nrel.gov/vehiclesandfuels/npbf/feature_guidelines.html

Ohler, J.G. (1999), Modern coconut management: palm cultivation and products. Ohler, J.G.
(ed.),IntermediateTechnologyPub.,London

Rajagopal V. and Arulraj, S. (2003). Towards Helping Farming Community, CPCRI, Kasargod,
India..

Setiawan,Y.Y.andBreag,G.(1996).TheProjectsofHotOilImmersionDryingTechnologyin
Indonesia.ProceedingsoftheXXXIIICOCOTECHMeeting.AsianandPacificCoconut
Community(APCC).Jakarta,Indonesia.

SetiawanY.Y,BreagG.R,PohanH.G.andRohamanM.M.(1997),WHUTechnologyforCopra
ProductionProject/CountryManualIndonesia,IRDABIIndonesiaandNRI,UK.

SOPAC (2005), Feasibility Study into the use of Coconut Oil Fuel in EPC Power Generation,
SOPACCocogenTeam,October2005
http://www.sopac.org/tikidownload_file.php?fileId=708

SOPAC(2006),AnEvaluationoftheBiofuelProjectsinTaveuniandVanuabalavu,FijiIslands,
SOPACTechnicalReport,February2006

Swetman,T.(1996).UseoftheRamPresstoExtractOilfromDriedCoconut.Proceedingsof
theXXXIIICOCOTECHMeeting.AsianandPacificCoconutCommunity(APCC).Jakarta,
Indonesia.

Thampan,P.K.(1993).ProcessingofCoconutProductsinIndia.AsianandPacificCoconut
Community(APCC).Jakarta,Indonesia.

Thampan,P.K.(1996).CoconutforProsperity.PeekayTreeCropsDevelopmentFoundation.
Kerala,India.

Tillekaratne,H.A.(1995).ProcessingofCoconutProductsinSriLanka.AsianandPacific
CoconutCommunity(APCC).Jakarta,Indonesia.

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Vaitilingom, Gilles (2008), Pacific Regional Workshop on Biofuels: Opportunities and
implicationsforSustainableLivelihoodsinPacificislandcountries,Nadi,Fiji,Nov2008

Vaitilingom, Gilles (2009), Presentation at Biofuels Seminar organized by Fiji Department of

EnergyandFijiInstituteofTechnology,Suva,15June2009.FIT.

World Bank (2009), Coconut Oil Power Generation a howto guide for small stationary
engines.

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8
8.1
8.1.1

ANNEXES
TheCoconutPalm
PartsandUses

Thecoconutpalm(Cocosnucifera)hasbeencalledKalpaVrikshawhichmeansTreeofLife
intheancientIndianlanguageofSanscrit,TreeofHeaven,"TreeofAbundance"and
"Nature'sSupermarket.".Itisthemostimportantpalmandthemostextensivelygrownnutin
theworld.ThemainpartsofthecoconutpalmareshowninFig.Thecoconutpalmhasa
singletrunk,2030metrestall,itsbarkissmoothandgrey,markedbyringedscarsleftby
fallenleafbases.Theleavesandflowersthatturnintococonutsgrowatthetopofthepalm;
Thefrondsinamaturehealthypalmdescribeaspherewiththefrondsevenlydistributedinall
directionsfromthegrowingtip.Fruitsmatureinabout12monthsandanormalhealthytall
coconutpalmproducesonematurebunchofcoconutspermonthonaverage.Thelengthofa
leafcanbeupto7metresintallpalms,withaleafareaofuptoabout10m2,andweighingup
to20kgwhengreen.Meanannualleafproductionisabout1416formaturetallpalmsand21
fordwarfpalms.

Figure 13 The Coconut Palm

Source:Kohler'sMedicinalPlants

Thecoconutpalmisunsurpassableinitsbeautyanditsutilitybecause,onsmallislandswhere
landbasednaturalresourcesarescarce,itprovidesalmostallthenecessitiesoflifefood,
drink,fuel,cookingandcosmeticoil,domesticutensils,medicine,timberandthatchfor
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buildinghouses,coirfiberformakingropesandmats,andothers.Inmanytropicalcountries,
coconutisanimportantpartofthedailydiet.Itsmainproductistheoilextractedfromthe
kernel.Theresidueisanimportantanimalfeed.Thecoconutwaterfromtheyoungnutsisa
popularbeverage.Thejellylikekerneloftheyoungcoconutisconsideredadelicacy.The
shreddedkernelissoldasdesiccatedcoconutusedinfoodandconfectionary.Thehuskofthe
nutprovidescoirwhichisanimportantfiberthatcanbeusedforropes,carpets,brushes,etc.
Theshellofthenutisusedforhouseholdutensilsandthecharcoalmadefromitisanexcellent
basicmaterialforactivatedcarbon.Insteadofbeingusedfornutproduction,the
inflorescencescanbetapped,yieldingsapwithhighsugarcontent,fromwhichsugar,alcoholic
beveragesandvinegarcanbemade.Theleavesareusedforroofthatching.Themidribsofthe
leavesareusedforbrooms.Coconutwoodismoreandmorebeingusedforhousebuilding
andotherusessuchasfurnitureortoolhandles.Allthepartsofthecoconutpalm,exceptthe
roots,areusedinapeasant'shousehold,soitisnowonderthatthistreehasalsobeencalled
'Treeoflife'.
8.1.2

OriginandDistribution

Themajorcoconutareasliebetween20oNand20oSonbothsidesoftheequator.Thoughitis
foundbeyondthisregionasfaras27oNand27oS,cultivationintheseextremeregionshasnot
beensuccessfulandthepalmdoesnotfruitincoolerclimates(referFigure).

Figure 14 Zones of latitude in which moist coastal regions support the growth of coconuts. Zones 1, 2 and 3
support high, medium and low potential productivity, respectively. Productivity falls with an increase in the
duration of the cool season which is nil in Zone 1 and 6 months at the extreme of Zone 3.

Source:MikeFoale,2003.

Itisnowwidelyacceptedthat,millionsofyearsago,thewildcoconutprobablyreachedmost
oftheSouthEastAsiancoastalareasandPacificislandsthoughitsfloatingseedscarriedby
oceancurrents.ThecoconutheartlandisthethreegreatarchipelagosofIndonesia,the
PhilippinesandMelanesia.Around4000yearsago,Polynesianmarinersmovedeastwards
fromthecoastofSouthEastAsiatotheislandsoftheSouthPacificextending10,000
kilometersfromNewGuineatoTahiti,carryingwiththemcoconutfruitsforfoodanddrinkon
thevoyage,andforplantingintheirnewhomes.Morethan2000yearsago,thecoconut
spreadwestwardsfromitsheartlandtotheIndiansubcontinentcarriedbytradersreturning
homefromtheIndonesianislands.Perhapsaroundthesametime,peoplefromBorneo
(accordingtolinguisticevidence),tookthecoconutacrosstheIndianOceantoMadagascar,
fromwhereitwastakenontoEastAfrica.Inthe15thcentury,Portuguesemarinerstookthe
coconutfromIndiaandEastAfricatotheCapeVerdeIslandsintheeasternAtlantic.From
herethecoconutwastakenwestwardsonslavetradingshipstotheCaribbeanandeastwards
totheWestAfricancoastallthewayfromSenegaltoAngola.Thecoconuthadalready
reachedthewesternshoresofSouthAmericamuchearlieroverthePacificfromPolynesia.So,
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whenthecoconutpalmspreadfromtheCaribbeantothecoastsofMexico,CentralandSouth
Americainthe16thcentury,ithadcompleteditsencirclementoftheglobe.(Foale,2003)
8.1.3

WorldProduction

Totalworldcoconutareain2005wasestimatedat12.2millionhectares,ofwhichover89
percentisfoundintheAsiaandPacificregions.75%ofcoconutareasareinthethreelargest
producingcountries:Indonesia(3.9millionha),Philippines(3.2millionha)andIndia(1.9
millionha).AmongsttheSouthPacificcountries,PapuaNewGuinea(0.26millionha)isthe
leadingproducer.InAfrica,Tanzania(0.31millionha)isthelargestproducerandinLatin
Americanearly43%ofthecoconutareaisinBrazil(0.28millionha)(referTableandFigure).

Tablealsogivestheproductionofcoconutsinthemajorproducingcountriesfor2005inboth
nutequivalentandcopraequivalent2,andtheproductivityperhectare.During2005an
estimatedtotalof59.6billionnutsor11.9milliontonnescopraequivalentwereproduced
worldwideon12.2millionhectaresataworldaverageproductivityof0.98tonnescopra
equivalentperhectare.

73%oftheproductioncomesfromthethreemajorproducingcountries:Indonesiaproduces
27.7%,Phillipinesproduces23.6%andIndiaproduces21.5%(referFigure).While
productivityinbothIndonesiaandthePhillipinesisaround0.85tonnescopraequivalentper
hectare,productivitiesinsomeotherAsiancountriesarehigherwithIndiaat1.33,SriLankaat
1.12andVietnamat1.03.IntheAmericasBrazilat2.70andMexicoat1.58tonnescopra
equivalentperhectarehavethehighestproductivitiesnotonlyintheirregion,butalsointhe
world(referFigure).

Table 13 World Production of Coconuts, Area and Productivity in 2005

Production
Production
NutEquivalent CopraEquivalent
(milliontonnes)
(billionnuts)
Indonesia
16.49
3.30
Philippines
14.06
2.81
India
12.83
2.57
Brazil
3.79
0.76
SriLanka
2.22
0.44
Thailand
1.20
0.24
Mexico
1.19
0.24
PapuaNewGuinea
0.81
0.16
Vietnam
0.68
0.14
Malaysia
0.39
0.08
80OtherCountries
5.91
1.18
TOTAL/AVERAGE
59.57
11.91
COUNTRY

%ofTotal
World
Production
27.7%
23.6%
21.5%
6.4%
3.7%
2.0%
2.0%
1.4%
1.1%
0.7%
9.9%
100%

Areaunder
Coconuts
(millionha)
3.89
3.24
1.94
0.28
0.40
0.34
0.15
0.26
0.13
0.13
1.40
12.17

Productivity
(tonnescopra
equiv/ha)
0.85
0.87
1.33
2.70
1.12
0.70
1.58
0.63
1.03
0.60
0.84
0.98

Note: Data refer to total production of coconut, whether consumed fresh, processed into copra or desiccated
coconut.
Source:APCCCoconutStatisticalYearbook2005(CompiledfrominformationprovidedbyAPCCmembercountries
andFAOProductionYearbooks;EstimatefornonAPCCCountrieswascalculatedbyconvertingthenutweightinto

2
5Nutsarerequiredtoproduce1kgofCopra

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wholenutsgivenintheFAOProductionYearbooks,byusingaconversionfactorofonetonofhuskednuts=1,250
wholenuts.)

Coconut production has increased steadily in Indonesia, India and Brazil whereas in the
Phillipines,severecyclonesinsomeyearshascausedadipintheproduction.
Figure 15 Area under Coconuts in 2005 and Productivity of major producing countries

8.1.4

Plantingmaterial,SelectionandBreeding

Thecoconutpalm(CocosnuciferaL.)isamonotypicspeciesinwhichthereareonlytwo
varieties3:
1. theTallvariety:CocosnuciferaL.var.typica,and
2. theDwarfvariety:CocosnuciferaL.var.nana.

BothTallandtheDwarfpalmsarefoundinallthecoconutgrowingcountries,althoughthe
dwarfpalmsaccountforonlyaround5%ofthecoconutpopulationworldwide.

TallVariety
Tallpalmsarecharacterisedbyarapidgrowthinheightandstrongstems.Theyare
crosspollinatedandareslowtomature.Tallpalmsinclude:
treesthatbearmanynutswhichareofmediumsizeandwithalowcoprayield.
ExamplesaretheWestAfricanTallandtheVanuatuTall;
treesthatbearanaveragenumberoflargenutswithahighcoprayield.
ExamplesaretheRennellTall,ThailandTallandthePolynesiaTall.

3
Varietyisagroupwithinthespeciesthatpossesescertaindistinguishingfeatureswithinthe
groupbutdistinctlydifferingfromothergroups.

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Ayoung,goodtallplantproduces5to7bunchesand25to45fruitspertreeannually.The
bunchandfruitproductionofyoungtallsisalittlelessthanhalfofthatofdwarfs,onaverage.
Underresearchstation(best)conditions,amature,wellperformingtallplantannually
produces13or14bunchesand80to100fruitspertree.Onaverage,thefruitproductionof
maturetallsisaboutninetenthsthatofdwarfs.Theeffectoftheenvironmentcanmakefruit
productionofthesameecotypeatmaturityvaryby5080%.

Photo 22 A Tall cultivar and Tall nuts

Source:CoconutVarietiesandCultivars

Ecotypesproducingthehighestnumberoffruitsarethosethatproducethesmallestfruits:
SolomonTall,VanuatuTall,LacadivesMicroTall,etc.Ecotypesproducingthelowestnumberof
fruitsarethosethatproducethebiggest,roundfruits:PanamaTall,MalayanTall,Cambodia
BattambangTall.Noecotypemonitoreduntil18yearsofagehasshownadeclineinyield.

DwarfVariety
Dwarfpalmshaveshorterandthinnerstems.Theyarenormallyselfpollinated,are
earlybearingandhaveahighannualbunchyield.Dwarfpalmsarethereforeimportant
inbreedingprograms.InflorescenceandfruitcolourssuchasGreen,Yellow,Red,
OrangeandBrownareusedforclassificationpurposes.

ADwarfcultivarandDwarfnuts

Source:CoconutVarietiesandCultivars

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Fortheperiodof38yearsofage,adwarfplantationofagoodgenotypegrownunder
favourableenvironmentalconditionsannuallyproduces10or11bunchesand50to70fruits.
TheleastproductiveecotypesareNiuLekaDwarf,TahitiRed,KinabalanGreenandAromatic
Green,withlessthan25fruitsperyear.Ontheotherhand,PumillaGreenDwarfandPilipog
GreenDwarfareclassifiedasproducingthegreatestnumberoffruitspertree,followedby
GhanaYellowDwarfandMYD.Whenmature,awellperformingplantationofdwarfsannually
produces14to16bunchesand80to130fruitspertree.Classificationaccordingtoproduction
ofbunchesandfruitsismoreorlessthesameasatayoungage,withhighernumbersforthe
MadangBrownDwarf.Theecotypesfolloweduntil17yearsofagehavenotshownany
productiondeclineduetoage.

