(For Private Circulation Only)

FLOW INSTRUMENTATION DESIGN GUIDE

SR.NOPROPERTIES ORIFICE PLATE
As the flowing fluid passes through
the orifice plate, the restricted cross
section are causes an increase in
1 Working velocity & decrease in pressure.
The pressure difference before &
after the orifice plate is used to
calculte the f,ow velocity.
VENTURI ROTAMETER PITOT TUBE
Similar to pitot tubes but with
multiple openings, averaging Pitot
tubes take flow profile into
consideration to provide better
overall accuracy in pipe flows.
MAG. FLOWMETER
Operates on Faraday's low of
Electromagnetic
Induction.Conducting material
passes through the magnetic field
produces avolatge perpendicular to
magnetic field & velocity of fluids.
E=BLV where E = EMF,
Magnetic Field, L = Length of
Conductor, V= Velocity of
Conductor . Therefore
E=4.B.L.Q/Pie d²
VORTEX
1.An obstruction (Bluff body or
strut) located in the flow stream.
Low-low : Fluid flow around
obstruction.
High-Flow: Alternating vortices are
formed.(No. of vortices formed are
proportional to fluid velocity.
2.These vibrations senses by
B=
piezoelectric crystals which convert
it into elctric pulses.
3.Vortex meter can not measure
zero since it works on fluid velocity
principle.It required some flow to
work.
MASS FLOWMETER ULTRASONIC
Doppler Type : 1. Under no flow
condition, the frenquencies of the
ultrasonic beams and its reflrction
Coriolis mass flowmeters measure are the same.
the force resulting from the 2.With the flow in the pipe
acceleration caused by mass moving difference between the frequencies
towards ( oe away from) a center of the Ultrasonic beam and its
rotation..This effect can be reflection increses propotional to
experienced when ridinga merry-go- flow velocity.
round,where moving toward the Transit Time : 1.Transit time
center will cause aperson to have to " ultrasonic flowmeter alternately
lean into" the rotation so as to transmit ultrasonic energy into the
maintain balance. As related to fluid in the direction and against the
flowmeters, the effect can be direction of flow.
demonstrated by flowing water in 2.The time difference between
aloop of flexible hose that is "swung" ultrasonic energy moving upstream
back & forth in front of the body with to downstream in the fluid is used
both hands.Becasue the water is to determine the fluid velocity.
flowing toward & away from the 3.Undergo flow condition time for
hands oppsite forces are generated ultrasonic energy to travel upstream
and cause the hose to twist. & downstream are same. 4.With
flow in pipe time for ultrasonic
energy to travel upstream will be
greater than the downstream time.

1.Measures the acceleration caused

by vibration by moving fluids towards
Electric conductivity greater than 5 Measurement with flow velocities
2 Flowrate Medium High Flow Low Flow rate Wide range of flows centers. 2.Amount of twist is
mS/cm. ( Re < 4000) not possible.
proportional to the massflowrate of
fluid passing through tubes.
Permanent Pressure drop & good Confirm allowable pressure drop
3 Pressure Drop Changes Constant Pressure drop Negligible pressure drop
recovery. loss while selecting meter size.
Not handles viscous slurries only Utility services where accuracy is 1.Conductive liquids such as
4 Application Suitable for most of gases & liquids Handle almost corrosive services Much higher for gases/vapors.
solids fluids. not necessary. water,acids, caustic and slurries
2.Custody transfer application.
Bi-directional flow and large size Accuracy degraded during low range
5 Characteristics Predictable Accurate over long range. Accurate over small or short range Wide range flows & pipe sizes.
available. flow application.
6 Rangeability 3.5:1 3.5 : 1 10:01 3:01 10:1, 30:1 10:01 20:01
7 Accuracy 2% ~ 4% of full scale 1% of Full scale 2% ±0.5 % to ±1.5 % ±0.5% typically 1% of measurement 0.2 typically 2% typically
1.Low differential 1.Relatively low in cost. 2.Can 1.Available from 1/2 to 150 inches 1.Low installtion cost & calibration 1.Direct mass flow measurement of
1.Low Cost 1.Large pipe sizes & capacities. 1.Wide flow range.
press.compensation. handles wide variety of corrosives. of pipe size. not required. any liquid flow.
2.Good accuracy of fluids can be as
good as ±0.75% of rate for gases &
2.Available in wide range of sizes & 2. Can be used for slurries & dirty 3.Especially suited for low flow 2.Can handles slurries & greasy 3.Can be used for highly corrosive
2.Long term measurement stability. ±1% of rate for liquids. 3.Wide 2.Wide rangeability.
construction. fluids. metereing. 4.Linear output materials fluids.
range ( 1/2 " to 12" : 18" on request.
8 Advantages
5.Can be easily equipped with 3. Can be placed in service under 3.Very small erros in flow 4.Wide temp. range (-200 to 3.Because of the mass flow is
magnetic,electronic,induction or pressure. measurement.Measurement in both 400°C). measured,hence the measurement is 4.Immune to liquid chemistry and
3.No moving parts 3.Can be welded into pipe lines.
mercury switch alarms, or directions. 4.No pressure drop. 5.No 5.Can be used for steam, gases or not affected by fluid-density , physics property.
transmitting devices. obstruction in pipe. liquids. viscosity, pressurechanges.
6.Glass tube version capable of 4.Negligible permanent pressure 6.Good Linearity over widerange.
measuring low flow rates. 7. drop. 7.Unaffeceted by fluid properties 6.Linearity is independent of
Can be installed immediately 5.Minimum lengths of straight such as density,viscosity & density, viscosity & pressure.
downstream of control valve. piping runs. temperature.
 FLOW INSTRUMENTATION DESIGN GUIDE
SR.NOPROPERTIES ORIFICE PLATE VENTURI ROTAMETER PITOT TUBE MAG. FLOWMETER VORTEX MASS FLOWMETER ULTRASONIC
1.Not suitable for dirty arabrasice
1.Not applicable for dirty & sticky
1.Square root relationship. 1.high Cost. 1.must be mounted vertically. 1.Relatively high cost. fluid as well as for high viscous 1.Pressure drop may be high. 1. Susceptible to noise.
services.
liquids.
2.Relatively low temperature 2.Measurement with low flow
limitations. velocities ( Re < 4000) not
3.Limited to small pipe sizes and 2.Fluid measured must be atleast possible.Vortex frequency remains
2.cannot measure gas flow with low 2.Straight run upstream piping is
2.Low accuracy. 2. Square root v/s flow relationship. capacities unless put in bypass. 2.Operating data still limited. slightly conductive.Not Suitable for constant & independent of press.,
pipeline pressure. required.
gas service. temp, density in the range of Re>
20,000 that is utilized for measuring
9 Disadvantages volume flow.
3.Pitot tube doesn't work very well 3.Integral
3.Accuracy affected by density & 4.May be used only with relatively at low velocities because at low 3.Complex elctronic circuitary 3.Confirm allowable pressure drop 3.Can be costly & should be taken linners(Rubber,Cement,Glass etc.)
3. Big & heavy in larger pipe size.
flow profile. clean fluids. velocity differential press. Is very neede. loss while selecting meter size. into consideration. must be intimately bonded to pipe
low. material.
4.If support not required then tube 4.Vortex meter is used for steam
4.Temperature limit may be depend
strengths calculation & resonance water , light hydrocarbons and any
4.Viscosity affects the flowmeters. on insulation materials (usually less
frequency vibration for all services gases where large turndown is
than 200°C)
including liquids to be checked. required.

