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IFAC Conference
on Modelling, Identification and
Control
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Nonlinear
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Control
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June 24-26,
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2015.
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IFAC-PapersOnLine 48-11 (2015) 065071

Comparative Study on Direct Torque Control of Interior Permanent Magnet

Comparative Study on Direct Torque Control of Interior Permanent Magnet
Comparative StudySynchronous
on Direct Torque
of Interior
MotorControl
for Electric
VehiclePermanent Magnet
Synchronous Motor for Electric Vehicle
Synchronous Motor for Electric Vehicle

Weijie Lin*. Dongliang Liu**. Qiuxuan Wu***. Qiang Lu****. Lili Cui*****. Jian Wang******
Weijie Lin*.
Lin*. Dongliang
Dongliang Liu**.
Liu**. Qiuxuan
Qiuxuan Wu***.
Wu***. Qiang
Qiang Lu****.
Lu****. Lili
Lili Cui*****.
Cui*****. Jian
Jian Wang******
Wang******
Weijie
Weijie Lin*. Dongliang Liu**. Qiuxuan Wu***. Qiang Lu****. Lili Cui*****. Jian Wang******
*Hangzhou Dianzi University, Hangzhou, China PR(Tel: 86-571-86878535;
*Hangzhou Dianzi
Dianzi University,
University, Hangzhou,
Hangzhou, China
China PR(Tel:
PR(Tel: 86-571-86878535;
86-571-86878535;
*Hangzhou
e-mail:Hangzhou,
linwj@hdu.edu.cn)
*Hangzhou Dianzi University,
China PR(Tel: 86-571-86878535;
e-mail: linwj@hdu.edu.cn)
linwj@hdu.edu.cn)
e-mail:
* Wolong Electric
Group
Co. Ltd, Shangyu, China PR
e-mail:
linwj@hdu.edu.cn)
* Wolong
Wolong Electric
Electric
Group
Co. Ltd,
Ltd, Shangyu,
Shangyu, China
China PR
PR
Group
Co.
** Hangzhou **Dianzi
University,
Hangzhou,
China
PR (e-mail:
liudl@hdu.edu.cn)
Wolong
Electric Group
Co. Ltd,
Shangyu,
Chinaliudl@hdu.edu.cn)
PR
** Hangzhou
Hangzhou Dianzi
Dianzi
University,
Hangzhou,
China
PR (e-mail:
(e-mail:
liudl@hdu.edu.cn)
**
University,
Hangzhou,
China
PR
***
Hangzhou Dianzi
Dianzi University,
University, Hangzhou,
Hangzhou, China
China PR
PR (e-mail:
(e-mail: liudl@hdu.edu.cn)
wuqx@hdu.edu.cn)
**
Hangzhou
***
Hangzhou
Dianzi
University,
Hangzhou,
China
PR
(e-mail:
wuqx@hdu.edu.cn)
*** Hangzhou
Hangzhou Dianzi
Dianzi University,
University, Hangzhou,
Hangzhou, China
China PR
PR (e-mail:
(e-mail: lvqiang@hdu.edu.cn)
wuqx@hdu.edu.cn)
****
*** Hangzhou
Hangzhou Dianzi
Dianzi University,
University, Hangzhou,
Hangzhou, China
China PR
PR (e-mail:
(e-mail: lvqiang@hdu.edu.cn)
wuqx@hdu.edu.cn)
****
Hangzhou
Dianzi
University,
Hangzhou,
China
PR
(e-mail:
lvqiang@hdu.edu.cn)
****
*****
Hangzhou
Dianzi
University,
Hangzhou,
China
PR
(e-mail:
cll@hdu.edu.cn)
****
Hangzhou
Dianzi
University,
Hangzhou,
China
PR
(e-mail:
lvqiang@hdu.edu.cn)
*****
Hangzhou
Dianzi
University,
Hangzhou,
China
PR
(e-mail:
cll@hdu.edu.cn)
*****
Hangzhou
Dianzi
University,
Hangzhou,
China
(e-mail:
cll@hdu.edu.cn)
******
Hangzhou
Dianzi
University,
Hangzhou,
China