ThemaindifferencesbetweenthetallanddwarfvarietiesaresummarizedintheTablebelow.

Table 14 Comparison of the Tall and Dwarf varieties

Traits
Geographicaldistribution

Tall
Widely distributed
commerciallygrown

Dwarf
and Less widely distributed and
generally of noncommercially
value
Stemcircumference
Enlarged and with a Thin. with a cylindrical or
bulbousbase(bole)
taperingbase
Modeofpollination
Mostlycrosspollinated
Mostlyselfpollinated
i.e.allogamous
i.e.autogamous
Pigmentation of nuts and Most are mixtures of Either pure greens, or
petioleofleaves
greensandbrowns
browns.yellowsandreds
Height increment per Greaterthan50cm
Lessthan50cm

year
Years to beginning of Late(57years)
Early(34years)
reproductivematurity
Usefullifespan
6080years
4050years
Nutsize(whole)
Verysmalltolarge
Verysmalltomedium
Phenotypicvariation

withincultivar
High
Low
betweencultivar
High
High
Rootdistribution
Generallymoredenseand Lessdenseandfew
plentiful
Reaction to adverse Generallylesssensitive
Sensitivetohypersensitive
conditions
Culturalrequirements
Average
Highinputsrequired
Leaf
and
bunch Verystrong
Fragile

attachment
Source:Taffin,1998Coconut,TheTropicalAgriculturist

Terminology
Acultivarisabotanicalvarietycharacteristicofaparticularregionwhereithasbeenplanted
andcultivatedbyman..However,todistinguishtraditionalcultivarsfrommorerecentones,
thetermsecotypeandhybridarealsoused.Theecotypeisdefinedbyagroupof
individualsfromthesameenvironmentshowingmorphologicsimilarities.Thetermscultivar
andecotypethereforemeanessentiallythesame.Thehybrid,initswidestsenseisdefinedas
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acrossbetweentwostructuresbelongingtodifferentecotypes.Thetermstructurehere
meansapopulation,afamily,oranindividual.

Withinthetwomaingroups(tallanddwarf)therearealargenumberofecotypes/cultivars.
ThemostwidelyknowncultivarsamongsttheTallsareWestCoastTallandEastCoastTallin
India,CeylonTall,MalayanTall,FijiTall,JamaicaTall,WestAfricanTall,andamongstthe
DwarfswefindChowghatDwarfinIndia,MalayanDwarf,FijiDwarf,etc.Withinacultivar
certainmemberscandifferfromothersinasinglecharacter(asinthecaseofLaccadiveTallin
whichtheLaccadiveMicrodiffersonlyinnutsizefromtheLaccadiveOrdinary)ormembers
coulddifferfromothersinaconstellationofcharacters(asintheChowghatDwarfcultivarthe
ChowghatOrangeDwarfdiffersfromtheChowghatGreenDwarfinawholerangeof
characters).Thesecultivarsarereferredtoasforms.Typesrefertothosewhichexhibit
somespecialcharacteristicslikethesweethuskedones,Kelapawangiinwhichthewaterand
kernelemitapleasantsmelletc.Thesetypesoccurinverylimitednumbersandarenotunder
regularcultivation.

SelectionCriteria
Toincreaseyieldsandmaintainthemataneconomiclevel,coconutplantingmaterial
needssomeformofregularselection.Allsmallcoconutgrowerspractiseselectionby
collectinggerminatednutsfromunderhighyieldingtreesandbychoosingthemost
vigorousseedlingsforplanting.Thecommercialgrowermay,however,prefertouse
plantingmaterialthathasbeenselectedandisrecommendedbyresearchinstitutes,
whocanalsoadviseonthechoiceofplantingmaterialforspecificsoilandclimatic
conditions.

Ifthemainaimistosellcopra,theninadditiontomaximumyieldofcopra/hectare,the
selectioncriteriawillalsoincludeadaptabilitytotheenvironment,sturdinessand
resistancetopestsanddiseases.Ontheotherhand,ifthenutsaretobesoldforeating,
thenmarketpreferencesareanimportantconsiderationparticularlythenutsize.In
eithercase,theuseofearlybearing,highyieldinghybridsthatmeettheabovecriteria
isthebestwayofmaximisingthereturnsfromacoconutgrove.

Forlargerplantations,itisbesttoprotectagainstpestsordiseasesbyusingseveral
differenthybrids.Forsmallholders,localcultivarsarelikelytobemoreimportantsince
theyareoftenpreferredeitherfortheirtasteorfortheirtraditionaluses,buthybrids
shouldalsobeconsidered.Localcultivarsareoftenusedingardenplots,alongside
smallcommercialplantationsinwhichtheproductionofcopraisthemainobjective.
8.1.5

Plantingpractices

PlantingHoles
1) Digtheplantingholesafterthepreparationofthedrainagesystemandtheroads,
preferablyafewmonthsbeforeplanting,exceptinsandysoilswheretheholesmaycave
in.
2) Thedimensionsoftheplantingholesdependonsoilconditionsandthedepthofthewater
table,andalsoonthefarmtype.
3) Onlargeestateswherelargenumbersofseedlingswillbeplantedespeciallyonlightsoils,
theholesmaybeonlyslightlybiggerthanthepolybagcontainingtheseedling,for
economicreasons.

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4) Inheavysoils,andespeciallyinsoilswithahighcontentoflateriticgravel,largeholes,
subsequentlyfilledwithlightsoilareanadvantageforpalmdevelopment.Resultsoftrials
haveshownthatplantingat60and90cmdepthsresultedin10monthsearlierbearing
andincreasedannualyieldsby10and7nutsperpalmrespectively.Italsoincreasedthe
rootnumbersby100%and104%respectively,ascomparedtothecontrol.Deepplanting
alsoprovidesresistancetocyclones.
5) OnKiritimati(ChristmasIsland)ithasbeenfoundthatcoconutsunderconditionsoflow
andirregularrainfallcanbesuccessfullyestablishedbydiggingplantingholesdowntothe
watertable(upto2.5mdeep),refillingto30cmabovethewatertablewithtopsoiland
planting36montholdseedlings.
6) InIndia,coconutsaresometimesplantedinholesasdeepas1.5m,particularlyinareas
withalongdryseasonandinsoilswithadeepwatertable.Asthecoconutstemsgrow,
theseholesaregraduallyfilledwithorganicwasteandsoil.Careshouldbetakentokeep
thesoillevelbelowthegrowingpoint,otherwisethepalmmaybekilled.Therefore,the
plantingholeshouldbewideenoughtopermitkeepingthesoilawayfromtheseedling
collar.Inthisway,theboleisnearertothewatertablewherethesoilwillnotdryoutso
quickly,andtherootingsurfaceofthepalmismuchlargerthanthatofpalmsplantedat
shallowdepths.
7) Usually,seedlingsaretransplantedtothefieldwhentheyhaveabout3or4leaves.
Plantingatalaterstageincreasesthetransplantingshock,withtheexceptionofseedlings
raisedinpolybags.
8) Seedlingsselectedforplantingshouldbetakenoutofthenurserybedwiththeuseofa
shovel,cuttingalltherootsbeforeliftingthem.Allfurtherhandlingshouldbedone
carefullytoavoiddamage.Seedlingsshouldnotbeliftedbythesprout.Thisisparticularly
importantfordwarfseedlings,asthesproutcanbecomeeasilydetachedfromthenut.
9) Onlyseedlingsthancanbeplantedwithinonedayshouldbelifted.Thetransplantingage
shouldbedeterminedbeforehandtoalloweffectiveplanningoftheplantingschedulein
thenurseryandinthefield.Theliftedoutseedlingsshouldbekeptintheshadeasmuch
aspossibleuntilplanted.
10) Thebesttimeforplantingseedlingsinthefieldisatthebeginningoftherainyseason,
aftertherainshavestartedtofallregularly.Seedlingsplantedlateintherainyseasonmay
notbeabletodeveloparootsystemlargeenoughtosurvivethedryseason.
11) Seedlingsinpolybagsshouldbewateredthedaybeforetransplanting,tokeepthesoilfirm
attransplanting.Handlingoftheseedlingshouldbedonebymeansoftheplasticbag.
Holdingtheseedlingbythecollarwhenattachedtothebagheavywithwetsoilis
dangerous,astheplantmaybreakawayfromthenut.
12) Beforeplacingthebaginthehole,thetwolowercornersofthebagarecutwithasharp
knifeandthebottomisslit.Afterplantingthebaginthehole,theholeispartlyfilledwith
soilandthesidesofthebagarecutandthebagisremoved.
13) Includingthediggingoftheplantholes,onemancanplant6080seedlingsperday.Having
dugtheholesearlier,onemanshouldbeabletoplantabout150seedlingsperday.
14) Wheretermitesmaybeexpectedtocausedamage,theplantingholeshouldbetreated
withanappropriateinsecticide(BHC,Endrin)beforetheseedlingisplanted.
15) Theplantingholemaybefilledwithtopsoilfromthesurroundingarea,mixedwiththe
recommendedquantityoffertilizerormanure.Organicmanuringisverybeneficialtothe
seedlings,duetoitsgreatwaterholdingcapacityandthemicronutrientsthatwillbecome
availablewithitsdecomposition.
16) Twolayersofcoconuthusksmaybeplaced,concavesideup,atthebottomoftheplanting
hole,astheycontainafairamountofnutrientsandofwater.Huskscanalsobeusedfor
mulchingaroundtheyoungpalmtokeepthesoilmoistandreduceweedgrowth.
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17) Optimaltreatmentofseedlingswillpaydividendsthroughoutthelonglifeofthecoconut
palm.Adequatefertilizingandweedingandirrigationwhereneededmayacceleratethe
onsetoffloweringbyoneormoreyears.
18) Weedingtheareaaroundtheseedlingisveryimportanttoavoidcompetitionforwater
andsmotheringofseedlingsbyweeds.Thecircletobekeptfreeofweedsshouldbeabout
1.50mindiameter.Thesecirclesshouldbewidenedwiththedevelopmentofthe
seedling.

PlantingDensity
The three planting layout systems used are Square, Triangular and Rectangular. These are
shown in Table with the number of palms per ha for the generally used spacings. Several
factorscomeintoplaywhentheplantingdensityischanged:
Plantingdensityinfluencesindividualpalmdevelopmentandyieldaswellasyield,per
hectare,maintenanceandharvestingcosts.
Generally,plantingdensityhaslittleinfluenceonstemgirth,numberofleaves
producedortheageoffirstflowering.
Bylowdensityplanting,alargersoilvolumeisavailabletoeachpalm,whichisoneof
thereasonsforhighyieldsperpalm.
Fewerpalms/haalsomeanslessproduction/haoftotalbiomass,andlessfertilizermay
beneededtoincreasenutproductionbecauselessnutritiouselementswillbeusedfor
theproductionofbiomass.
Fewerpalmstobeclimbedforharvestingalsoreducestheharvestingcost.
Widerspacingfavoursweedgrowth,increasingweedingcost.
Factorssuchasfungusdiseasemaybeareasonforadoptingaspacingbelow
optimum,especiallyinveryhumidareas.

Table 15 The Square, Triangular and Rectagular planting systems

Method

Palms per ha

Square:
7.5 m x 7.5 m
8.0m x 8.0m
8.5m x 8.5m
9.0m x 9.0m
10m x 10m

177
156
138
134
100

Triangular:
8mx8m
8.5 m x 8.5 m
9mx9m
10mx10m

180
160
143
115

Rectangular:
6.5m x 9.0m

170

Page69

Optimumplantingdensityforcoconutmonoculturediffersfordifferentecologicalconditions,
and depends primarily on the farming system and the coconut variety / hybrid selected. A
reviewofvariouscoconutgrowingcountriesindicatesthat:
Mostcoconutsincommercialplantingshavebeenplantedatspacingsvarying
between8x8mto9x9m,eitherinatriangular,arectangularorasquaresystem.
Dwarfsareplantedatcloserspacingsof6.5x6.5mor7x7m.
Plantingonthetriangleisdonemostlyincoconutmonocroppingwiththeobjectiveof
maximumcoprayieldperha.
Plantingonthesquareorrectangleissometimesusedinmonocropping,butmostly
whencoconutisintercroppedorundergrazed,especiallywherecultivationhasbeen
mechanized.
Forintercropping,plantinginavenuesisevenbetter,asitwillprovidespaceandlight
forintercropsthroughouttheentirecoconutgrowingperiod.Wherewideinterrows
arepreferred,suchasinmixedfarmingsystems,singleordoublehedgeplanting
systemshavesometimesbeenused,inwhichthespacingwithintherowisnarrowand
betweentherowswide.
InIvoryCoast,optimumdensityforMAWAhybridwasfoundtobearound150palms
perha,thelimitingfactormainlybeingwaterdeficit.
ResearchinJamaicafoundthattheoptimumspacingsfortalls,hybridsanddwarfs
were7.9,6.7,and5.5m,correspondingwithdensitiesof185,257and381palms/ha,
respectively.Thecurverepresentingtheyields/hawithincreasingdensityisflat
topped,indicatingthatundertheconditionsinJamaicathereisaratherwiderange
whereincreasingdensitiesproducealmostequalyields.
ResultsoflargescaleresearchprogrammesinthePhilippinesandIndonesiahave
shownthattherearenosignificantdifferencesinproductionperhectarewithina
rangeof115180treesperha.Thisisbecausewithincreasingplantingdensity:(a)
nutproductionperpalmdecreases;(b)nutproductionperhaincreasesbecauseofthe
highernumberofpalmsperha;(c)thesizeofthenutsdecreasesduetocompetition
forthesamenutrients;therefore(d)thetotalyieldofcopraperhaincreasesinitially
andthenlevelsoff.
Wherecoconutsaregrownasamonocrop,plantingcanbecarriedoutatdensitiesat
thehigherlimitofthiscurve.Theheavyshadewouldreduceweedingcosts
considerably.Lossesofpalmsduetolightning,etc.wouldnotreduceyieldsaslongas
thenumberofpalmscorrespondwiththeflattopofthecurve.Highdensitieswillalso
producehighinitialyields.
Lowerplantingdensitiesgivesmorespaceforintercropsandmulticroppingsystems
withoutdecreasingthecoconutyields.
(NucedeLamothe,1990;Ohler,1993)

Lowdensityplanting:
Betweenplantingdensitiesof100180palmsperha,theyieldcurvefordifferentdensitiesis
ratherflat.Therefore,awiderspacingispreferredwheremultiplecroppingisplanned
becauseitwillprovidemoreland,lightandwaterforintercrops.Plantinginasquareor
rectangularsystemwillfacilitatemechanizedcultivationandcropmanagement.Inclimates
withlongdryseasons,spacingat9x9inatriangularsystem,or10x10inasquaresystemwill
notgiveverydifferentyields,butthelattermayimprovelightconditionsfortheintercrop
considerably.Theselectionofthecoconutvarietytobeplantedisalsoofimportancewhen
intercroppingisconsidered.Whenhighyieldinghybridsarepreferred,tallxtallhybridsmay
Page70


beselectedinsteadofdwarfxtallhybrids.