1.For Reliable measurement fluid 1.For Reliable measurement fluid

must enter the primary element free
Straight Run
10 of Turbulence.This can be achieved
Requirement
by providing suitable lengths of
straight pipe ( Refer Annexure -A).
must enter the primary element free Long staright lengths necessary
Straight Run requirement to be
of Turbulence.This can be achieved Really not required. No Straight Run Requirements. depending on the type of fitting No straight meter run requirement.
maintained.
by providing suitable lengths of upstreams.
straight pipe ( Refer Annexure -A).

Dopper Equation: Vf=K*Df where

When flow is obstructed it creates K = Constant; Vf= Velocity of fluids
1.Liner material - hard Rubber,PTFE
vortices across shredder bar which where ultrasonic energy is
etc.
in turn creates vibrations flow. reflected; Df=Diff. between
transmitted & reflected frequencies.
Transmit Time Equation:
General Vp=K(Tu-Td)/Tu*Td Where Vp=
11 2.Electrode material -SS
Requirements Average Velocity ib=n fluid
316,Hestalloy c, titanium,Platinum
path,K=Constant;Tu=Upstream
etc.
Transit Time, Td= Downstream
transit time.
grounding : Done by Rings on
eithrside or Times grounding by
electrode in order to go around
spurious voltages.
 FIELD INSTRUMENTATION DESIGN GUIDE
Orifice Plate Assembly
Plates : Orifice Tappings

Venturi Meter

Rotameter

Pitot Tubes

Magnetic Flowmeter Vortex Flowmeter

Mass Flowmeter

Ultrasonic Flowmeter
Transit-Time Doppler Type
 Flow Instruments Comparision Sheet

Sl.No. Sensor Rangeability1 Accuracy2 Dynamics (s) Advantages Disadvantages Applications / Remarks

-low cost -high pressure loss

1 orifice 3.5:1 2-4% of full span - -extensive industrial practice -plugging with slurries

-lower pressure loss than orifice -high cost

2 venturi 3.5:1 1% of full span - -slurries do not plug -line under 15 cm

-good for slurry service -higher cost than orifice plate

3 flow nozzle 3.5:1 2% full span - -intermediate pressure loss -limited pipe sizes

4 elbow meter 3:1 5-10% of full span - -low pressure loss -very poor accuracy
-poor performance with dirty or sticky
-low pressure loss fluids

5 annubar 3:1 0.5-1.5% of full span - -large pipe diameters - straight run requirement

-wide rangeability

6 rotameter 10:1 2% - -linear output -

-bidirectional flow & large size available -temperature limit may depend on A higher-cost flowmeter, used mainly for water applications. They are limited to conductive fluids. They operate on a voltage
insulation material (usually less than generator.
7 Magnetic flowmeter 10:1 0.5% typically - -No straight meter run required 200°C)

-high reangeability -high pressure drop

0.5% of
8 positive displacement 10:1 or greater measurement - -good accuracy -damaged by flow surge or solids

-wide rangeability -high cost

0.25% of
9 turbine 20:1 measurement - -good accuracy -strainer needed, especially for slurries

-wide rangeability
These are used as an alternative to differential pressure flowmeters. They operate best with clean, low-viscosity, medium to
-insensitive to variations in
high speed fluids.
density, temperature, pressure, and
10 vortex shedding 10:1 1% of measurement - viscosity -expensive
-for high viscous flow such as
11 Target flowmeter - Typically 2% - tars,asphalt etc -