PRPR
(e-mail:
wangjian@hdu.edu.cn)
*****
Hangzhou
Dianzi
University,
Hangzhou,
China
PR
(e-mail:
cll@hdu.edu.cn)
******
Hangzhou
Dianzi
University,
Hangzhou,
China
PR
(e-mail:
wangjian@hdu.edu.cn)
****** Hangzhou Dianzi University, Hangzhou, China PR (e-mail: wangjian@hdu.edu.cn)
****** Hangzhou Dianzi University, Hangzhou, China PR (e-mail: wangjian@hdu.edu.cn)
Abstract: Comparative studies on several direct torque control (DTC) strategies of interior permanent
Abstract: Comparative
Comparative studies
studies on
on several
several direct
direct torque
torque control
control (DTC)
(DTC) strategies
strategies of
of interior
interior permanent
permanent
Abstract:
magnet synchronous
motor
(IPMSM)
for electric
vehicles
(EVs) are discussed
in details,
namely
basic
Abstract:
Comparative
studies
on several
direct torque
control
strategies
interior
permanent
magnet
synchronous
motor
(IPMSM)
for electric
electric
vehicles
(EVs)(DTC)
are discussed
discussed
in of
details,
namely
basic
magnet
synchronous
motor
(IPMSM)
for
vehicles
(EVs)
are
in
details,
namely
basic
DTC,
DTC
combined
with
space
vector
modulation
(DTC-SVM),
and
deadbeat
DTC
(DB-DTC).
These
magnet
synchronous
(IPMSM)
formodulation
electric vehicles
(EVs) are
details,
namelyThese
basic
DTC, DTC
DTC
combinedmotor
with space
space
vector
modulation
(DTC-SVM),
anddiscussed
deadbeat in
DTC
(DB-DTC).
DTC,
combined
with
vector
and
deadbeat
DTC
(DB-DTC).
DTC
strategies
are reviewed,
meanwhile
dynamics(DTC-SVM),
and steady-state
performance
are analyzedThese
and
DTC,
DTC
combined
with
space
vector
modulation
(DTC-SVM),
and
deadbeat
DTC
(DB-DTC).
These
DTC strategies
strategies are
are reviewed,
reviewed, meanwhile
meanwhile dynamics
dynamics and
and steady-state
steady-state performance
performance are
are analyzed
analyzed and
and
DTC
compared.
Simulations
of
a
20kW
IPMSM
for
EVs
are
carried
out
for
comparison
studies
including:
DTC
strategies
are reviewed,
meanwhile
andcarried
steady-state
analyzed
and
compared.
Simulations
of aa 20kW
20kW
IPMSMdynamics
for EVs
EVs are
are
carried
out for
forperformance
comparison are
studies
including:
compared.
Simulations
of
IPMSM
for
out
comparison
studies
including:
ripple of
of torque
torque
and stator
stator
flux,
sensitivity
tofor
machine's
parameter,
computational
complexity,
and total
total
compared.
Simulations
of
a
20kW
IPMSM
EVs
are
carried
out
for
comparison
studies
including:
ripple
and
flux,
sensitivity
to
machine's
parameter,
computational
complexity,
and
ripple of torque and stator flux, sensitivity to machine's parameter, computational complexity, and total
harmonic
distortion
of
stator
current.
The results
results
can be
be used
used as
as guidance
guidance
for application
application
of IPMSM
IPMSM
to
ripple of torque
and of
stator
flux,
sensitivity
to machine's
computational
complexity,
and total
harmonic
distortion
of
stator
current.
The
can
for
of
to
harmonic
distortion
stator
current.