Hedgerowordoublehedgerowplanting:
Thehedgerowsystemisbasedonnarrowspacingbetweenpalmsintherow,andlarge
spacingbetweenrows.Thedoublehedgerowsystemisbasedonalternationofanarrow
spacingbetweentworowswithaverywidespacing.Alldeadleavesandotherorganicdebris
canbecollectedwithintherow,andtheinterrowbekeptcleanforcultivation.Thenarrower
thespacingintherow,themorethepalmswilltendtobendoutwards,reducingtheeffectof
wideinterrowspacing.Withahedgesystem,intercroppingispossibleduringtheentirelife
timeofthepalms,withareductionofspacewhenthepalmsareyoung,andlowleavesmay
hampercultivationofothercropsclosetothepalm.Thesystemtobechosendependsvery
muchonthecrop(s)plannedforintercropping.
8.1.6

Greenmanuring,OrganicManuring&ChemicalFertilizerapplication

Thereare3differentwaysofimprovingnutrientavailabilityinthesoil:
1. GreenManuring;
2. ApplicationofOrganicManures;and
3. ApplicationofChemicalFertilizers.

Organicfertilizinghassomeadvantagesoverchemicalfertilizing,becauseofseveralreasonsall
ofwhichareveryimportantfortheregulationofmineralsupplytotheplant:
itinvolvesmacroaswellasmicroelements;
itimprovessoiltexture;
itimprovessoilmoistureholdingcapacity;
itimprovesconditionsforsoilmicrobiologicallife;and
itimprovesthesoil'scationexchangecapacity.
Therefore,theuseofmanureand/orcompost,orjustgreenleavescutofffromsomesource
outsidethecoconutgrove,shouldalwaysbegivenpreference.

GreenManuring
Thesamecrops are frequentlyused forcovercrops and green manuring. Cover cropsare a
culturalpracticetoreduceweedgrowthandevaporationfromthesoil.Greenmanures,which
havetheabilitytofixnitrogeninsymbiosiswithsoilmicroorganismswillmainlyaddnitrogen
tothesoilinadditiontotheorganicmatter.

InanexperimentconductedinIvoryCoastbyinsoilwherenitrogenwastheessential
productionfactor,yieldsinallplotsdeclinedafterNfertilizertreatmentswere
discontinued,exceptinplotscoveredwithlegumecovercrops.TheNcontentofthesoils
whereleguminouscovercropswereplantedwasmuchhigherthaninotherplots.
Insomesoils,RhizobiuminoculationandseedpelletingcanenhancethenodulationandN
fixationofgreenmanures.
WhenpelletingwasdoneonRhizobiuminoculatedseedssowninanacidiccoconutsoil,
significantlymoreresponseinnodulationbehaviour,drymatteryieldandnitrogen
concentrationwasobserved.Thedifferenceinresponseduetotheuseofdifferent
pelletingmaterials(rockphosphate,calciumcarbonate,charcoal,anddolomite)wasnot
significant.
Ifthelegumesproduceedibleproducts,suchasbeansandpods,harvestingtheseproducts
willalsoremovethatpartofthenitrogenusedbytheplanttoproducethesebeansand
pods.
Page71

Legumes have very deep roots by which they can take up minerals that have already
leached to depths below the dense root zone of coconut palms. These minerals will be
returnedtothetopsoilwhenthegreenmanureisincorporatedintothesoil.However,this
cannot be regarded as additional fertilizer. It is rather a recycling of minerals that
otherwisewouldhavebeenleachedoutandlost.
Often,soilsaresopoorthatgreenmanuresalsogrowveryslowly,andarebarely
beneficial.Insuchacase,thegrowthofthegreenmanurecropscouldbeimprovedby
applyingchemicalfertilizers.Thecoconutswouldbenefitfromthefertilizers.
Inplantationswithpoorsoilsitcanoftenbeobservedthatgreenmanurecropsgrowmuch
betterinplaceswheresomeorganicdebrishasbeenburnedbeforeplantingthelegume.
Alternategrowingofgreenmanuresandannualintercrops,usingchemicalfertilizers,may
beaneffectivesystemofmaintainingsoilfertility.
Thedensemassofvegetation,especiallywhereamixturewithwindingcovercropsare
plantedcanhindermovementintheplantationandhampernutcollection.Asimple
devicetomanagethisvegetationisalowcostrollerthatcanbemadeatvillagelevel.It
consistsofaroundedtreetrunkof50cmdiameterand1minlength,inwhichsix
lengthwisesawcutshavebeenmadeatregularspacing.Steelbladesareinsertedinto
thesecuts.Therollercanbedrawnbyapairofoxen.Thecapacityoftherollingequipment
isabout0.80.9haperday,withoutexhaustingtheanimalsortheoperator.Sucharoller
crushesthecovercropwithoutcuttinganduprootingit;thecovercropisnot
incorporatedintothesoilbutfunctionsasamulchontopofthesoil.Theuseofdisk
harrowscouldaffecttheregrowthofthecovercrop.Asimilarrollerwithoutthesteel
bladeshasbeenfoundtobeequallyeffective.
(Fernando,1989;PomierandTaffin,1982)

OrganicManuring
When fertilizing with organic material, recycling of plantation material is the most obvious
choice.Thisincludeshusk,coirpith,leavesandstem.

RecyclingHusk
Thehuskshaveahighmineralcontent,50huskscontainabout0.5kgpotashequalto
about1kgmuriateofpotash.Husksmayrepresenttheequivalentof200to300kgKCl
perhaperyr.Thisshouldbetakenintoconsiderationwhencalculatingtheprofitabilityof
alternativeindustrialusesofhusks(fibres,energy).
Huskscanabsorbandretainaboutsixtimestheirowndryweightofwater.
Ittakesabout34yearsforhuskstodecompose.
Dehuskingthecoconutsandleavingthehusksinthefieldaregenerallyrecommended
practices.
Huskscanbeplacedaroundthepalmasamulch,buttheycanalsobeburied.When
buried,theywillimprovesoilconditions,andthesoilwaterholdingcapacitywillbe
increased.Husksshouldbeplacedwiththeirconvexsideupwards,incirclesaroundthe
stemofthepalm.
InoculationwiththecellulolyticfungusTrichodermahasbeenfoundtoacceleratethe
decompositionofhusks.Twomonthsaftertreatedanduntreatedhuskswereburiedin
thesoil,distinctareasofdecompositioninthetreatedhuskswerenotedwherefibres
werereducedtotinypieces.TheoriginalsoilKcontentwas190ppm.Aftertwomonths,
soilwithuntreatedhusksandsoilwithtreatedhuskscontained517593ppmand700747
ppmextractableKrespectively.
Leavingthehusksinthefieldmayattracttermites.
(Liyanage,1987;Nunezetal,1991)
Page72

CoirPithorCoirDust
Coirpithisanexcellentproducttobereturnedtothesoil,eitherasamulchorasan
organicfertilizer.Duetoitsfibrousandloosenature,incorporationofcoirpithintothe
soilimprovesthephysicalpropertiesandwaterholdingcapacityofthesoilconsiderably.
Theword'coir'isderivedfrom'kayar'intheMalayanlanguage.
CoirPithrepresentsabout45%ofthecoconuthusk.Itcontainsabout2530%ligninand
33%cellulose.
CoirPithcanabsorbandretainabouttentimesitsowndryweightofwater.
AgreatvariationofC:Nratioshavebeenreported,rangingfrom58:1to112:1.
Thequalityofcoirpithdependsonthefibreextractionprocess.Coirpithobtainedafter
mechanicalfibreextractionisricherinnutrientscomparedtocoirpithobtainedafter
retting,asitlosesmuchofitsoriginalmineralcontentduringthiswetprocess.
Thecoirpithobtainedfromthefullymatureandoldernutscontainsahigheramountof
ligninandcelluloseandfewerwatersolublesaltscomparedtoyoungernuts.
Useofcoirpithasmulchororganicfertilizerwillsolveanenvironmentalproblemnear
processingcentreswherelargenumbersofcoconutarehusked.Thehugeamountsofcoir
pithdumpedaswasteoozetanninsduringtherainyseason.Sometimesthepithisseton
fire,butitburnsveryslowly,duetoitshighmoisturecontent.
Coirpithcanbeappliedasamulch,usedaslitter(afterdrying)instablesorpoultrypens
beforeapplyingittothesoil,orapplieddirectlytothesoil.Usingcoirpithasalitterwill
enrichthematerialwithmineralsandreducetheC:Nratio,improvingitsqualityasa
manure.
InatrialconductedinIndia,acoirpithmulch,10cmthickaroundseedlingsresultedina
higherseedlingsurvivalandhighersoilmoisturecontentthanothertreatments,suchas
mulchingwithricehuskorblackpolythene,andearthenpitchandpotwateringatarateof
10perweek.
Decompositionofcoirpithusessoilnitrogen,andthismayresultintemporarynitrogen
deficiencyofthepalm.ReductionoftheC:Nratio(e.g.byusingaslitter)beforeapplying
thecoirpithtothesoilisrecommended.Resultsoflaboratoryexperimentsontheeffect
ofblendingrettedcoirdustwithfertilizerssuggestanitrificationinhibitionpropertyofcoir
dust,andindicatetheusefulnessofblendingureawithcoirdustforcontrolledandgradual
releaseofureanitrogen.Thisfindingisimportantforsoilspronetoheavyleachinglosses,
wherecontrolledreleaseofNcanbeachievedintherootzoneofperennialcrops.
Aftertreating1tonofcoirpithwithanediblebasidiomycetousfungus(Pleurotussajor
caju)and5kgurea,andkeepingthemixtureasaheaptodecomposeinanopenyardfor
30days,itwasobservedthat:(a)lignincontentdroppedfrom30%to4.8%;(b)cellulose
contentreducedfrom26.5%to10.1%;and(c)C:Nratiowentdownfrom112:1to24:1,
whichiscomparabletofarmyardmanureandcompostwhenappliedtothesoil.
Forcompostingcoirpith,anareaof3x5misrequiredinashadyplace.About100kgof
coirpithisspreadoutina2cmthicklayeroverwhichonebottleofspawn(300g)of
Pleurotussajorcajuisuniformlyspread.Thenthelayeriscoveredwithanother2cmthick
layerofcoirpith,overwhich1kgofureaisuniformlyspread.Thisprocesscanberepeated
untiltheheapreachesaheightofabout1metre.Foreachtonofcoir,5kgofureaand5
spawnbottlesarerequired.Themoisturecontentintheheapismaintainedatabout200%
bysprinkling.
InatrialconductedinthePhilippineswithseveralfungi,includingPleurotussajorcaju,it
wasobservedthatPhanerochaetechrysosporiumUPCC4003wasthemosteffective
fungusfordegradingthelignocellulosecomponentsofcoirdustatoptimumconditions.
However,thedegradationprocesswascarriedonwithminimalnitrogenconcentration.
Page73

Trichodermaspisamongthenativemicrofloraobservedintherawcoirpith.Anadditional
advantageassociatedwithTrichodermasp.isitsabilityasabiocontrolagentofsoilborne
fungaldiseases,suchasGanoderma,thecausalagentofBasalStemRot.
Stablemanureaddsnutrientstothesoil,butifitisproducedfromvegetationgrowing
underthecoconutpalmsonly,itdoesnotaddanythingnewtothesoil;ratheritisa
systemofrecyclingnutrientelementsinanorganicform.Mineralstakenupbyanimal
bodiesarelosttotheland;nitrogenthatmayevaporateduringproductionandapplication
ofstablemanureisalsolosttotheland.
Wastematerialscansometimesbeobtainedfromagroindustries,suchasricebran,straw,
ortheresiduefrombeerbreweries.Suchmaterials,ifavailableatareasonableprice,can
becompostedintheplantation,orspreadoutinstables,tobemixedwiththeanimal
excrement.
(SavithriandKhan,1994;Uthaiahetal.,1989;UyencoandOchoa,1984)

CPCRIrecommendsaslightlydifferentmethodforcompostingcoirpithtoIndianfarmers:
Largescalecompostingofcoirpithcanbedoneeitherbytheheapmethodinashaded
placeorincementtanks.
Coirpithobtainedfromcoirprocessingunitsaretreatedwithlime(0.5%),urea(0.5%),
rockphosphate(0.5%)andlegumebiomass(Glyricidialeaves)orcowdungorcompost
frompreviousbatch(10%)andmoistened.
Thetreatedcoirpithissprayedwith1%jaggerysolutionandmixedwithfungalinoculum
at0.2%level,15daysaftertheamendment.
Regularwateringisdonetokeeptheheapmoist.
TherawcoirpithwithaC:Nratioof108:1wouldturnintocomposthavingaC:Nratio15:1
andhighmicrobialpopulationwithinaperiodof4050days.
Marasmiellustroyanus,anefficientproducerofIigninolyticandcellulolyticenzymes,isolated
fromdecomposingcoconutwastehasbeenfoundtobeeffectiveincompostingofcoir
pith.AlocalisolateofTn'chodermaspecieswasalsoeffectivetocompostcoirpith.
Microbialenrichmentwithnitrogenfixingbacteriaandphosphatesolubilisersenables
productionofgoodqualitycompostwithbettermanurialvalue.