-wide rangeability These twisting meters measure mass flow as opposed to volumetric flow. They are known for their accuracy but their size is
Coriolis mass limiting. They carry an initial high cost, but a low maintenance cost. They are used for clean liquids and gases flowing at
12 flomwmete 20:1 0.2% typically - -no straight meter run required - medium to high velocity, in pipes six inches and under.
Ultrasonic These flowmeters are growing exponentially in popularity, mainly due to their effectiveness in use for measuring natural
13 Flowmeters Typically 2% gasses. They are non-intrusive and have no pressure drop. It is essential that they operate on clean fluids.
 FLOWMETER SELECTION GUIDE
TERMINOLOGY G = GOOD L = LIMITED APPLICATION X = NOT RECOMMENDED

Corrosive /
Accuracy Reynolds Nos. Sensitivity to
Clean Dirty Viscous Errosive Clean Dirty Viscosity Full Bore Size Type of Typical Straight Piping Preferred Meter maintenance Operation Performance
Sr No. Instrument Slurry Steam or other Installation Typical ancillary Equipments Other Considerations Initial Cost Installation Cost Standard or Recommended Practise.
Liquid Liquid Liquid Liquid Gas Gas Effect Availability Measurement (%) Rangeability
limitations effects
Requirements Orientation Cost Cost Stability

Pressure Tap
Pressure * AGA3
orientation Performanc
Concentric Square ± 2 to ± 4 and/or Temp. * ANSI/API 2530
> 1" > 10D to 40D- Up Drain, Vent Blow -off & Depends on the Low to Medium to Medium to Medium to e affected
1 Orifice Plate G L X X L G L G High root of full scale 3:1 to 5:1 >10,000 High Compensation * ANSI/ASME MFC 3M
25mm 2D to 6D Down S/D Valves Pipe orientation High High High High by Edge &
(Square edge) Volumetric ( 0.5% to 3% ) May be * ISO 5167 ASME Fluid
& Fluid Being Tap Wear
required Meters
Metered
Square ± 0.5 to ± 2 5D to 10D - Up No Limitations
> 1/2"> None with Remote Seal Same as Low to
2 Segmental Wedge G G G G G G G G Low root of full scale 3:1 to 5:1 > 500 Low 2D to 5D - on Remote Seal High Low Low GOOD -
15 mm Version Orifice Plate Medium
Volumetric (0.5% to 5%) Down Elements

Upsteram Runs * AGA3

Square shorter than Same as orifice plate,air * ANSI/API 2530
> 2" > ± 1of full scale Same as Same as Orifice Medium
3 Venturi Tube G G L X L G G G High root 3:1 to 5:1 >10,000 Low Orifice Plate by purge & vent cleanners on Medium Low Low GOOD * ANSI/ASME MFC 3M
50 mm (0.5% to 1.5%) Orifice Plate Plate to High
Volumetric Factor 2-9 Dirty liquids * ISO 5167 ASME Fluid
times Meters
* AGA3
Square ± 1 to ± 2 * ANSI/API 2530
> 2" > Same as Orifice Same as Same as Orifice Medium
4 Flow Nozzle G L X X L G L G High root of full scale 3:1 to 5:1 > 75,000 Mod Same as Orifice plate Medium Low Medium GOOD * ANSI/ASME MFC 3M
50 mm plate Orifice plate plate to High
Volumetric (1% to 2%) * ISO 5167 ASME Fluid
Meters
1 to 16"( Square
Same as Medium to
5 V-cone G L L L L G L G 25mm to root 0.5% to 2% 3:1 to 5:1 > 4000 Low 5 to 10D - Up Same as Orifice plate - Medium Medium Medium GOOD -
Orifice plate High
400 mm) Volumetric
Viscosity
Zero May need Performanc
Square ± 1 to ± 2 Affetcs
> 1/2 " Same as Orifice adjustment in Low to Medium to e affected
6 Target G G G G L G G L Medium root of full scale 3:1 to 20:1 > 1000 High - performace Low Medium -
> 15 mm plate vertical High High by Wear of
Volumetric (0.5% to 5%) below critical
installtion Target
Rd
Cn only
± 1 to ± 10 Fluids
< 3" < Linear beinstalled Low to
7 Variable Area G L X L L G L L Medium of full scale 10:01 under None None - - Low Low Medium GOOD -
75mm Volumetric Vertical pipe with Medium
(0.5% to 5%) 3 Cp
Flow up
Electrodees
must be in
AC Design may Horizonatal
Block valve may be give better plane.Flow
> 1/16" > Linear ±0.5 of rate 30:1 to 5 to 10D - Up Medium Low to Low to
8 Magnetic G G G G G X X X None None Low required to Isolate Meter Performance should be Low GOOD ISO 6817
1mm Volumetric (0.2 to 2%) 100:1 3D - Down to High Medium Medium
for Servicing ON some Upwards in
Slurries vertical
installation.