The
results
can
be parameter,
used as
guidance
for
application
of
IPMSM
to
EVs
and
others.
harmonic
distortion of stator current. The results can be used as guidance for application of IPMSM to
EVs and
and others.
others.
EVs
EVs
andIFAC
others.

2015,
(International
Federation
Automatic
Control) magnet
Hosting synchronous
by Elsevier Ltd.
All rights
reserved.
Keywords: Direct
Direct
torque control,
control,
flux,ofinterior
interior
permanent
motor,
electric
vehicle,
Keywords:
torque
flux,
permanent
magnet synchronous
synchronous motor,
motor,
electric
vehicle,
Keywords:
Direct torque
control, flux,
interior permanent
magnet
electric
vehicle,
deadbeat,
observer,
simulation.
Keywords:
Direct
torque
control,
flux,
interior
permanent
magnet
synchronous
motor,
electric
vehicle,
deadbeat, observer,
observer, simulation.
simulation.
deadbeat,
deadbeat, observer, simulation.
dynamics and human comfort. Therefore, the torque opendynamics and
and human
human comfort.
comfort. Therefore,
Therefore, the
the torque
torque openopen1. INTRODUCTION
dynamics
loop control
ofhuman
CVC is
not extremely
suitable
for IPMSM
1. INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
1.
dynamics
and
comfort.
Therefore,
the
torque
openloop
control
of
CVC
is
not
extremely
suitable
for
IPMSM
loop control
of CVC is not extremely suitable for IPMSM
INTRODUCTION
of EVs.
With the increasing1.demand
of living comfort, automobile control
loop
control
of
CVC
is
not
extremely
suitable
for
IPMSM
control
of
EVs.
With the
the increasing
increasing demand
demand of
of living
living comfort,
comfort, automobile
automobile control of EVs.
With
gets
more
and more
utilized
for
individual
and
public control of EVs.
With
the increasing
demand
of for
living
comfort, and
automobile
gets more
more
and more
more
utilized
for
individual
and
public Direct torque control (DTC) has closed-loop control both of
gets
and
utilized
individual
public
Direct torque
torque control
control (DTC)
(DTC) has
has closed-loop
closed-loop control
control both
both of
of
transportation
because
of
its
convenience.
But,
accompanying
gets
more and
moreof
for individual
and public Direct
torque
and stator
flux,(DTC)
which has
wasclosed-loop
firstly proposed
forboth
IM by
transportation
because
ofutilized
its convenience.
convenience.
But, accompanying
accompanying
transportation
because
its
But,
Direct
torque
control
control
of
torque
and
stator
flux,
which
was
firstly
proposed
for
IM
by
vast
fuel
consumption
and
environmental
pollution
become
torque
and
stator
flux,
which
was
firstly
proposed
for
IM
by
transportation
because ofand
its environmental
convenience. But,
accompanying
and
Noguchi
(1986)
and
Depenbrock
(1988).
At
vast fuel
fuel consumption
consumption
and
environmental
pollution
become Takahashi
vast
pollution
become
torque
and
stator
flux,
which
was
firstly
proposed
for
IM
by
Takahashi and
and Noguchi
Noguchi (1986)
(1986) and
and Depenbrock
Depenbrock (1988).
(1988). At
At
more
serious.
Automobile
companies focus
on become
electric Takahashi
vast
consumption
and environmental
pollution
present, DTC
has
become(1986)
a powerful
and
widely used
control
morefuel
serious.
Automobile
companies focus
focus
on electric
electric Takahashi
more
companies
on
andhas
Noguchi
and and
Depenbrock
(1988).
At
present, DTC
DTC
has
become aa powerful
powerful
and
widely used
used
control
vehiclesserious.
(EVs), Automobile
hybrid electric
vehiclesfocus
(HEVs),
plug-in present,
become
widely
control
more
serious.