Forcompostingcoirpithusingearthworms,theCPCRIrecommendationsare:
Coirpithistreatedwithlimeandrockphosphate@0.5%eachandincubatedforthree
weeks.
Itisthenmixedwithcowdung@10%,freshvermicompost@10%.
Thismixtureislayeredwithuncutcoconutleaves@20%tofacilitateaerationinthebed.
TheearthwormEudrilusspp.isintroducedattherateof1000numbers/tonneoforganic
materials.
Thebedshouldbemulchedandprotectedfromdirectsunlight.
Moisturelevelistobemaintainedat50%byregularirrigation.
Earthwormsformburrowsinthebedandvermicastingsappearassurfacecasts.
Agranularvermicompostwith1.2%nitrogenandC:Nratioof16.7:1canbeobtainedin
twomonths.

InanexperimentcarriedoutbyCPCRIonsubstitutionofchemicalfertilizersbycompostedcoir
pithincoconut,thetreatmentNPK(50%)+compostedcoirpith(50%)gavethehighestyieldof
104 nuts /palm /year followed by the treatment 100% NPK as inorganic fertilizer (82
nuts/palm/year). The lowest yield of 66 nuts/palm/year was recorded in the control. Foliar
analysisforN,PandKdidnotshowsignificantdifferences.Organiccarboncontentofsoilat0
25 cm depth was found to be the highest in the treatment, 50% composted coir pith + 50%
Page74


NPK. Available K content in the soil at 025 cm depth differed significantly and chemical
fertilizerrecordedsignificantlyhigheraverageK.ThehighestnetreturnsofRs.18,124/hawas
obtainedinthetreatmentNPK(50%)+compostedcoirpith(50%).
(RajagopalandArulraj,2003)

VermicompostingofCoconutPalmWastes
Lignocellulosic materials like coconut palm wastes decompose rather slowly, and
vermicomposting is a good technique to convert them to a form that can be utilized by the
coconut palm more quickly. Vermicomposting is a process of composting organic matter
usingearthworms,andtheendproductisknownasvermicompost.Themainstepsinvolvedin
vermicompostingare:
1) multiplicationofearthworms,
2) preparationofbasematerialsforvermicomposting,
3) introductionofearthwormtothebasematerial,
4) managementofvermicompostingbed,
5) separationofvermicompostfromundecomposedmaterials.

Waste materials from coconut plantation can be converted into brown, nonodourous,
granular vermicompost using earthworms. CPCRI in India has isolated a local earthworm
closelyrelatedtotheAfricannightcrawler(Eudrilussp.)thathasbeenfoundtobeeffectivein
vermicompostingofcoconutpalmwastes.
Eudrilussp.canbemultipliedinamixtureofcowdunganddecayedleavesin1:1ratio
takenincementtub,woodenboxorplasticbucketwithdrainagefacilities.
Wormsshouldbeintroducedattherateof50numbersper10kgoforganicwastes.
Within23months,theearthwormmultiplies300times,whichcanbeusedforlargescale
composting.

Organicwastesweatheredinrainsfor34monthscanbedirectlyusedforvermicomposting.
Compostingcanbedoneinpitsofconvenientsize,withdepthlessthan1metredugin
coconutplantationorincementtanks.
Cowdungmaybeaddedtothewastesattherateof10%byweightandtheheapshould
bewateredandallowedtoundergopreliminarydecompositionfor12weeks.
Thenearthwormsmaybeaddedattherateof1kgpertonneoforganicwastes.
Thebedshouldbemulchedandwateredregularlytomaintainsufficientmoistureandthe
compostingwillbeoverinabout70days.
Wateringshouldbeavoidedforoneweekbeforetheremovalofcompost.Wormswill
movetodeepermoistareaandcompostcanbecollected,sievedanddried.
Therecoveryofcompostcouldbeashighas70%.Thewastematerialcanbeconverted
intobrown,nonodourous,granularvermicastings.
Fromonehectarecoconutgarden,onecouldget4,000kgofvermicompostfromleaves
alone.
Thefinalproductwillcontain1.21.8%Nitrogen,0.10.2%Phosphorousand0.20.4%
Potassium.
Themanagementofvermicompostingrequiresregularwateringtokeepthebedmoist.
Directsunlightisharmfultowormsandthebedshouldbemulchedwithdrygrassesor
moistgunnybags.
Ittakesnearly60daystocompostmostofthematerials.Harvestingofvermicompost
requiresseparationofworms(adultandjuveniles)andcocoonsbysievingfromthe
compost.Thegranularvermicastingssoobtainedcanbedriedandstoredforfield
application.
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(RajagopalandArulraj,2003)

OtherOrganicMaterials
Organic material for the manuring of coconut can also be obtained by interplanting coconut
withothertreesorshrubsthatcanbeprunedregularly.
InamixedcroppingtrialinSriLanka,GliricidiasepiumandLeucaenaleucocephala
wereplantedindoublerowsinthecoconutavenuesataspacingof2x0.9m.They
yielded710tonsand1216tonsofgreenmatterperharespectivelyand1420tper
haoffreshfirewoodduringthefirstandsecondyearsHarvestingstartedoneyear
afterplantingthetreesbyloppingtheplantsatonemetreabovethegroundat3
monthintervals.
Insomecountries,coconutsaremanuredwithleavesandbranchesofothertrees
growingoutsidetheplantation.Thisispossibleonlyonverysmallholdings,asthe
practiceislabourintensive.Forlargeplantationsitmaybeverydifficulttoobtain
sufficientquantitiesofsuchmaterialfromoutsidetheplantation.
ExperimentsinIndiainvestigatedorganicmaterialfertilizingincombinationwitha
systemofrootrejuvenation.Atrenchwasopened30cmfromthebole,formingone
quarterofacircle.Thistrenchwasfilledwithorganicmaterialandcoveredwithsoilto
preventthebreedingofrhinocerosbeetles.Aftertwoyearsanotherquarterofthe
circlewasfilled,etc.Thismethodinducesnewrootformationfromthebole.Inthese
experimentsusing30kgofGliricidiaorLeucaenaleavestofillthetrenches,aftertwo
yearsoftreatmentnutyieldincreasesof1520nutsperpalmperyearto5060nuts
perpalmperyearwereobservedafter2yearsoftreatment.
(Gunasekera,1989;LiyangeandWijeratne,1987)

ChemicalFertilisers
Mostcultivatedlandsneedregularsuppliesofmineralnutrients,especiallyafterhaving
beencultivatedforsometime.
Whenplantingorreplantingcoconutonlandpreviouslycultivated,fertilizerapplicationto
theseedlingsisveryimportanttoguaranteegooddevelopmentofthebole,whichisvery
importantfortheproductivityofthetree,asitincreasestherootingsurface.
Withgoodnutrition,thestemwillalsoattainitsmaximumwidth.Nutrientdeficienciesata
laterstagemaycauseanarrowingofthestem,whichmaydecreasethepalm's
productivity.Fertilizingaftersuchaperiodmayagainallowthestemtoattainitsoriginal
width,butnotinthenarrowsection,asthestemhasnocambium.Suchnarrowstem
sectionsmayalsobecausedbydroughtandotherunfavourablegrowingconditions,and
showsomethingofthepalm'shistory.
Adequatefertilizingofyoungpalmslowerstheprebearingage.Dependingonsoil
conditions,adequatelyfertilizedyoungpalmsmaystartbearingoneormoreyearsearlier
thanpalmsgrowingwithoutfertilizers.
Highyieldingcultivarsneedmoremineralnutrientsfortheproductionofagreaternumber
ofnutsthanlowyieldingpalms.Ontheotherhand,highyieldingvarietiescanalso
respondmuchmorestronglytofertilizerapplication.Resultsofafertilizerexperimentin
Thailandsuggestedthat,intheabsenceoffertilizer,hybridsdidasbadlyaslocalvarieties,
butnoworse.
Whenrecommendingfertilizerapplication,itshouldbeverifiedwhethertheplanting
materialisofadequatequalityandnottoooldandseniletorespondeconomicallyto
fertilizerapplication.Wherethisisdoubtful,improvementmightbetterbeachieved
throughrenovationoftheplantationandbuildingupsoilfertilitywithfertilizersandgreen
manures.
Page76

Whendeficiencysymptomsbecomevisible,thepalmsmayhavesufferedfromashortage
foralongtimeandtheplantationhasbeenproducingatsuboptimallevel.Monitoringof
mineralcontentsinthepalmisthereforeimperativeforgoodmanagement.

Thethreemainsystemsusedtodeterminefertilizerneedsareleafanalysis,soilanalysisand
fertilizerexperiments.
Leafanalysisisaratheraccuratesystemtodeterminethenutritionalsituationoftheplant.
Soilanalysisnotonlydeterminesthesoilavailabilityofcertainnutrients,butitalso
providesinformationonotherchemicalsoilcharacteristics,suchaspHandnutrient
fixation.Alsoothersoilcharacteristics,suchascationexchangecapacity,textureand
depth,mayallbeimportanttodeterminethesystemoffertilizerapplicationandthedoses
tobeused.
Fertilizerexperimentsprovidethefinalanswerofplantreactiontocertainfertilizer
applications,theinfluenceonthenutrientlevelsinleaves,theinteractionsbetweenthe
variousnutrients,andthepotentialyieldresponseswithinlocalecologicalconditions.
Fertilizerexperimentsalsogiveinformationoncostsandonthemosteconomiclevelof
fertilizeruse.

ThemostwidelyusedsystemforleafanalysisistheonedevelopedbyIRHO:
Thebesttimeforsamplingisatthestartofthedryseason.Afterrainfall,atleast36hours
shouldpassbeforesampling,asnutrientsmayhaveleachedfromtheleaves.
Sampledtreesmaybemarked,tobesampledagainlatertoinvestigatetheresultsof
treatmentsappliedonthebasisofsamplingresults.
Asleavesofdifferentageshavevaryingmineralcontents,onlyoneleafpositionisused.
Foryoungseedlings,leafno.4isused;assoonasitisavailable,leafno.9isusedfor
somewhatolderpalmsandforfullygrownpalmsleafno14isused.
Thepositionofthecorrespondingspatheindicatestheturningdirectionoftheleafspiral.
Ifitspositionisslightlytotheleftoftheleaf,thespiralturnsleft,ifitisontheright,the
spiralturnsright.Leafno.1istheyoungestleafjustdetachedfromthecentralspear.
Usually,leafno.9supportsthelargestunopenedspatheandleafno.14generallysupports
aninflorescencewithnutsthesizeofafist.
Withoutcuttingtheleaf,6leafletsarecut,3oneitherside,fromthecentralpartofthe
lamina.Ofeachleaflet,onlythecentral10cmportionisused.Theedgesofeachleaflet
(about2mm)andthecentralveinareremoved.Ofeachleafletfragment,onesideisused
foranalysis,theotheriskeptasaduplicate.
Theleafletsarecleanedwithcottonwoolanddistilledwater,thencarefullydried.
Duplicatesarewrappedandstoredinadryplace.
Samplesshouldbeadequatelylabelled,givingallnecessaryinformationondate,site,and
conditions,aswellasontheconditionoftheplotatthetimeofsampling.
Afterlabelling,thesamplesaredriedinanovenat7080Cforabout10hours.Whereno
ovenisavailable,a250Welectricbulbcanbeusedfordrying.Thesamplebatchescanbe
sentinsealedplasticbagstothelaboratoryforanalysis.
Thesamplecovers2530trees.Forlargeareas,onesampleisusedforevery50or100ha,
andasystemisoftenusedtofacilitatefollowupwork.Insmallholderareas,onesampleis
takenperholding,andthetreesarerandomlyselected.Abnormaltreesshouldbe
excluded.

CPCRIrecommendations

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For the west coast of India where planting is done just before the monsoon rains which fall
mainly during July and August, CPCRI recommendations to farmers for fertilizer application
are:
Onetenthoftheadultpalmdosageofnutrientsshouldbeappliedafterthreemonths,one
thirdaftertwoyearsofgrowth,twothirdsafterthreeyearsandfulldosagefromfourth
yearonwards(Table).
Table16CPCRIrecommendationsforChemicalFertiliserapplication
Fertilizer application is
MayJune
SeptemberOctober

P20S

K20

P20S

K20

Firstyear

50

40

135

Secondyear

50

40

135

110

80

270

Thirdyear

110

80

270

220

160

540

Fourthyearonwards

170

120

400

330

200

800

Generalrequirementoffertilizerelementsforpalmsyieldinganaverageof50nuts/palm/
yearis500gN,320gPP5and1200gKppalm/year.
Inacidsoilsthenutrientsshouldbeappliedintheformofurea,rockphosphateand
muriateofpotash,whereasinalkalinesoilsurea,singlesuperphosphateandmuriateof
potashshouldbeapplied.
Adequatequantityofbulkyorganicmanures(50kg/palm/year)shouldalsobeapplied.It
providessomeofthemicronutrientsneededbythepalmsandalsoimprovesthesoil
physicalconditionsincludingwaterholdingcapacity.
Borondeficiencycausescharacteristicmalformationofleaveslikehookleaves,nut
cracking,dryingofthefemaleflowersetc.SoilapplicationofBorax@50g/palmtwiceat
monthlyintervalsaftertheappearanceofthefirstsymptomcorrectsthedeficiency.In
root(wilt)diseaseaffectedareas,applyBorax@300g/seedlingandBorax@500g/adult
palm.
ApplicationofMagnesium@500gMgOperpalmisadvantageousforthemanagementof
root(wilt)diseasedpalmstorestorepalmvigourandsustaintheproductivity.
HybridpalmsdonotrequirehigherN,PandKinputsforhigherproductivityascompared
toTallcultivars.
Soilswith1%organiccarbonstatusisidealforcoconutcultivation.
70to80ppmofmineralizablenitrogeninsoiland10to12ppmBrayextractable'P'can
sustainsufficientlevelsincoconut.
IfsoilavailablePislessthan10ppm,fullrecommendeddoseof320gP205/palm/year
maybeappliedandforasoiltestvalueof10to20ppm,50percentofthesamemaybe
applied.Forsoiltestvaluesofmorethan20ppm,Papplicationcanbeskipped.
ThecontentofacertainelementinLeaf14,belowwhichtheapplicationofthiselementas
afertilizermayresultinaneconomicalyieldimprovement,iscalledthecriticallevelofthis
element.Criticallevelsforcoconutare:
N1.71.8%
P0.110.12%
K0.81.0%
Ca0.3%
Mg0.2%
TheresultsoftheexperimentsundertakenintheAllIndiaCoordinatedResearchProject
onPalmsindicatedthathighyieldingcoconutvarietiesandhybridshaverespondedwellto
theintegratednutrientmanagementpractices.
Page78

Higherpressureonlandmightbecomebeneficialtococonutproductionwhenintercropsare
incorporated into the Coconut Based Farming System (CBFS) and when these intercrops are
fertilized.InanintercroppingtrialconductedinthePhilippines,coconutproductionincreased
morethantwofoldwithinaperiodof7years.Asubstantialincreasewasobservedincoconut
production,especiallyinthelastyearsoftheexperiment,whichwasattributedtotheimpact
ofimprovedcultivationandmoreabsorptionofnutrientsfromthesoil.(DitablanandAstete,
1986)

Page79


8.2

Dryingmethodsofcopra&storage

8.2.1

BasicPrinciplesofCoconutDrying

Dryingisaprocessforreducingthemoisturecontentofmaterialsbybringingthewatertothe
surfaceandevaporatingit.Evenunderambientconditions,evaporationwilltakeplaceaslong
astheactualmoisturecontentoftheproductisaboveitsequilibriummoisturecontent(EMC).
TheEMCdependsonthepropertiesoftheproductandambientaircharacteristicssuchas
temperature,humidityandpressure.Oncethemoisturecontentoftheproductreachesthe
EMC,itwillnotloseanymoremoisturetotheambientairanditsweightwillnotchange
anymore.ProductswhosemoisturecontentislowerthantheEMCwillabsorbmoisturefrom
theambientairtillithasattainedamoisturecontentequaltoitsEMC.Underprevailing
weatherconditionsinthecoconutgrowingareasinthetropicsEMCforcopraisgenerally
around6%to7%.Thismeansthatdryingdowntoalowermoisturecontentiswastingtime
andmoney,sincecoprawillabsorbwateruntiltheEMCisreached.