1/2" to 12" Same as Orifice Block valve may be Indicates Zero

Linear ± 1 of rate 10:1 to Low to Low to
9 Vortex G L X X L G L G 15 to > 20,000 High plate with 0.70 required to Isolate Meter Flow below cut- - Medium Medium GOOD ANSI / ASME MFC 6M
Volumetric (0.5% to 1.5%) 20:1 Medium Medium
300mm Beta for Servicing off
* AGA7
Performanc
* API 2534
e affected
Fluids Strainers, Filters, Air Viscosity can Some design * ISO 2715 ASME Fluid
> 1/4" > 6 Linear ± 0.25% of rate 10:1 to Similar to Low to Medium to Medium to by wear of
10 Turbine G L X L L G L G under High Eliminators, steam taps affects must be oriented Medium meter
mm Volumetric (0.1% to 1%) 50:1 Orifice Plate High High High bearing &
10 CST may be required Performance as Calibrated * API Manual for
other
Petroleum Measurement
parameters
Standards
Fluids May have
Linear Transducers
Ultrasonic - Doppler > 1/2 " ± 5 of full scale Must Have Similar to problems on Low to Low to
11 X G G L G X X X None Mass > 10:1 High - must bein Low Low GOOD -
Type > 15 mm (1% to 5%) Suspensoi Orifice Plate concentrated High Medium
Volumetric horizontal plane
ds slurries

Linear ± 1 to ± 5 Fluids May have Transducers

Ultrasonic - Transit > 1/2 " Similar to Low to Low to
12 G X X L G G X L None Mass of full scale > 10:1 must be High - problems on must bein Low Low GOOD ANSI / ASME MFC - YY
Time > 15 mm Orifice Plate High Medium
Volumetric (1% to 5%) clean Dirty Fluids horizontal plane
 FLOWMETER SELECTION GUIDE
TERMINOLOGY G = GOOD L = LIMITED APPLICATION X = NOT RECOMMENDED

Corrosive /
Accuracy Reynolds Nos. Sensitivity to
Clean Dirty Viscous Errosive Clean Dirty Viscosity Full Bore Size Type of Typical Straight Piping Preferred Meter maintenance Operation Performance
Sr No. Instrument Slurry Steam or other Installation Typical ancillary Equipments Other Considerations Initial Cost Installation Cost Standard or Recommended Practise.
Liquid Liquid Liquid Liquid Gas Gas Effect Availability Measurement (%) Rangeability
limitations effects
Requirements Orientation Cost Cost Stability

Specific
Linear Entrained air *ANSI / ASME MFC-11M
< 6" ± 0.4 of rate 40:1 to Special supports may be orientations vary Low to
13 Coriolis Type G G G G L L L X None Mass None None None may cause High Low Low to High GOOD California weights &
< 150 mm (0.15% to 2%) 100:1 required for meters with meter Medium
Volumetric problem standards
designs

Performanc
May need to e affeccted
Some types
provide by severe
< 3" < Logirithmic Upto require same Low to Low to Low to
14 Thermal Dispersion X X X X X G L G 1% to 5% None Mod to High 10 to 20D - UP - comensation Low Build up on -
75 mm Mass 100:1 orientation as in High Medium Medium
for wide TEMP. sensor for
calibration
ranges immersion
types
 Level Instruments Design Guide
Displacement type
Sl.No. Characteristics DP Cell Ultrasonic LT Radar LT Guided Wave Radar LT
Displacer LT Float type
1.Ultrasonic transmitters work on the principle of Radar Technology is a time flight measurement Guided Wave Radar level measurement
The difference in pressures between to points in a vessel sending a sound wave from a peizo electric 1. Microwave energy is transmitted by the radar.
1.Time of Flight , 2.Top Mounted 3.Solids &
transducer to the contents of the vessel. The 2.The Mircowave energy is reflected off the product surface.
depends on the fluids between these two points. If the liquids applications. 4.Contact Management.
device measures the length of time it takes for the 3.The Radar Sensor receives the microwave energy.
difference in densities between the fluids is significant, 1.By Archimedes principle, a body immersed in a liquid is buoyed by a reflected sound wave to return to the transducer. A 4.The time from transmitting to receving the microwave 5.GWR is virtually unaffected by
which is certainly true for a vapor and liquid and can be force equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by the body. ( Thus, a body successful measurement depends on reflection energy is measured. 5. Temperature,Pressure &
true for two different liquids, the difference in pressure can that is more dense than the liquid can be placed in the vessel, and the amount of from the process material in a straight line back to The time is converted to a distance measurement and then
the transducer. eventuallly a level Radar Wavelength =
vacuum,Conductivity,Dielectric
be used to determine the interface level between the liquid displaced by the body, measured by the weight of the body when in the constant,Specific Gravity,Vapor steam or Dust
Also 2.Time of Flight Technilogy. Speed of Light / Frequency
fluids. Usually, a seal liquid is used in the two connecting liquid, can be used to determine the level. ) 3. Short ultrasonic impulses emitted from air movement, Build ups & Foam.
pipes (legs) to prevent plugging at the sensing points. transducer. 4.Bursts are created from electrical Principle of Operation:
energy applied to piezo electric crystal inside the
1 Working transducer. 5.The
transducer creates sound wave ( mechanical λ=c / f •A microwave pulse (2 GHz) is guided
energy).
along a cable or rod in a 20” diameter or
6.With longer measuring ranges a lower frequency Frequency 6.3 GHz
Perhaps the most frequently used device for the inside a coaxial system.
The float of material that is lighter than and higher amplitude are needed to produce sound wavelength = 47.5 mm
measurement of level is a differential pressure transmitter. 2.Displacers work on the Archimedes waves that can travel further. •The pulse is then reflected from the solid
the fluid follows the movement of the 7.The longer the measuring range the larger the
Using DP for level is really an inferential measurement. A Principle, when a body is immersed in a or liquid, back to the head of the unit.
liquid level. The position of the float, transducer nust be
DP is used to transmit the head pressure that the fluid it loses weight equal to that of the •The travel time of the pulse is measured
perhaps attached to a rod, can be
diaphragm senses due to the height of the material in the fluid displaced. Frequency 26 GHz and then converted to distance.
determined to measure the level. wavelength = 11.5 mm
vessel multiplied by a density variable.

