6.3.

3 Mainlines and Submains (Manifolds)

Laterals and line-source tubing are connected to a submain or in some cases
directly to a mainline. Mainlines and submains arc normally PVC, although
asbestos-cement pipe is occasionally used for mainlines. Each mainline and
submain should have a manual or solenoid activated valve at its upstream end to
provide on-off service and for isolation purposes. An on-off valve at the downstream end of mainlines and submains for periodic flushing is recommended.
Submains may also have pressure-regulating valves, flow control valves,
secondary filters, flowmeters, and pressure gauges. Pressure losses in trickle
mainlines and submains are estimated using procedures similar to those used for
trickle laterals. The pipe selection process used for sprinkle systems also applies
to trickle systems.
6.3.4 Control Head
The control head of trickle system contains the pumping plant, primary filters,
chemical injection equipment, backflow prevention devices, flowmeters, pressure
gauges, valving, and automatic controllers.
6.3.4a Valving
The control head may include pressure relief, on-off, pressure regulating, vacuum
relief, flow regulation, and air relief valves. The operation and function of these
valves is described in Section 5.3,2e.
6.3.4b Filters
Filters are essential for controlling clogging in many trickle systems. Media,
screen, and cartridge filters, and centrifugal separators are the main types of filters
used with trickle systems. These filters as well as prefiltration devices including
trash racks or screens and settling basins are described in Section 6.4.1.

6.3 Trickle System Components

6.3.4c Flowmeters and Pressure Gauges

Flow and pressure measurements are invaluable aids in system management and
assessing the need for trickle system maintenance. Several types of devices can be
used to measure the volume and/or volumetric flow rate (volume/time).
Differential pressure flowmeters including venturi tubes, orifice plates, and elbow
meters as well as various types of rotating mechanical and ultrasonic flowmeters
can be used (see Chapter 8). Pressure gauges located on the up- and downstream
sides of filters are used to determine the need for filter maintenance (the need for
filter maintenance is indicated by large pressure drops through the filter as
described in Sections 6.4.1b and 6.4.lc). Table 6.6 lists other problems that may be
associated with changes in flow.
6.3.4d Chemical Injection Equipment
Trickle systems often include equipment for metering into the irrigation system
fertilizers, chemical treatments for controlling clogging, as well as other
agricultural chemicals. Chemical injection requires that the pressure acting on the
chemical be greater than the operating pressure within the trickle system. Three
different methods for accomplishing this are shown in Figures 6.12, 6.13, and
6.14. Injection system components directly exposed to the chemicals should be
corrosion resistant, since many of the chemicals that are injected into trickle
systems are corrosive. Chemicals should be injected upstream of filters so that any
precipitates or other clogging agents that may form do not enter laterals and
emission devices. Check valves and vacuum release valves should be installed
upstream of the injector and on injector lines to prevent backflow of chemicals
into the water source. The American Society of Agricultural Engineers has
specified required safety devices for applying chemicals through irrigation
systems
Table

(ASA
6.6

Possible

Causes

E,
of

Changes

1985).
in

Increased Flow
improperly adjusted/open valves
pipeline leaks/'breaks
pressure downstream of pressure regulators is too high

Trickle

System

Flow

worn/oversized emission devices

system on too long (as indicated by higher than expected volumes of flow)
Decreased Flow
improperly adjusted valves
clogged emission deuces, filters, and other components
pump wear
pressure downstream of pressure regulators too low
existence of entrapped air in system
system not on long enough (as indicated by lower than expected volumes of flow)
Source: L G, James and W. M Shannom "Fiow Measurement and System
Maintenance." In Trickle Irrigcnonfor Crop Production, F S. Nakayama and D. X
Bucks (Eds.), copyright (i) 1986. Science Publishing JOS. Reprinted by
permission of Eisevier Sciencc Publishing
(i) Eductors The injection system in Figure 6.12 uses a venturi or other eductor to
create an area of low pressure within the trickle system where chemicals may be
added. The regulator valve in the injection line is adjusted to meter in the desired
amount of chemical. The venturi principle is not very effective for low(ii) Injector Pumps An injector (or metering) pump (Figure 6.13) is an effective
way of providing sufficient pressure to inject chemicals. A properly selected
injector pump can supply chemicals at a relatively constant concentration and rate
for the required duration. Packed-plunger and mechanically or hydrauli- eally
activated pumps similar to those in Figure 6.15 are the most common types of

Figure 6.15 Schematic of (a) packed-plunger and (b) mechanically

activated

diaphragm

pumps

typically

used

for

chemical

injection.

Source: L. G. James and W. M. Shannon, Flow Measurement and

System Maintenance." In Trickle Irrigation for Crop Production, F. S.
Nakayama

and

A.

Bucks

(Eds.),

copyright

Elsevier

Science Publishing Co.. inc., p. 305. Reprinted by permnission of

Elsevier Science Publishing Coos Inc. and others.

metering pumps used. Electric and water motors, gasoline engines, or belts driven
by

the

pumping

plant

power

unit

power

the

metering

pump.

(iii) Pressure Differential Systems A pressure drop between the inlet and outlet
of the chemical supply tank of the injection system in Figure 6.14 is created by the
pressure reducing valve. This pressure difference causes flow through the tank and
chemicals from the tank to be carried into the trickle system. A disadvantage of
differential injection is that the concentration of chemical in the tank is diluted as
injection continues.
6.3.4e

Backflow

Prevention

Equipment

Flow in the reverse direction through an irrigation system toward the water source
(rather than away from it) is called backflow. Backflow is usually caused by
pump, pipeline, or valve failure and can result in irrigation system damage and
contamination of the water, source. Backflow prevention equipment installed
immediately downstream of the water source is often required by law to minimize
the possibility of water source contamination when chemicals are injected into
irrigation systems. Backflow prevention equipment can consist of a single check
valve or two or more check valves hooked in series. Pressure relief, manual onoff, and vacuum relief valves are often included to provide surge protec!ion and
positive protection from backflow when the system is off.
6.3.4f Automatic Controllers
The control head of automated trickle systems contain controllers. These
controllers range from mechanical clocks that open/close a single valve on a
preset time schedule to microcomputers, which are programmed to interrogate a
series of soil and/or climatic sensors, decide when to begin and end irrigation,
start/stop pumps and open/close valves to accomplish the irrigation, and
remember how much water and fertilizer were applied to each block within the
field. Many controllers are also able to diagnose system malfunctions and take

corrective action, Some even turn the system off during rain storms and then
restart the system when the storm ends.
A time-type of controller uses a clock (either solid state or motor driven
electric) as the means for programming the starting and sequence of irrigation.
The
controller supplies electrical or hydraulic power to activate remote solenoid valves
located on individual laterals or submains (manifolds). As many as 30 or more
valves may be controlled by a controller. Communication between the controller
and valves is via wires, hydraulic or pneumatic conduit, or radio telemetry.
Microprocessor/microcomputerbased controllers can be programmed to control
pumps, injection equipment, filters, etc., as well as open/close solenoid activated
on-off valves using data from tensiometers, pyranometers, evaporation pans
thermocouples, humidity meters, anemometers, flowmeters, pressure transducers, and other sensors. These controllers poll soil and/or climatic sensors
according to a schedule specified by the irrigator, The controller is programmed to
use these data to determine the need for irrigation in each field and block.