Therateofdryingdependsmainlyonthetemperatureandhumidityofthedryingair.Drying
startswiththeevaporationofsurfacewaterfollowedbythediffusionofmoisturefrominner
layerstowardsthesurface.Aslongasthemoisturemigrationishigherthantheevaporationon
thesurface,therateofdryingwillremainconstant.Higherdryingairtemperatureswill
increasetherateofdrying,butthehighestdryingairtemperaturethatcanbeusedis
restrictedbythequalityrequirementsontheproduct.Humidity,temperatureandambient
pressuredefinethewaterholdingcapacityofair.Table1showstheeffectofchangesin
temperatureandhumidityonthewaterholdingcapacityofairinatropicalcountry.The
dryingairpressurecanbeconsideredconstantat1barforthedryingofcoconutsinnatural
draughtdriers.

Table17Waterholdingcapacityofairinatropicalcountry
MaximumWater
Temperature Relative
x
Humidity
Absorbtion
o
(g/kgdryair)
( C)
(%)
(g /kg dry air)
30
80
22.9
1.0
40

46

26.4

4.5

50
60
70

29
17.5
10.9

29.6
32.9
36.2

7.7
11.0
14.3

80

6.5

39.6

17.7

90

4.1

43.6

21.7

100
3.0
46.4
24.5
Note:Fortropicalcountryx=21.9g/kgdryairat30oCand80%RH
Source:DipponandVillaruel,1996

Therateofdryingatagiventemperatureandhumidityisfastestimmediatelyaftersplitting
thecoconuts.Thelowerthemoisturecontentthemoredifficultitgetstofurtherdrydown.
Page80


Figure18showsadryingcurve(timeisplottedagainstmoisturecontent)forcoconutmeatata
dryingtemperatureof95C.Inthiscase2.5hoursareneededtobringdownthemoisture
contentfrom45%to35%(adecreaseinmoisturecontentof10%).Ontheotherhand,todry
thecoconutmeatfrom20%moisturedownto10%(againadecreaseof10%),8.5hoursare
neededwhichismorethanthreetimeslonger.Coconutgrowersthereforeprefertodrydown
toamoisturecontentthatisacceptabletothebuyerevenifapricedeductionisappliedfor
highmoisturecontent.

Figure16DryingCurve

Source:DipponandVillaruel,1996

Evaporationhastobefollowedbytheremovalofthemoisturefromthecoconutkernel.This
requiresacertainairvelocitytotransporttheevaporatedwatertotheoutside.Themost
importantfactorsaffectingtheperformanceofacoconutdryerare:
propertiesoftheproduct(size.age.initialmoisturecontent.etc.)
dryingmanagement(nutsarrangement.pileheight.timelagfromsplittingtostartof
drying)
physicalpropertiesofthedryingair(humidity.temperatureandvelocity)

Size.ageandinitialmoisturecontentallvary.Theaveragediameterofnutsofdifferent
varietiesmayvaryfrom10to20cm.Thehigherthedifferenceindiameterinabatch,the
higherthepercentageofoverlappednuts,whichresultsinahigherpercentageofwetcopra.
Youngnuts(lessthan11monthsold)aremoredifficulttodrythanoldermaturenuts(13to14
monthsold).Ifthenutsarenotproperlydrainedaftersplittingand/orifsplittingandloading
aredoneonarainyday,morewaterhastobeevaporated.Inthiscasethedryingtimehasto
*beextendedandthisresultsinalowerefficiency.

Thegeneralpracticeistoarrangethenutsinadryerwiththefirst(lowest)layerfacingupand
allotherlayersfacingdown.However,dryingtrialsinthePhillipineshaveshownthatthe
arrangementofthenutsdoesnotsignificantlyaffectthequalityofcopraproduced.Arranging
nutsrequiresanadditionalfourhoursper2000nuts.

Page81


Loadingshouldbedoneimmediatelyaftersplittingthenutsanddrainingthewateroff.Drying
trialshaveshownaslightdiscolorationofnutsloadedmorethanfourhoursaftersplitting.The
moredryingisdelayedthehigherthepercentageofdiscoloration.

Thehigherthepileofcoconutsloaded,themoredifficultitisforthedryingairtopassthrough
thenuts.Thiswillberesultinthebottomlayergettingoverdriedwhilethetoplayerstillhasa
highmoisturecontent.Thisisusuallytakencareofbyshufflingthelayersonceduringthe
dryingprocessthetoplayerisplacedatthebottom,andthebottomlayeristakentothe
top.Recommendationsfortheoptimumbedheightvaryfrom2050cm.

Similarly,awiderangeoftemperatureshavebeenrecommendedbyvariousresearchers,from
35Ctoover90C.Quiteoften,atwostagedryingprocessisrecommended.Ahigh
temperatureinitialstageisfollowedbyaperiodoflowertemperature.Thefirststagecouldbe
for816hoursfollowedbythenextphaseuntilafinalmoisturecontentof8to10%is
reached.Pileheights,temperaturesandtimeperiodsforthestagesofdryingaregivenforthe
differenttypesofdryersinthefollowingsections.

Averageairflowratesinnaturaldraughtdryersarebelow1.0m/s.Forhigherairvelocities
additionalblowers(orventilators)arenecessaryandthishasbeendoneforresearch
experiments,buttheinitialandoperatingcostsofblowerscannotbejustifiedforcopradriers
usedbysmallholders.

8.2.2

TypesofDryers

Sincecopraisconsideredasalowvalueproduct,itisnoteconomicallyviabletouse
sophisticateddryers,oreventheuseofblowersforamoreconstantairflow.Therefore,for
makingcopra,naturaldraftdryersareused.Commonmethodsofdryingcanbeclassifiedas:

3) UsingHeatfromtheSun
c) Sundrying
d) Solardrying

4) UsingHeatfromburningBiomass
c) KilndryingusingSmoke
Directdrying
Semidirectdrying
d) IndirectdryingusingHotair

Thesunisthesourceofenergyforbothsundryingandsolardrying.Thedryingmethodsvary
fromthatwhichisconsideredprimitiveandtraditionaltoonethatadherestocertainscientific
principlesofdrying.ASolardryerisastructure(verysimpletohighlysophisticated)thatis
usedtotrapthesun'sheatandtherebyenhancetheeffectofsolarradiation.

Heateddryersusuallyburncoconutshellsandhusk:

Page82

DirectDryers:
Fuelisburntunderthecopraandcombustiongasescomeincontact
withthecoconutmeatbyrisingupthroughthecoprabed.
SemidirectDryers:
Fuelisburnttothesideofthepileofcoconutmeatandthe
combustiongasesaresentthroughatunneltothespacebelowthedryingchamberto
riseupthroughthecopra.
IndirectDryers: Combustiongasesaresentthroughaheatexchangerthatheatsup
ambientair,andthehotairdriesthecoconutmeat.

SunDrying

When copra is spread out under direct sunlight for drying, it is called Sun Drying. If the
weatherisrightthensundryingcanproducegoodqualitycopra.
Thismethodisusedonlyduringthedryseasonandwhendryingonlysmallquantities
ofnuts.
Sundryingcopraisthesimplestandcheapestmethodavailable.Overalldryingcostis
verylowcomparedtoothercopradryingmethodsthatusebiomassfuelleddryers.
Itrequiresupto5consecutivedaysofsunshineandamoderatelyhumidatmosphere
(6080%relativehumidity)tofacilitateevaporationofmoisture.
Excellentqualitycopraismadeundergoodconditionswhichexistincertainpartsof
theworld,suchasAllepeyinKeralaStateinIndia,andCebuinthePhilippines.
Sundryingiscapableofproducingclean,whiteandediblecopra,andsuchcopra
usuallycommandsapremiumpricelocallyandisasuperiorqualityexportproduct.
Unfortunately,mostsundriedcopraisproducedunderunfavourableconditions,
whereintermittentrainsorveryhumidairproducebadlydeterioratedcopra.
Fuelsavedisadditionalfarmincomewhenitissoldortransformedintohighvalue
productslikecoconutshellcharcoal,activatedcarbon,coir,etc.

Photo 23
Sundryingcopra

Source:Foale,2003

Page83


SeeSawDrier
Theseesawdrierisanimprovedmethodofsundryingthatwasconceptualizedatthe
InstituteforTropicalAgriculturalProductsTechnologyandIndustrializationofAbidjan,Ivory
Coast.ThedesignwasfurtherimprovedinGhanawhereitwasintroducedtodryleafy
vegetables,rootcrops,fruitsandspices.In197576,thisdryerwastestedtodrycoconut
meatatthePhilippineCoconutAuthorityDavaoResearchCenter,BagoOshiro,DavaoCity.
Testsshowedthatseesawproducedcoprahasnosignificantdifferenceonthedurationof
dryingtimeaswellasinthelevelofmoisturecontentcomparedtotraditionalsundrying.
Nonetheless,advantagesintheuseofthedryerarethelaborrequirementreductionincopra
handlingduringthedryingprocessandtheproductionofcleancoprawhichisfreefromdust
anddirtcontamination.Sincethecopraiscoveredwithaplasticsheet,itismuchbetterthan
opensundryingondayswhenitispartlyclearandsunny,butwithintermittentshowers.

Figure17TheSeeSawDrier

(a)HorizontalLoadingPosition
(b)MorningandAfternoonPositions
Source:CastroandThampan,1996

Theframeoftheseesawdrierismountedfreelyonthetrestleonitstransversecenterline,to
givea"seesaw"action.
Heatabsorbingbandsareprovidedateachandacrossthecenteroftheframe,
transverseretainingbarsdemarcatingtheareasbetweenthem.Thesebandsandall
otherinternalpartsarecoatedwithadurablemattblackpaint.
Producetobedriedisloadeduptotheretainingbarsoneachchanneloftherack,
betweenthebands,leavingclearanceundertheblindtopermitairflow.
TheloadingisdoneinthehorizontalpositionshowninFigure20a.
Thecoverisstretchedoverthetopoftheframe.Itconsistsofatransparentsheetof
plasticmaterialsintheformofablind,whichprovidesasubstantialscreeningeffect
againstultravioletlightthus,reducingphotooxidation.
Airflowsfromoneendtotheotherthroughgapateachendoftheframe.
TheloadedframeisfixedinapositiontofacethesunontheEastinthemorningand
intheWestintheafternoon(Figure20b).Tomaximisethecollectionofsunlightfor
drying,theframepositioncanbeadjustedonceevery3hourstofollowthesun.

Page84

SolarDrying

PrincipleofSolardryers
Solardryersmakeuseofthegreenhouseeffectinwhichsolarheatistrappedinsidea
transparentenclosure.TheenergyflowsinasolardryerisshowninFigure21.Solardryers
cangeneratehigherairtemperaturesatalowerrelativehumidity,thansundrying,thereby
improvingthedryingratesandenablinglowerfinalmoisturecontents.Inaddition,the
negativeeffectsofrainfall,insects,dustandmoldsonthequalityofcopraproducedbysun
dryingcanbeminimized.

Figure18EnergyFlowsinaSolarDryer

Source:DipponandVillaruel,1996

DevelopmentofaSolarDryer
In the early 1990s, the Philippine German Coconut Project studied and tested the existing
coconutdryersandcameupwithseveralinnovativedryerdesignsforsmallscaleandmedium
scalecoconutfarms.Basedontheoutputofabout80dryingtrialsondifferentdryersaswell
asadditionalinformationfromfarmersmeetings,visitsoffarmerstotheprojectandpersonal
experience,theprojectdrewupthemaincriteriaforwhatanidealcoconutdryershouldbe:
1. Durability:lifespanoftheessentialdryercomponentsshouldbeatleastfiveyears;
2. EaseofOperation;
3. Costs:thetotalcostsshouldnotbehigherthananyalternativeindirectdryer;
4. EaseofConstruction:constructionshouldnotrequireanyspecialtools;
5. WorkingPerformance:minimumrequirementswere:
notmorethantwodryingdays
lessthan10%finalmoisturecontentanduniformdried
lessthan20ppbaflatoxincontent
fuelusagelowerthan90%ofthehusksofnutsloaded
Page85

Tomeetthesecriteriaandperformancerequirements,twodryersweredesigned,developed
andtested:
(a) ASolarDryertocatertothedryingneedsofindividualcoconutfarmersowning2to5
haoflandproducing10,000to25,000nuts/year;
(b) AnIndirectDryercalledtheCOCOPUGONforcoconutgrowingcooperativesand/or
biggerplantationshavingaround40haofcoconutsproducingaround200,000
coconuts/year.Theindirectdryertypewaschosenbecauseofthedisadvantagesof
directdryerslikesoot(PAH)contaminationandscorchedcopra.