2 Arrangement
 Level Instruments Design Guide
Displacement type
Sl.No. Characteristics DP Cell Ultrasonic LT Radar LT Guided Wave Radar LT
Displacer LT Float type
.
1 Typical Accuracy for High Frequency(26Ghz " K " Band) - ± 3~
3 Accuracy Typical accuray ± 5~ 10 mm. 5 mm. 2.Typical Accuracy for Low Frequency ( 6.3 Ghz - "C" Band-
± 10 mm.

1.Both floats and displacers work well with clean liquids and are accurate and
1.The primary benefit of DP’s is that it can be externally adaptable to wide variations in fluid densities
installed or retrofitted to an existing vessel. It can also be
isolated safely from the process using block valves for
maintenance and testing.
4 Advantages
2.There are certain measurements such as total level in
separator vessels that due to wide variations in material
composition of the upper phase DP is the only viable if
not ideal option.
1.D/P transmitters are subject to errors due to changes in liquid density.
Density variations are caused by temperature changes or change of
product.
2.These variations must always be compensated for if
5 Disadvantages accurate measurements are to be made.
3.DP’s are mainly intended for clean liquids and require
two vessel penetrations. One is near the bottom of the
vessel where leak paths are the cause of the majority of
problems. D/P’s should not be used with liquids that
solidify as their concentrations increase. An example is
paper pulp stock.
1.the transducer does not come into
contact with the process material
2.No Moving Parts in this level
measurement techniques.
2.the process fluid measured must maintain its density if repeatability is required,
this is particularly true of displacers
3.a single top of vessel entry makes
leaks less probable than fully wetted
techniques
There are various influences that affect
Displacers are affected by changes in product density since the displacement of the return signal. Things such as
the body (its weight loss) is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced. eg. If the powders, heavy vapors, surface
specific gravity changes, then the weight of the displaced material changes, thus turbulence, foam and even ambient
changing the calibration. noise can affect the returning signal.
Temperature can also be a limiting factor
in many process applications. Ultrasonic
devices will not operate on vacuum or
This is especially problematic in interface measurements, where both liquids
high pressure applications.
increase or decrease density, while the signal is proportional to the density
difference. Because the displacer is emersed in the process fluid it will be
vulnerable to particulate deposition. This will change the displacer mass and the
effective displacement causing a calibration shift.
1.This non-contact technology produces highly
accurate measurements in storage tanks and
some process vessels. Radar is an excellent,
but fairly expensive technology (£1k to £5k per
measurement) for continuous level
measurements.
2.radar can be highly accurate, is immune to
most vapours / physical characteristics of the
measured media, other than, in some cases,
dielectric constant.
1.It’s primary disadvantage is cost.
2.The pressure ratings on radar antenna are
limited and these devices cannot measure
interfaces.
3.Pulse radar has difficulty making accurate
measurement when the media is in close
proximity to the antenna because the time
difference between send and return signals is
too fast to measure accurately.

5 Application Refer Annexure - 1 Refer Annexure - 1 Refer Annexure - 1 Refer Annexure - 1 Refer Annexure - 1 Refer Annexure - 1

Fluid density must be stable if readings are to be
accurate. If liquid density is subject to change a second
d/p transmitter is required to measure density and then
used to compensate for any changes. To accommodate
the measurement of light slurries, differential pressure
transmitters are available with extended diaphragms that
fit flush to the side of the vessel. However, if the d/p
transmitter diaphragm becomes coated, it may require
recalibration, which can be impractical and will add to the
1. Displacers and floats should only be used for relatively non-viscous, clean Successful measurement depends on In the case of hydrocarbons, an accurate water Interface Measurement
fluids and provide optimal performance in switch applications and over for short the transmitter being mounted in the bottoms measurement must be made for precise
spans. 2 .Spans of up to 12m are possible, but they correct position so that the internal inventory control. Typically, another technology, such
as RF Admittance is used to make the interface
become prohibitively expensive. structure of the vessel will not interfere
measurement between water and hydrocarbons. Some
3.Cost of installation for displacers is high and many refineries are now replacing with the signal path. To ignore installations, such as floating roof tanks, require the
them due to the inaccuracies experienced under process density changes obstructions in the vessel, tank mapping installation of a stillpipe. Inconsistencies on the internal
especially on interface duties. has been developed. Tank mapping lets surface of the stillpipe can cause erroneous echoes,
4. High quality float switches still provide reliable and repeatable performance. the operator take a "sonic snapshot" of these can have an adverse effect on the accuracy of
Even with todays array of level technologies, if a 100% process seal is required an empty vessel. The transducer some vendor's equipment.

6 Practical Limitation
"cost of ownership". Frequently, the measuring device is under fail conditions for a Cryogenic application the only technique available, transmits a sound burst and the echo is High frequency shorter wavelength
only one consideration in the total installation of the job. other than nucleonic, is a magnetically coupled float switch recorded as a signature of the tank. Any narrower beam angle more
Although a D/P transmitter is often less expensive than obstructions in the vessel will send an focused signal ability to measure
other types of level sensors, there is usually considerable echo and create a profile. Later on, this smaller vesselswith more flexible
mounting
additional hardware and labour required to make a signature or profile is locked into the
practical installation. The implementation of a stable, low- ultrasonic unit’s memory so it will not Low frequency longer wavelength
pressure leg and 3 / 5 valve manifolds will add respond to echoes created by these wider beam angle less focused
considerable cost to the installation. obstructions. signal ability to measure smaller
vessels with difficult application
variables.
 Level Instruments Design Guide
Sl.No. Characteristics Nuclear LT Capacitance LT RF Admittance

1.Nucleonic level controls are used for point and continuous measurements, typically A capacitance probe can be immersed in the liquid of the tank, The theory of operation for an RF Admittance level transmitter is
where most other technologies are unsuccessful. 2.The and the capacitance between the probe and the vessel wall similar to that of Capacitance transmitters, but with two important
radioisotopes used for level measurement emit energy at a fairly constant rate but in depends on the level. By measuring the capacitance of the circuit additions. The oscillator buffer and chopper drive circuits
random bursts. Gamma radiation, the source generally used for nucleonic level liquid, the level of the tank can be .As the level rise’s and permit separate measurement of resistance and capacitance. Since
gauging is similar to microwaves or even light (these are also electromagnetic material begins to cover the sensing element the capacitance the resistance and capacitance of any coating are of equal
radiation, but of lower energy and longer wavelength). The short wavelength and higher within the circuit between the probe and the media (conductive magnitude (by physical laws), the error generated by a coating can
energy of gamma radiation penetrates the vessel wall and process media. applications) or the probe and the vessel wall (insulating be measured and subtracted from the total output. The result is an
1 Working 3.A detector on the other side of the vessel measures the radiation field strength and applications) increases. This causes a bridge misbalance, the accurate measurement regardless of the amount of coating on the
infers the level in the vessel. Different radioisotopes are used, based on the penetrating signal is demodulated (rectified), amplified and the output is probe.
power needed to "see" the process within the vessel. With single point gauges the increased.
radiation provides a simple on/off switching function, whereas with continuous level
measurement the percentage of transmission decreases as the level increases.

2 Arrangement
Capacitance Type

RF Ad mittance Type

3 Accuracy
 Level Instruments Design Guide
Sl.No. Characteristics Nuclear LT Capacitance LT RF Admittance

RF Admittance is next generation capacitance as such it is by far

4 Advantages
1.As no penetration of the vessel is needed there are a number of situations that cause the most versatile technology for continuous level measurement. It
nucleonic transmitters to be considered over other technologies. can handle a wide range of process conditions anywhere from
Capacitance techniques are capable of operation at extremes of cryogenics to approximately 850 o C and from vacuum to 10,000
2.These applications generally involve high temperatures / pressures or where toxic or
temperature and pressure. They work well for materials that psi pressure. Aside from the electronic circuit technology, sensing
corrosive materials are within the vessel. Placing the source and / or detector in wells
won’t leave a coating. Usually only a single tank penetration is element design is very important to handle these process
within the vessel can reduce source sizes.
required. conditions. There are no moving parts to wear, plug, or jam. As with
capacitance systems there is only a single tank penetration, usually
3.An extension of this is to use a moving source within the vessel; this facilitates the
at the top of the tank, above the actual process level.
unique ability to combine density profiling with accurate tracking of a moving interface.

It would appear that nucleonic gauges provide a truly universal "fit and forget" level RF admittance is intrusive. Insulating granular measurements
measurement technology. Although when the "cost of ownership" is calculated nuclear require special considerations, such as the moisture range and
level measurement is often more expensive than conventional systems. Hidden costs location of the sensing element to minimize errors caused by probe
include initial licensing and periodic surveying. These services are usually provided by movement.
external authorities or by the equipment supplier, assuming they have appropriately Capacitance systems are intrusive. Have problems with varying
qualified staff. If no longer required, the nucleonic gauge must be disposed of through dielectric materials and those media’s, that coat the sensing
appropriately licensed, external organizations, which again can be a costly exercise. element. Thus users are normally limited to water-like media.
5 Disadvantages
Even acids and caustics that don’t appear to coat the sensing
element are so conductive that the thin film they leave can
cause serious errors in measurement.

5 Application

From a psychological standpoint, the radiation symbol found on these controls is
frequently the cause of unfounded concern with uninitiated plant personnel. Plant
Management is usually required to ensure that appropriate education is given to any
staff likely to be involved with this measurement technology. Source size regulations
can often be met in difficult applications by placing the source and / or detector in wells
within the vessel if necessary.
6 Practical Limitation
Most users’ realise the limitations of Capacitance level Admittance technology and nucleonic measurement provide the
measurement, such as the large errors caused by coatings. This only practical methods for level measurement in coating
has led to a decrease in the number of these systems in applications. For insulating materials with changing dielectric
operation. Other technologies such as FMCW radar and in constants, the measurement can only be made reliably if the
particular RF Admittance have now gained acceptance due to material being measured is homogeneous. A reference sensor is
high levels of reliability and accuracy. added to monitor the dielectric constant and then compensate the
calibration based on this information. Smart RF transmitters are
available providing superior levels of stability and accuracy as well
as remote communication. Knowledge of the approximate electrical
character of the process material is key to optimum system
selection and performance.