Inthedevelopmentofasolardryerthemainaimswereto:
1. Providethesmallcoconutfarmeranalternativetosundryingatthelowestcost
possible;
2. Utiliselocallyavailablematerials;
3. Keepthelaborrequirementforcoconutdryinglesserthansundrying;and
4. Makethedryersmallandtransportable,preferablyoperablebyoneman.

Atthestartoftheprojecttheeffectivenessofsolardryerswasestablished.Basedonthe
findingsoftheseinitialtrials,severaldesignsusingdifferentmaterialswerebuilt,testedand
analyzed.Thepricesofthedesignsbasedondifferentmaterialswere:
1. Bamboo

0.75US$persquaremeter
2. Rattan/Bamboo
1.8US$/squaremeter
3. Rattan

2.3US$/squaremeter
4. Waterpipe

6.9US$/squaremeter

Sincetheresultswerequitesimilar,themaincriterionforselectingthebestdryerwas
minimumcost,andthereforethebamboobaseddesignwaschosen.Thebambootypesolar
dryerisshowninFigure22,andacompletelistofmaterialsisgiveninTable14.Themainparts
arethebambooframeandtheplasticsheet.Atalengthof3mandawidthof1.75m,anarea
ofabout5.25m2iscovered,andthisisenoughtodry200250nutsperbatch.

Figure19SolarDryerdesignedbythePhilippineGermanCoconutProject

Page86

Source:DipponandVillaruel,1996

Farmerscaneasilymaketheirowndryerssincebamboopolesareavailableinmosttropical
areaswherecoconutsaregrown.Theonlyothermaterialsrequiredareahandsaw,nailsor
woodglue,andtheplasticsheetfortheconstruction.

Table18MaterialsrequiredforconstructionofaSolarDryer
Material

Unit

Quantity

Cost(US$)

Bamboopoles"Tinik","Tunukon"
Nails(3x65)
Nails(3x80)
Woodglue(waterresistant)
Gasoline
Sandpaper
Canvasstrips
LDPEplasticfilmUVprotected
(0.125mmx55")

pole
kg
kg
litre
litre
piece
m 2
m 2

2
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.5
2
0.04
5.7

2.00
0.25
0.25
0.80
0.18
0.80
0.12
2.20

Total

6.60

Source:DipponandVillaruel,1996

Theplasticsheetisthemostessentialpartofthedryer,soitrequirescarefulselection.In
generalthefollowingstandardsforplasticsheetsusedascoverinsolardryersshouldbe
followed:
1. Lifespan:minimumtwoyears(UVprotectionneeded)
2. Gauge:min.0.004(0.10mm)
3. Width:min.50"(tubetype)
4. Transparency:min.80%
5. Price:lessthan1USSperm2.
6. Ecologicallyfriendly

Page87


SincePVC(PolyVinylChloride)isexpensiveandnotenvironmentfriendly(softingagentsand
dioxinareemittedwhendisposed),PE(PolyEthylene)waschosenbecauseofitslowpriceand
availabilitythroughoutthecountry.OtherslikePTFE(PolyTetraFlouroEthylene)wouldgive
thebestopticalandmechanicalproperties,butwerenotproducedinthePhilippines.

Inordertogetalifespanofatleasttwoyears,theplasticsheethastobeUVstabilized,
meaninglightstabilizersareaddedtopreventphotooxidativedamage.Unprotectedplastic
sheetswillbedestroyedwithinweeksdependingontheregionandlevelofsolarradiation.

ForthesolardryerablendofLLOPE(linearlowdensityPS)andLOPE(lowdensityPS)ataratio
of40:60wasused.Mixingthesetwomaterialswillresultinahighertensilestrengthandtear
dilation.Tablecontainsthemostimportantpropertiesofthesetwomaterials.Thesheetwas
extrudedinOavao,Philippines,withthespecificationofalifespannotlessthantwoyears.

Table19PropertiesofLLDandLDPolyEthyleneplasticsheets
PEtype

LLD

LD

[0C]

120130

105I15

linear

branched

Gauge

[(mm)]

0.006(0.15)

0.006(0.15)

Tensilestrength(lengthwise)

[N/mm2]

33.1

22.3

Tensilestrength(crosswise)

[[N/mm2]

34.7

19.7

Teardilation(lengthwise)

[%]

1360

510

Teardilation(crosswise)

[%]

760

1480

Meltingpoint
Molecularstructure

Source:DipponandVillaruel,1996

ComparisonofSunDryingandSolarDrying

Figure20DryingCurvesforSunDryingandSolarDrier

Page88

Source:DipponandVillaruel,1996

Table20AssumptionsforSolarDrying
Dryingcycles/year

52

Dryingcapacity[nuts/sq.m.]

33

Depreciationtime

Maintenance/repair

kgcopra/nut

0.2

Workingtime(per1000nuts)

arranging 10
loading/unloading 15
Laborcost[US$]

0.32

Source:DipponandVillaruel,1996

Withthissheetattachedtodifferentdesigns,aseriesofdryingtrialswereconductedto
comparesunandsolardrying.Weatherdata(rainfall,temperature,humidity,windspeedand
radiation),temperaturesandhumiditiesinsidethesolardryersaswellascopraqualityrelated
parameterswererecordedandanalyzed.Thedryerisoperatedinsuchawaythatafter
splitting.thenutsarespreadonthegroundandcoveredwiththedryer.Sincethedryerweighs
lessthan20kgs,oneworkercandothejob.Oncethenutsarecovered.thenextworkthathas
tobedoneareunloadingandscooping.Theresultsareasfollows:

Comparedtosundrying,amaximumtemperatureofupto65Ccanbereachedinthe
solardryerduringnoontime,about30Kelvinmorethantheambienttemperature.
However,dryingtimeforsundriedcoconutsunderoptimumweatherconditionsis
slightlylonger,becausetheuncoveredcoconutmeatalsoabsorbsthesolarradiation,
thusincreasingmeattemperaturewhichinturnacceleratesdrying.Theresultsshow,
thatthedifferenceinaveragemeattemperaturebetweensolarandsundried
coconutsonsunnydayswasintherangeofonly3to6Kelvin.

Page89

Onaverage,dryingtimeiscutdownbyabout2daysto4.5dayswhenusingsolar
dryers.Thisistheresultofcomparativedryingtrialsdoneforabouthalfayear.
However,havingthreetofourstraightsunnydayswithoutrainfall,sundryingcouldbe
finishedinalmostthesametime.
Theaverageradiationperdaywasmeasuredat5.1kWh/m2.Basedonanaverage
dryingtimeof4.5daysabout23.4kWh/m2areneededtobringthemoisturecontent
downto10%.
Dryingtrialsdonethroughouttheyearshowedthatthecolorofalmost50%ofthe
solardriedcoconutswerewhiteafterreachingthefinalmoisturecontentoflessthan
10%comparedto18%ofsimultaneouslysundriedcoconutswhileabout71%were
moldy.
Toobtaingoodqualitycopra,thefirstdryingdayshouldbesunny.Thisisamajor
disadvantageespeciallyinthewetseason.
Underweatherconditionsfavorableforthegrowthofaflatoxinproducingmolds,the
averageaflatoxincontentinsolardriedcoconutswas1/10thofsundriedcoconuts.
Formerwasabout10ppbwhilethelaterresultedinaflatoxincontentofmorethan
100ppb.
SolardryingwillreducetheredcolorandTFAcontentby28%and32%,respectively.

ConstructionandUsageoftheSolarDryer

Rattanisnotasdurableasbamboo.Thatiswhyonlygoodbambooshouldbeusedas
materialfortheframe.
Theattachmentoftheplasticsheetisdonewithnailscushionedwithcanvas
(tarpaulin).Sofarnoproblemswerenoticedexcepttheattachmentwithdouble
seamedloopswheretheplasticwastornapartalongtheseamsafterfivetosix
months.
Afterlessthanayearsomeofthejointsmadeofsplicerattanwerebroken.Ifbamboo
isused,holescanbedrilledinthepolestofitintheendsofthearc.Thejointsshould
besealedwithwoodglue.
Exceptgrass,anysurfacecanbeusedaslongastheundergroundisslightlytiltedto
preventwateraccumulationinsidethedryer.
Animalsshouldbekeptawayfromthedryers,sincetheplasticsheetcanbeeasily
destroyedbysteppingonit.
Frontandbacksidehavetobekeptopentoallowasteadyairflowtoremovethe
moisturefrominside.
Thedryershouldbealignedtothemainwinddirectiontomaximizeairflow.
UndertheexistingweatherconditionsattheDavaoResearchCenter(Southern
Mindanao)thetheoreticalwaterabsorptioncapacityofthisdryerisabout100kgper
day.
Assumingadryingtimeof4.5daysandaloadof100kgcoconuts(meatshellratio:
1.8)tobedrieddownfromamoisturecontentof50to10%,about6.6kgwaterhasto
beevaporatedperday.Thisindicates,thateveninareaswithalowerairvelocitythe
dryercanbeused.
Page90

Sincethehalfcupsareusuallyturnedupsidedownintheeveningorwhenrainis
anticipated,morelaborisrequiredforsundrying.
Whenplacedonacleansurfaceorpavedarea,thecostfordrying(Bambootype)were
determinedtobeUS$0.014perkilogramcopra(asof5/95).Theassumptionforthis
calculationarelistedintableII.
Theaveragefarmsizeofthreehectaresneedstwosolardryerstodrythecoconut
produceannually.
ThiswillcostthefarmerlessthanUS$30.
Tomaintainagoodperformancetheplasticsheetshouldbecleanedoccasionallyand
replacedeverytwoyears.
AnewsheetwillcostaboutUS$3perdryer.Replacementcanbeeasilydonebythe
farmersthemselves.
Asidefromcoconuts,thedryercanalsobeutilizedfordryingotherproductslike
mango,riceetc.

KilnDrying

There are two types of smoke dryers commonly used by coconut farmers: the direct and
semidirect types. Primarily, both types have the same heating principle but differ only in
designandmanneroffiringorchargingfuel.
Thedirectdryerisdesignedinsuchawaythatthefirebedisdirectlylocatedbelow
thecoprabed.
Ontheotherhand,thedesignofsemidirectdryerissuperiortothedirecttype.The
hearthwherefuelcharging/feedingisdoneislocatedononesideofthedryer,
connectedtothedryingbedbyatunnellikeflue.

DirectSmokeCopraDryer

Thedirectsmokedryerisacommonlyusedbycoconutfarmersinmanycoconutproducing
countriesintheworld.Thesmokedryerhasagrillplatformusuallyofsplitbamboowhich
constitutesthedryingarea.Halvednutsintheshellareplacedonthisgrill.Underneaththe
platformisafirehearthwherecoconutshellsandhusksareburnedslowlytoprovidetheheat
forvaporisingthewaterfromthecoconutmeat.Generally,thereisnochimney.Thecoconut
meatshrinksupondryingandmayberemovedorscoopedoutfromtheshell.Themeatis
thenfurtherdriedinthesmokedryer.

TapahanDryer

ThisdirectsmokedryerisoneofthecommonlyuseddirectdryersinthePhilippines.Itcomes
indifferentversions.startingwithanopenpitfilledwithhusksandcoveredbyabamboo
flooringuptomoreadvanceddryerswherethedryingplatformisprovidedwithawall(hollow
blocks.plywood,etc.)ThecapacityofastandardTapahandryeris2000nutsandthevolumeof
thedryingbedis2.69m3.Themaincomponentsandtheair/heatflowareshowninFigure24.

Page91


Figure21SchematicofTapahandryer

Source:DipponandVillaruel,1996

TestscarriedoutwiththeTapahandryerbythePhillipinesGermanCoconutProjectfound:
Afairlydistributedtemperaturewithinthedryingbed.
Averagetemperaturesof86,95and88Cweremeasuredfromfront,middleandback
sectionsrespectively.
Highertemperaturesinthemiddlesectionarecausedbythefuelconcentrationatthe
middle,andthisleadstoalowermoisturecontentinthisarea.
Quiteoftenscorchedcoprawasfoundinthebottomlayer,themiddlelayerwasbetter
incolor,andpartsofthetoplayerstillhadwetnuts,especiallyatthefrontandback.
Thefuelfeedrateusedwas:
o firstfiring:40husks
o after35minutesanother25husks
o followedby15husksevery15minutesuntildryingwasfinished.
Thereisnowaytocontroltemperatureexcepttochangethefuelfeedrate,and
temperatureswerefoundtofluctuate.Ahigherfuelfeedrateisnotrecommended
becauseofthehighriskofburningthedryerandcopra.
Onaverage,about20hoursfiringareneededtoreachafinalmoisturecontentof
about10%.Sincethefuel(husks)isburnedinsideapitunderneaththedryingbed,the
dryerhastobeattendedtowheninoperationtopreventthedryerfromburning.This
means,thatinmostcasesdryinghastobedoneontwodays.
Basedonafiringtimeof20hours,theamountofenergyconsumed(input)wasfound
tobe94kWh.
Thethermalefficiency,thatistheratiobetweenoutput(evaporatedwater)andinput
(fuelused),isbetween12and13%.
SmokedryingisalsoknownasasourceofPAHs(polycyclicaromatichydrocarbons).
ResultsofTapahandriedcoprashowedPAHfiguresashighas79.8g/kg.
However,becauseofthepreservativepropertiesofsmoke,lessaflatoxinproducing
moldswillgrow,andthisisonebigadvantageofsmokedryingonthestoragequality.

Photo 24 DirectSmokeCopraDryer
Page92

Source:FAO

Thebasicfeatureswhichmakethedirectsmokedryerpreferredbyfarmersare:
Highthermalefficiencyofthedryer(thecoconutmeatisdirectlyheated),
Lowcostofconstruction(thecomponentpartsareavailableonthefarm),
Simplicityofthedesign,
Lowcostoffuel.

However,thedirectsmokedryerhastwodisadvantages:
Copraproducedfromthisdryerisusuallydark,sootywithsmokeandattimes
scorched.
Sincethefuelisburnedinsideapitunderneaththedryingbed,thedryerhastobe
attendedwhenitisinoperationtopreventthedryerincludingcoprafromburning.