In other words
 Control Valve Comparision Sheet for Reference
Globe Body Valves Rotary Valves
SR.NO Properties
Single Seated Double Seated 3-Way valve Angle Valve Cage guided Butterfly valve Ball Valve Eccentric spherical plug valve

1.Three pipeline connections provide 1.Suitable for erosive and viscous fluids 1.Usually less costly than conventional
1.Higher leakage rate than Singale 1.For high pressure 1.Leakage rate is like 1. For High capacity and low
1. Minimum leakage in close position. general converging (flow mixing0 or or slurries containing entrained solids or globe valves and adaptable to ordinary
seated valve services as Single seat. pressure drop services.
diverging(flow-splitting) services. fiber control requirements.
2.V-Notch produces an equal % flow
2.Balanced Plud design 2.Conventional discs provide
2.Require large actuator force,particulrly 2.Required less actuato forces due to 2.Usually single port type characteristicn,and used for control of
permits operation with throttling control for up to 60°disc
large sizes. balancing feature of plug. only. above fluids and application where very
smaller actuators. rotation.
high rangeability is required.

3.Noise attenuation or 3.Low torque requirements can permit

3.Most common body atype & simple in 3.Typical wafer body design , a lug
anti-cavitation type trim ball valves to be used inQuick manual or
Construction wafer design and flanged design.
available. automatic operation.

4.Full Ball : 1.A complete sphere as the

flow controlling member.
2.Rotary shaft design and include aflow
WORKING passage.
1 3.Trunion mounted with a Single piece
ball & shaft to reduce torque
requirements & last motion.
V-Port Ball Valve:1. V -Port ball valve
utilizes a partial sphere that has a V-
shaped notch in it. 2.Notch permits wide
range of service & produces an equal %
flow charcteristics. 3.Straight forward
flow design produces very little pressure
drop & the valve is suited to the control
of erosion & viscous fluids.
4.V-port ball reduces the clogging when
it comes in contact with seal which
produces shearing effect.

Applicable Codes

Quick opening,Linear ; offer full flow with

BEST SUITED Exhibits approximately equal % flow Linear flow characteristics through 90° of
2 Linear and Equal % minimum turbulence and can balance or
CONTROL characterics. disk rotation.
throttle fluids.Best suited for On-off .
Interchangeability o ftrim permits 1.Actuator selection demands careful
1.High performance butterfly valve
DESIGN Valve shall be designed to meet the choice of several flow characteristics consideration,particularly for
3 should be sized to control within 15
INFORMATION design pressure and temperature. or noise attenuation or anti-cavitation construction with unbalanced valve
to 75 range of disk opening.
components. plug.
1.Reduced unbalance permits
operation of valves with smaller 1.Low cost and Maintenance.
1.Efiicient throttling 1.Low cost. 2.High Capacity. 1.Erosion resistance.
actuators than those necessary of 2.High Capacity
single ported valves.
2.Higher capacity than the Single
4 ADVANTAGES 2.Accurate flow control 3.Good flow control. 3.Low leakage and maintenance
ported valves.
3.Many double seated bodies
reverse, so the plug can be installed
3.Available in Multiple ports 4.Low pressure drop. 4.Tight sealing with low torque.
either push-down-to -open or push-
down-to-close.
1.Will not provide same "Shut-off "
1.High Pressure drop 1.High torque required for control. 1.Poor throttling characteristics.
as the Single Seated do.
5 DISADVANTAGES
2.More expensive than other valve 2.Prone to Caviation at lower flows. 2.Prone to Cavitation.

1.Throttling service/flow regulation

1. Can be used for throttling mid-
but not generally recommended 1.Fully open/closed at throttling
1.Throttling service/flow regulation travel position control either 1.Fully open/closed, limited -throttling
because of their maintenance cost services & on-off valve.
converging or diverging fluids.
RECOMMENDED and leakage.
6
USED
2.Frequent operation. 3.Minimal
2.Frequent operation fluid trapping inline. 4.Big 2.Higher temperature fluids.
lines(Liquid service upto 96").
 Control Valve Comparision Sheet for Reference
Globe Body Valves Rotary Valves
SR.NO Properties
Single Seated Double Seated 3-Way valve Angle Valve Cage guided Butterfly valve Ball Valve Eccentric spherical plug valve

1.Coking service.
1.Typically used in refineries on 2.Solids carried in
1.Liquids,vapors,gases,corrosive highly viscous fluids ( supsension. 3.Severe 1.Lquid,gases ,slurries,liquids with 1.Most liquids, high temperatures,
sustances,slurries dirt,contaminants, or process flashing services. suspended solids. slurries.
7 APPLICATION
deposits on trim) concern 4.Cavitaion services.
5.High pressure drops.
2.Specified for application stringent shut- 2.Often used for on-off or low
off requirements. pressure throttling device.
Standard end connections
CONNECTION (Flanged,screwed,butt weld etc.)Can As per Piping As per Piping Std. Raised faced piping As per Piping Specifications.(H-
8 (Typical upto ANSI 2500) As per Piping Specifications.(H-103) As per Piping Specifications.(H-103)
RATING be specified to mate with piping Specifications.(H-103) Specifications.(H-103) flanges.Typical ANSI 600. 103).Typical upto ANSI 900.
design specs.
Variations include trim materials As per Piping As per Piping
9 MATERAIL As per Piping Specifications.(H-103) As per Piping Specifications.(H-103) As per Piping Specifications.(H-103) As per Piping Specifications.(H-103)
selected for high temperature service. Specifications.(H-103) Specifications.(H-103)
PTFE( Polytetrafluro ethylene widely
used because of its inert and has low co-
10 PACKING
efficient of friction. Can be applied to
400°F.
Metal-to-Metal seating usually
Metal-to- Metal saeting surfaces pr soft
provides only Class II shut-off
11 SEAT LEAKAGE seating with PTFE.Tight shut-off Tight-off can be achieved. Tight shut-off achievable.
capability,although Class III
achievable.
capability is also possible.
Quick Opening:Provides a maximum change in flowrate at lower valve tarvel with fairly linear relationship and lesser flow increase as the plug further opens.(
Normally not used for throttling)
Linear: Provides equal increase in CV for equal increment in stem travel.
TRIM
12 CHARACTER- Linear one often specified for liquid level control and application requiring constant gain Pressure
( drop is Constant)
ISTICS
Equal %:Provides equal% increase in CV for equal increament of stem travel.This characteristic provides throttling control valve at valve close position and rapidly increaasing capacity as the plug is near the open position.
Equal% is suitable for pressure control application, or on application where highly varying pressure drop can be expected and pressure drop at the control valve is relatively small against the system pressure drop.
The shear Safety factor should be a
13 SIZING minimum 150% at the specied Shut-
off pressure drop condition.
14 Flow Capacity Moderate High High
 WIRE CONVERSION CHART
Wire Number S.W.G. American Wire Gauges (AWG) Metric
(Gauge) (Inches) (MM) (Inches) (MM) (MM2)
1 0.3 7.62 0.289 7,348 42.429
2 0.276 7.01 0.258 6,543 33.592
3 0.252 6.401 0.229 5,827 26.694
4 0.232 5.893 0.204 5,189 21.155
5 0.212 5.385 0.182 4,621 16.763
6 0.192 4.877 0.162 4,115 13.267
7 0.176 4.47 0.144 3,665 10.52
8 0.16 4.064 0.128 3,264 8.346
9 0.144 3.658 0.114 2,906 6.605
10 0.128 3.251 0.102 2,588 5.268
11 0.116 2.946 0.091 2,304 4.154
12 0.104 2.642 0.081 2,052 3.3
13 0.092 2.337 0.072 1,829 2.63
14 0.08 2.032 0.064 1,628 2.086
15 0.072 1.829 0.057 1,450 1.651
16 0.064 1.626 0.051 1,291 1.306
17 0.056 1.422 0.045 1,150 1.038
18 0.048 1.219 0.04 1,024 0.817
19 0.04 1.016 0.036 0,9119 0.65
20 0.036 0.9144 0.032 0,8128 0.515
21 0.032 0.8128 0.028 0,7239 0.407
22 0.028 0.7112 0.025 0,6426 0.321
23 0.024 0.6096 0.023 0,5740 0.255
24 0.022 0.55.88 0.02 0,5106 0.204
25 0.02 0.508 0.018 0,4547 0.159
26 0.018 0.4572 0.016 0,4038 0.125
27 0.0164 0.4166 0.014 0,3606 0.101
28 0.0148 0.3759 0.013 0,3200 0.08
29 0.0136 0.3454 0.011 0,2870 0.066
30 0.0124 0.315 0.01 0,2540 0.049
31 0.0116 0.2946 0.009 0,2261 0.041
32 0.0108 0.2743 0.008 0,2032 0.032
33 0.01 0.254 0.007 0,1803 0.024
34 0.0092 0.2337 0.0063 0,1601 0.02
35 0.0084 0.2138 0.0056 0,1422 0.015
36 0.0076 0.193 0.005 0,1270 0.012
37 0.0068 0.1727 0.0044 0,1143 0.009
38 0.006 0.1524 0.004 0,1016 0.008
39 0.0052 0.1321 0.0035 0,0889 0.006
40 0.0048 0.121 0.0031 0,0787 0.005
 American Wire Gauge Diameter Diameter Cross Sectional Area
Sl.No. Remarks
(AWG) (inches) (mm) (mm2)
1 0 0.46 11.68 107.16
2 0 0.4096 10.4 84.97
3 0 0.3648 9.27 67.4
4 0 0.3249 8.25 53.46
5 1 0.2893 7.35 42.39
6 2 0.2576 6.54 33.61
7 3 0.2294 5.83 26.65
8 4 0.2043 5.19 21.14
9 5 0.1819 4.62 16.76
10 6 0.162 4.11 13.29
11 7 0.1443 3.67 10.55
12 8 0.1285 3.26 8.36
13 9 0.1144 2.91 6.63
14 10 0.1019 2.59 5.26
15 11 0.0907 2.3 4.17
16 12 0.0808 2.05 3.31
17 13 0.072 1.83 2.63
18 14 0.0641 1.63 2.08
19 15 0.0571 1.45 1.65
20 16 0.0508 1.29 1.31
21 17 0.0453 1.15 1.04
22 18 0.0403 1.02 0.82
23 19 0.0359 0.91 0.65
24 20 0.032 0.81 0.52
25 21 0.0285 0.72 0.41
26 22 0.0254 0.65 0.33
27 23 0.0226 0.57 0.26
28 24 0.0201 0.51 0.2
29 25 0.0179 0.45 0.16
30 26 0.0159 0.4 0.13