DirectHeatDryersUsingOnlyShellsforFuel

InSriLanka,India,MalaysiaandPapuaNewGuinea(largeplantations),directheatdryersusing
onlycoconutshellsasafuel,providinggreatheatandlittlesmoke,produceexcellentquality
copra.Thesekilnsareoperatedcentrally,eitherbyspecializedcopramanufacturersorby
plantationownerswithhighlevelsofmanagement.Dryingtakesabout4or5dayswithabout
6or7fires,reducingthemoisturecontenttothedesiredlevelofabout6%.Twodriersofthis
typearedescribedbelow:
UPLBdrierusedinthePhilippines
SriLankacoprakilnalsocalledtheCeylonDrier.
UPLBDryer

ThisdryerwasdevelopedattheUniversityofPhilippinesatLosBanos(UPLB).TheUPLBdryer
hasacapacityofabout1.000nuts.ThebodyoftheUPLBDryeriscubicalinform(length=
1.91m,width=1.83m,height=1.77m)andthevolumeofdryingbed=1.47m3.Lumber
measuring1.5"x2"and1.5"x1"isusedforthebasicstructure.Thewoodenstructureislined
withGIsheettoformthedryingbedandheatingchamber.Atthefrontsideaswingingdoor
andtwotrailsallowtheplacementofoneburnerinsideatatime(seeFigure25).Aheat
dissipator(madeofGlsheet)betweenburneranddryingbedhelpsprovideauniform
temperaturedistribution.Fourairinlets(18x8cm)locatedateachsidebetweendryingbed
andGISheetgiveasteadyairflowthatisessentialforconvectionaldrying.

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Figure22SchematicofUPLBdryer

Source:DipponandVillaruel,1996

TestsontheUPLBdryerfoundthetemperatureinthebottomlayerwasfluctuating
anduneven.Insomelocationsamaximumtemperatureofmorethan180oCwas
recorded,butthecentershowedarelativelylowtemperature.Evenafterseven
burners(morethan20hoursdrying),thecenterportioninthedryingbedwasstillwet,
whilethenutsinthebottomlayerinotherlocationsofthedryingbedwerescorched.
Theaveragefuelcapacity(crackedcoconutshells)perburneris15kgs.Ittakes2.5to
3.3hourstoconsumeoneburner.
Forthisdryertheworkingtime(includingdehuskingandsplitting)toproduceonekilo
coprawascomputedat5.44minutes.About24%ofthistimeisneededtobreakthe
shellsusedasfuel.
Thethermalefficiencywasmeasuredtobe24.5%ataspecificenergyconsumptionof
lessthan10MJperkgevaporatedwater.
TheaveragePAHcontentwasmeasuredat60.7microg/kg
Sincethedryeriscollapsibleitcaneasilybemovedtoanotherlocation

SriLankaCopraKiln(CeylonDrier)

InSriLanka,theopenednutsaresundriedonthefirstdayforafewhoursonacemented
barbeque(weatherpermitting)asthisimprovesthecopracolour.Theyarethendriedfurther
downto6%moisturecontentusingtheCeylondrierwhichburnscoconutshellsdirectlyunder
thecopradryingplatform.ThedesignofaCeylondrierissimple.Thefryingplatformisawire
meshplacedabout2.52.7metresaboveadirtfloor.Concreteblocksorgalvainsedironwalls
enclosethefiringpitandthedryingplatform.Aroofisplacedovertheplatformandtheroof
maybeslidingtoenablesundrying.Airventsareplacedneargroundleveltoallowoxygento
enterthefiringpit.

Huskedandsplitnutsareloadedontothedryingplatformtoadepthofabout30cms.Inthe
firingpit,emptyshellsarenestedagainsteachotherinsinglerowsontheground.Oneendof
eachrowislitanditburnsslowlytotheend.Afterthefirehasburnedout,newrowsarelaid
Page94


outandsetafire.Firingiscontinuousforaboutfourdaysafterwhichthecoprahasdriedand
canbeeasilyseparatedfromtheshell.

Ceylondriersarewidelyusedbecause:
capitalcostsarerelativelylow,
constructionissimple,
therearenofuelcostsbecauseitburnsemptyshells,
copraproducedisofamuchhigherqualitythanthesmokedriersbecauseshells
produceverylittlesmoke,
thereareemptyshellsleftoverwhichcanbeusedtodryothercropssuchascocoa(in
akilndrier),
theshellsburnatafairlyconstantratesoitiseasytotimethefiringbycountingthe
shells.

TheonlydisadvantageofCeylondriersisthattheycanburndowneasilyifleftunattended
becausethehighlyflammablecopraisdirectlyoverthefire.

SemiDirectCopraDryer

Thedesignofsemidirectdryerissuperiortothedirecttypebecauseitretainsthebest
featuresofthedirectdrier(simplestructuraldesignandoperation,lowcost,easytobuildwith
materialslocallyavailable)whileproducingcopraofamuchbetterquality.Thisisbecausethe
hearthwherefuelcharging/feedingisdoneislocatedononesideofthedryer,connectedto
thedryingbedbyatunnellikeflue.Itissociallyandeconomicallyidealforsmallcoconut
farmers.

Thecombustionpitislocatedabout1metreawayfromthedryingbed.Thehotcombustion
productischannelledtothedryingbedviaanundergroundtunnelthatcanbemadeusing
emptyoildrums.Theexcavationpitisroughly4mlong,2mwideand1mdeep.Thepitfloorof
thefiringchamberisslightlyinclinedupwardtowardtheendportion,whichisdesignedto
directtheflowofheatedair.Drycoconuthusksareusedforfuel.Ithasacapacityof2,000
nutswhicharedriedafter20to25dryinghourswithresultantmoistureof6percent.
(Photo25).

Photo25SemiDirectSmokeCopraDryer

Page95

Source:FAO

TheVISCAcopradrier

TheVISCAdryer(Figure26)isasemidirect,excavatedtypewithdimensionsanddesignas
describedabove.ThedesignofthisdrieroriginatedfromtheVisayasStateCollegeof
Agriculture(VISCA)inLeyteoneoftheVisayanislandsofthePhilippines.Thecopraproduced
bythisdrierissimilarinqualitytocoprafromsmokedryers,anditisusedprimarilyforoil
millingpurpose.TheVISCAdryerusesmainlycheapandlocallyavailableconstruction
materialssuchascoconuttrunkandlumber,bambooandnipashingles,anditissimplein
structuraldesign,cheapandeasytobuild.Moreover,thedrierneedsonly50%ofthehusk,so
theremaining50%huskandtheshellscanprovideadditionalincometothefarmer.

Drycoconuthusksareusedforfuel.Ithasacapacityof2,000nutswhicharedriedafter20to
24dryinghourswitharesultantmoisturecontentof10%.Toensureproductionofgood
qualitycoprausingtheVISCACopradryer,thefollowingoperatingprocedureshouldbe
followed:
1) Harvestonlymaturednuts(1213monthsold).
2) Dothedehuskinginashadyareaandpreventthedehuskednutsfrombeingexposed
totheheatofthesuntoavoidcracking.
3) Splitthenutsearlyinthemorningandimmediatelyloadthemintothedryer.
4) Arrangethehalfnutsinthedryerinabricklikeformationwiththefirstbottomlayer
havingthekernelsfacingupandallsucceedinglayerswithkernelsfacingdown.
5) Startthedryingprocesswithinfour(4)hoursaftersplittingsoastoavoiddeterioration
ofthefreshmeat.Dothefirstdryingstageforten(10)continuoushours.
6) Carryoutthedryingprocessovertwo(2)dayswithaninbetweencoolingperiod
duringnighttime.

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7) Inthesecondday,rearrangethehalfnutsbyinterchangingthenutsintheupper
layerswiththenutsinthelowerlayers.Thisensuresevendryingforthewholebatch
ofcopra.Continuethedryingprocessforanotherfourteen(14)hours.
8) Itisveryimportantthatonlydryhusksareusedasfuel.
9) Controlandregulatethedryertemperaturebyusingtherightfuelfeedrate.Listed
belowistherecommendedfuelfeedrateusingdrycoconuthusksasfuel.
o 1stdaydryingperiod(10hrs):78husks/10min
o 2nddaydryingperiod(14hrs):67husks/10min
10) Removethecoprafromtheshell,separatehalfdriedcopraandredry.Airdrythe
copraandstoreitincleanandwellventilatedbodega.

Figure23VISCACopraDrier

(a)EmptyoildrumusedasTunnel
(b)ThecompletedVISCAdrier
Source:CastroandThampan,1996

HotAirDryers

Themainadvantageofhotairdryersisthathighquality,cleanandwhitecoprawith6%
moisturecanbeproduced.Thisisbecausethesmokedoesnotcomeincontactwiththe
kernel.Thesmokeheatsairinaheatexchangerandtheuncontaminatedhotairpasses
throughthecoprabed.Twodesignsofhotairdrierswillbedescribed:
ModifiedKukumHotAirDryer
CocopugonBrickHotAirDryer.

ModifiedKukumDryer

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ThemodifiedKukumDryerisanindirectnaturaldraughtdryerthatcandryaround2000nuts
ofaveragesizeatatime(volumeofdryingbed=2.8m3).Themeasurementsofthedryerare:
length=3.66m,width=1.83m,andheight=2.13m.Itsheatexchangerismadeupofthree
standard200litreoildrumsweldedtogetherwithfivesemicircularbafflesinstalled
alternatelyinsidethedrumsatdistanceof0.46m.Thefurnacemeasures90cmsinlengthand
60cmsinwidth,andismadeofsteelplasteredwith6cmthickcementashmixtureinside.The
furnaceisprovidedwithaslantinggrateanddoortoregulateairentry.Abutterflyvalveisalso
providedatthechimneytocontrolthetemperature.

Figure24SchematicofModifiedKukumdryer

Source:DipponandVillaruel,1996

TestsconductedbythePhillipinesGermanCoconutProjectfoundthat:
Thetemperatureisquiteevenbetweenleft,middleandrightside.Thelengthwise
distributionismoreuneven.
Highesttemperaturesweremeasuredatthefrontsection,whilelowestattheback.
Thedifferenceintemperaturebetweenfrontandbacksectionofthedryingbedis
about20to25oC.
Coldspotswereobservedatthebacksectionwithinthetoplayer.
ThefuelfeedrateusedinoperatingtheKukumdryerwasbetween6and10husksper
10minutes.However,ahigherfuelfeedratewasusedfortheinitialstage(firstdrying
day).
About30hoursareneededtodryonebatchdowntolessthan10%.Basedona10
hoursoperationtimeperday,dryingwilltakethreedays.
About8.7minutesareneededtoproduceonekilocoprawiththemodifiedKukum
dryer.
QualityofcoprafromtheKukumdryerisverygood,ascanbeexpectedfromawell
designedandoperatedindirectfireddryer.
However,maintenanceandrepaircostsarehighbecausethemetalpartsofthedryer
starttocorrodesoonafterconstructionduetoexposuretohightemperatures,
aggressivefumesandwater.Frequentuseofthedryerwillreducecorrosion,butwill
Page98

neverstopit.Sincecopraisalowvalueproduct,stainlesssteelistooexpensiveto
consider.
SimilartotheTapahandryer.athermalefficiencyof12.7%wascomputed.

Photo26ModifiedKukumhotairdryer

Photo:FAO

COCOPUGONDryer

Thisdryerwasdevelopedintheearly1990sunderthePhilippineGermanCoconutProject
whichstudiedandtestedtheexistingcoconutdryersandcameupwithseveralinnovative
dryerdesignsforsmallscaleandmediumscalecoconutfarms.Themaincriteriaforwhatan
idealcoconutdryerwereidentifiedtobe:
6. Durability:lifespanoftheessentialdryercomponentsshouldbeatleastfiveyears;
7. EaseofOperation;
8. Costs:thetotalcostsshouldnotbehigherthananyalternativeindirectdryer;
9. EaseofConstruction:constructionshouldnotrequireanyspecialtools;
10. WorkingPerformance:minimumrequirementswere:
notmorethantwodryingdays
lessthan10%finalmoisturecontentanduniformdried
lessthan20ppbaflatoxincontent
fuelusagelowerthan90%ofthehusksofnutsloaded

Tomeetthesecriteriaandperformancerequirements,anIndirectDryercalledthe
COCOPUGONwasdesignedandtestedforcoconutgrowingcooperativesand/orbigger
plantationshavingaround40haofcoconutsproducingaround200,000coconuts/year.

Theindirectdryertypewaschosenbecauseofthedisadvantagesofdirectdryerslike
soot(PAH)contaminationandscorchedcopra.

Page99

BecauseHeatExchangersmadeofmetaltendtocorrodeatthehightemperaturesin
whichtheyoperatetheprojectexploredtheuseofbricksinstead,sincebricksare
knownfortheirhighstrength(fireandweatherresistance),durability(longservicelife)
anddimensionalstability.Duringpreliminarytrials,brickswerefoundtobeavery
promisingreplacementformetal.Standardfirebrickswereusedforthechimneyand
2.5"crownbricksfortheheatexchanger.

Photo27CocopugonHotAirBrickCopraDryer

Source:FAO

Severalprototypeswereconstructedtooptimizeshapeandsizeoftheburnerandto
determinetheappropriatethicknessofthebricks.Thefinalversionofthisbrickdryer
wascalledCOCOPUGON(FigureandPhoto).
Thedimensionsofthedryerare:length=360cm,width=260cm,andheight=200
cm,givingadryingbedvolume=3.33m3.
Thedryercanaccommodate2500averagesizednutsperbatch.
Tomakeloadingandunloadingeasy,therightsideofthedryingbedwallisremovable
andaonestepstairandplatformisprovided.

OperationofDryer:
Firingshouldbedonefirstbeforeloadingthesplittednuts.Unlikedryerswithmetal
heatexchangers,preheatingisneededforthisdryerbecausebricksgetheatedmore
slowlythatmetal..
Theburnercanaccommodateabout200to300husks.
Huskshavetobeaddedevery3to5hours.Theheatstoredinthebrickswillbe
releasedslowlyafterthelastfiringonthefirstdryingdaybecausebricksalsoretain
heatandreleaseitmoreslowlythanmetal.Dryingwillthereforecontinueforseveral
hourswithoutaddingmorehuskstotheburner.
Afterapreheatingtimeof3.5hoursandaloadingtimeoftwohours,theaverage
temperatureinthebottomlayeris66.3C.
Page100

Theburnerthenhastobefedfivetoseventimesforthewholedryingperiod.
Unloadingcouldbedoneafterthedryerhascooleddownonthesecondday.
Ifoperatedonatwodayschedule,fivefiringsareneededonthefirstdayandanother
twotothreefiringsonthesecondday.Unloadingwillbedonethenextmorningto
utilizetheheatstoredinthebricks.
Ifthebaffleinthechimneyisclosedduringnighttime,hotemberscanstillbefound
insidetheburneronthefollowingmorningmakingiteasytocontinuefiring.
Figure25SchematicofCocopugonDryer

Source:DipponandVillaruel,1996

Thedryerhasanalmostconstantdryingtemperature,eventhoughthetemperature
curvefortheburnerhasseveralsmallpeaksindicatingthemaximumtemperatureper
feedinginterval.Sincetheheatexchangerortheburnercoveralmostthewholearea
insidethedryerbody,thetemperaturedistributionisveryuniform.Thedifferencein
temperaturebetweenthehighestandlowestvalueislessthan5Kelvin.Astandard
deviationof3Kelvinindicatesaveryconstanttemperature.
Eveniftheburnerisfullyloaded,theresultingtemperatureinthedryingbedwont
exceed90to95C.thuseliminatingtheriskofproducingscorchedcopra.
Duringoperation,thedryeroperatorspendstwohoursperbatchatthedryer,
meaningthelaborrequirementswerecutdownbymorethan50%to4.1minutesper
kilogramcopracomparedwiththemodifiedKukumdryer.Theoperatorcanleavethe
dryerinbetweenfuelfeedingsandusehistimeforotheractivities.
Thethermalefficiencywasveryconstantwithanaverageofabout15%.
Thedryingcostperkgofcopra(seetable8)wasdeterminedtobe2.6Cents(pesos:
0.66).
Thecopraqualitywasfoundtobefarbetterthantheminimumrequirementssetfor
goodqualitycoprafordomesticuse,i.e.,14%moisturecontent.5%freefattyacid
contentofoil(aslauric);10%moldinfection;and20ppbaflatoxincontent.Theculm
Page101

ofoilisnotmuchofconcern.however,a9redand50yellowcolorisrequiredfor
exportormerchantablequality.
Thequalityofcopraproducedalsometthecriteriasetforthedryer.Goodquality
copraproductionwasattributedtotheappropriateprocedureofdrying,i.e.,fast;
smokefree,andpropertemperatures.Brownishcoprawasproducedfromthebottom
layer.Thisisduetohighertemperatureexposureforalongerperiod.Duetodelayed
dryingsomebrowncoloredcoprawasalsoproducedfromthetoplayer.Onaverage,
about80%perbatchwaswhite.About1%ofthetotalcopraproducedwaswetat
optimumdryingsetup.Theaverageffacontentofmorethan20dryingtrialsstoodat
0.21.
Averagefuelconsumptionisabout80%ofthehusksfromthetotalnutsloaded.

SamoanDrier

ThisisanindirectlyheateddriercommonlyusedinthePacifictodryfingercutcopraandalso
cocoawhichcannotbedriedonthedirectandsemidirectdriersbecauseofthelikelytransfer
ofodorstothecocoa.ThedryingplatformofaSamoandrierisawiremeshwhichisplacedon
topoffourwallswhichareabout1.52.0metershigh.Arooforslidingroofisplacedoverthe
dryingbed.Thewallsaremadeofgalvanizedironorconcreteblocks.Insidethewallsand
undertheplatformonthegroundisafluerunningfromoneendoftheplatformtotheother.
Oneendoftheflueisopenforstokingwithcoconutshellsandhuskorfirewood.Theother
endisconnectedtoachimneywithasmallcowloverit.Theopeningatthefiringendofthe
fluemaybepartiallyclosedtomanageairflowandtemperature.Samoandriersusuallydry
coprafilledtoabout20cmsdeepontheplatform.Thecopraisindirectlyheatedanddrying
timeisabouttwotothreedays.

8.2.3
CopraStorage

Themainobjectiveofcoprastorageistoprovideabufferstocktotakecareofdifferencesof
receiptsandissuestothemill.Technically,storageperformstwoimportantfunctionsforoil
extraction:
todryanyexcessmoistureinthecopra,and
toequalizethemoisturecontentintheentirecoprastockpriortoprocessing.
Duringstorage,copramustbeprotectedfromtheelementsandpests.Properventilation,and
properrotationofstockswhenissuesaremade,shouldbepractised.

Proper storage of copra after manufacture and during shipment is important, as even good
coprawilldeteriorateifbadlystored.Coprawarehousesshouldhave:
cementedfloorselevatedabout0.5mabovetheoutsidegroundleveltominimize
dampnessduringrainyweather;
goodventilationatroofleveltobreatheoutevaporatedmoisture;and

Page102

anairgapbetweenthefloorandbaggedcoprawiththeuseofpalletsorwoodenlogs.
Theairgapprovidesventilationforremovingmoisturesweatingonthefloorduring
rainyweather.

Goodcopra,whenstoredunderpoorconditions,andbadcopraevenundergoodstorage
conditions,deterioratewithconsequentlossesinbothqualityandquantity.Lossofquantity
throughdryingofexcessmoistureisdesirable,asthecopraqualityimproves.Lossestobe
avoidedarethoseduetodecompositionandattackbyfungi,bacteria,insectpestsandrats.In
caseofinsectpests,itisimportanttofumigatewarehousesandreturnableemptybags.

TheAflatoxinProblem
Poorlydriedcoprahasoccasionallybeenfoundtobecontaminatedwithaflatoxins,whichare
agroupoftoxicchemicalsproducedbytheAspergillusmould,particularlyAspergillusflavus
andAspergillusparasiticus.Althoughgroundnutandmaizearemostsusceptibletoaflatoxin
contamination,copra,cottonseedandcassavaarecontaminatedatlowerlevels.Aflatoxins
foundinthesehavebeennamedB1,B2,andG1andG2.AflatoxinB1,whichisthemost
abundant,isextremelypoisonousandisaverypowerfulcarcinogenicchemical.Itcausedliver
cancerinalltestanimalsandisalmostcertainlyoneofthecausesofcancerinhumans.
Animalsvaryintheirsusceptibilitytotheeffectsofaflatoxins,buttheyoungandmalesareat
greaterrisk.Aflatoxinscausedeathwhenpresentinhighconcentration.Investigations
revealedthatin1880,100,000youngturkeysdiedintheUKduetothepresenceof10ppmof
aflatoxininthefeed.Atlowerlevels,itcausesstuntedgrowthandpoorfeedefficiency.

RecentworkundertakeninthePhilippinesbytheNaturalResourcesInstituteoftheUKfound
thatthesafemoisturelevelforhotairdriedcopraisbelow8%,andforsmokedriedcopraitis
below11%.Thehigherlevelofmoisturetolerableforsmokedriedcopraisduetosmoke
particlesinhibitingmouldgrowth,asinsmokedmeatorfish.Whencontaminatedcoprais
milledforoil,theaflatoxinpassesintotheoil.Ediblecoconutoilisusuallychemicallyrefined,
whichremovesallcontamination.However,theaflatoxinremaininginthecopracakehas
causedproblemsforitsuseasaningredientinblendinganimalfeeds.Copracakeisvaluedfor
itseffectinenhancingbutterfatcontentandincreasingyieldsofmilkinlactatingcows.If
contaminatedcakeisusedforfeedinglactatingcows,theaflatoxinreappearsinthemilkas
aflatoxinM1,whichisalsounacceptable.

TheEuropeanUnionintroducedregulationsonlimitsofaflatoxinlevelsinfeedingredientsand
feedingstuffsin1976.TheseregulationswerefurthertightenedbytheECCommission
directiveof13February1991,whichforcopracakeis50ppm.Preventionofaflatoxin
contaminationisbestcarriedoutbydryingcoprarapidlydowntosafelevels.Properstorage,
handling,packingandtransportofwelldriedcopraisequallyimportanttopreventgrowthof
mouldsporesduringcondensationofmoisture,etc.Althoughexperimentshasbeen
conductedindetoxification,nonehavebeencommerciallyacceptabletodate.

CopraQuality,GradeandStandards
Page103

Mostcopraproducingcountrieshavequalityspecifications.Generalrequirements(non
technical)forgoodqualitymillcoprastipulatewhitecolouredcups,excludingwrinkled
(immature),germinated,mouldy,charred(black)orbrokencups.Technicalspecificationslimit
moisturecontentto6%(sometimesupto10%),minimumoilcontentof68%onadrybasis,
andamaximumfreefattyacidcontentof1%fortheexpelledoil.Onlycopramanufacturedby
thedirectheatofcoconutshellsorindirectheathotairdryersunderproperconditionscould
conformtothesespecifications.

Generally,copraproducedinSriLanka,India,Malaysia,PapuaNewGuineaandPacific
countrieswithhotairdryersconformtothesespecifications.Inthesecountriesgrading
practicesexist,withapricepremiumforgoodquality.InthePhilippines,Indonesiaandother
areaswherecopraissmokedried,goodwhitecolouredcopracannotbeproduced,andthe
moisturecontentrangesbetween8and15%,andthefreefattyacidcontentoftheexpelledoil
variesbetween1and5%.Theoilcontent,thecolourandappearance,andthemoisture
contentarevariable.Thesecharacteristicsaredemonstratedinthegradesandstandardsused
forcopra.

Philippines

InthePhilippinestherearefourrecognisedclassesofcopradesignatedA,B,CandD.The
classificationisbasedonthemethodofdrying.Undereachclassaresevengrades,from1to7,
basedonmoisturecontent.TheclassesaregiveninTableandthegradesinTable.These
tablesshowthe3typesofcopradryinginexistence:sundrying,smokedtapahandryingand
hotairdrying.Itisalsoindicatesamongthegrades,ashighas22percentmoisturecontent
(Corriente)istraded.Thebestgradecopracontainsnomorethan6percentmoisture.

Table21QualityStandardforCoprainthePhilippines
Class

Name/Designation

Requirement(Appearance)

A.

Hotair,kilnormechanicallydried

Clean, whitish or pale; free of smoke,

mouldsanddirt

B.

Sundried

Dull white; low in dirt, mould and

decay;freeofsmoke

C.

Smokedortapahan

Tingedwithsoot;lowinmould,dirtand
decay;notundulycharredorburned

D.

Mixed

Lowinmould,dirt,sootanddecay

Source:FAO

Itmustbenotedhowever,thattradingofcopra isessentiallybasedonmoisturecontent.In
thePhilippineswhereroughly9095%oftotalproductionissoldtothevillagetrader,copra
with2025percentmoisturecontentare boughtatadiscountedprice. This isreferredtoas
the"pasasystem"ofcoprabuyingwhereadiscountonthecoprapriceisbasedonmoisture.
Thus,copraisclassifiedaccordingtoitsmoisturecontentevenatthefirstpointofsale.(See
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Table 4). Since moisture meters are not readily available in the villages, moisture content
determination is done visually or by cracking or splitting the copra by hand and feeling.
Experiencedandhighlyskilledcoprabuyersdothis.

Table22GradesofCopraUsedinthePhilippines
Grade Name/Designation

MoistureContent Requirements

ResecadaBodega

6.0%

Free from noticeable mixture of

coprafromunripenednuts

Resecada

7.5%

Free from noticeable mixture of

foreignmaterials

SemiResecada

9.0%

Free from noticeable mixture of

foreignmatter

BuenCorrienteMejorado

12.0 %

Reasonably free ofvermin

BuenCorriente

15.0%

Reasonably freeofweevilsand other

insects

CorrienteMejorado

20.0%

No
objectionable
putrefaction

odour

or

Corriente

22.0%

No
objectionable
putrefaction

odour

or

Source:FAO

India

In India standard contract terms for milling copra were specified in as early as 1949. Since
then,theseformthebasisoftransactionsinthedomesticmarket.Thetermsapplytosundried
and smoke dried copra, but the smoked copra cannot be tendered against a contract for
sundriedcopra.Thefollowingarethedetailsofcontracttermsformillingcopra.

Table23ContractTermsfortradingCoprainIndia

1.Moisture

2.DirtandForeignMatter

Basis 6 percent

with mutual allowance

Below6to5percent

allowance to seller equal to 1.5

timeslessmoisture

Below5percent

allowance to seller at the rate of

1.25 percent for every 1 percent
lessofmoisture

Over6to8percent

rebate to buyer equal to 1.25

timestheexcess

Over10percent

rejectionatbuyer'soption

Basis 0.5 percent

with mutual allowance

Below 0.5 percent

proportionate allowancetoseller
Page105

3.Mouldy

Over0.5to2.0percent

rebate to buyer equal to 1.25

timestheexcess

Over2.0percent

rejectionatbuyer'soption

5percentfree

Source:FAO

PapuaNewGuinea

Table24ClassificationofCopraforexportinPapuaNewGuinea
Grade

GeneralAppearance

A.(HotAirDriedCopra)

Clean;ofgoodcolour;freefromsmoke,excessmouldor
insect infestation, charred pieces or foreign matter; free
from an unreasonable admixture of copra from
germinated nuts; not exceeding 6 percent moisture
content (MC) ; not exceeding 3 percent free fatty acid
(FFA)content.

C.(SmokeDriedCopra)

Clean and of uniform colour, not burned or tarry; free

fromexcessmouldorinsectinfestation,charredpiecesor
foreign matter; free from an unreasonable admixture of
copra from germinated nuts; not exceeding 6 percent
MC;notexceeding3percentFFA.

D.(MixedCopra)

Copra of exportable quality which cannot be

reconditionedtoahighergrade;notexceeding7percent
MCandnotexceeding4percentFFA.

Source:FAO

MeasuringMoistureContent

A copra moisture meter has been developed by CPCRI that can determine the moisture
content of copra quickly and accurately. The meter works on the principle of electrical
conductivity,andcanreadmoisturecontentsbetween5%and40%.Theinstrumentishandy
andusefultocopraprocessors,buyersandmarketingsocieties.

Photo28CopraMoistureMeter

Source:RajagopalandArulraj,2003
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