Automobile
companies
on
electric
vehicles (EVs),
(EVs), hybrid
hybrid electric
electric vehicles
vehicles (HEVs),
(HEVs), plug-in
plug-in present,
axis
vector
decoupling
of
strategy
of
AC
machines.
The
dq
vehicles
DTC
has
become
a
powerful
and
widely
used
control
hybrid
electric
vehicles
(PHEVs),
and fuel-cell
vehicles.
axis vector
vector decoupling
decoupling of
of
strategy of
of AC
AC machines.
machines. The
The dq axis
vehicleselectric
(EVs), vehicles
hybrid electric
vehicles
(HEVs),vehicles.
plug-in strategy
hybrid
electric
vehicles
(PHEVs),
and fuel-cell
fuel-cell
vehicles.
hybrid
(PHEVs),
and
field oriented
(FOC)
by two
hysteresis
axis vector
decoupling
of
of ACcontrol
machines.
The is
dqreplaced
Among
these, electric
vehicles
get and
the most
attraction
in strategy
hybrid
electric
vehicles
(PHEVs),
fuel-cell
vehicles.
field
oriented
control
(FOC)
is
replaced
by
two
hysteresis
Among these,
these, electric
electric vehicles
vehicles get
get the
the most
most attraction
attraction in
in field
oriented
controlwhich
(FOC)
is replaced
by with
two the
hysteresis
Among
controllers
of
DTC,
meets
very
well
on-off
recent
years
for
its
only
convenient
and
rechargeable
battery
field
oriented
controlwhich
(FOC)
is replaced
by with
two the
hysteresis
Amongyears
these,
getand
therechargeable
most attraction
in controllers
controllers
of DTC,
DTC,
which
meets
very well
well
with
the
on-off
recent
years
forelectric
its only
only vehicles
convenient
and
rechargeable
battery
meets
very
on-off
recent
its
convenient
battery
operation
ofof
power
transistors
of inverter.
DTC
of
IPMSM
power years
supplyfor
and
simple
driver control
structure. Interior
controllers
of
DTC,
which
meets
very
well
with
the
on-off
recent
for
its
only
convenient
and
rechargeable
battery
operation
of
power
transistors
of
inverter.
DTC
of
IPMSM
power supply
supply and
and simple
simple driver
driver control
control structure.
structure. Interior
Interior operation
power transistors
of inverter.
of IPMSM
power
was firstlyof
presented
by Zhong (1997).
DTC DTC
has some
virtues
permanent
magnet
synchronous
motor
(IPMSM)
hasInterior
some operation
of
power
transistors
of
inverter.
DTC
of
IPMSM
power
supply
and
simple
driver
control
structure.
was
firstly
presented
by
Zhong
(1997).
DTC
has
some
virtues
permanent
magnet
synchronous
motor
(IPMSM)
has
some
wasboth
firstlycontrol
presented
by Zhong
(1997). and
DTCdriver
has some
virtues
permanent
magnet
(IPMSM)
some of
strategy
framework
materials.
merits
of high
powersynchronous
density, highmotor
efficiency,
good has
reliability,
wasboth
firstlycontrol
presented
by Zhong
(1997). and
DTCdriver
has some
virtues
permanent
magnet
(IPMSM)
some of
of
both
control
strategy
framework
and
driver
materials.
merits of
of high
high
powersynchronous
density, high
highmotor
efficiency,
good has
reliability,
strategy
framework
materials.
merits
power
density,
efficiency,
good
reliability,
Comparing
with
FOC,
DTC
does
not
require
any
coordinate
low
torque
ripple
and
wide
range
of
speed
regulation,
which
of
both
control
strategy
framework
and
driver
materials.
merits
of high
power
high of
efficiency,
good reliability,
Comparing with
with FOC,
FOC, DTC
DTC does
does not
not require
require any
any coordinate
coordinate
low torque
torque
ripple
anddensity,
wide range
range
of
speed regulation,
regulation,
which Comparing
low
ripple
and
wide
speed
and
space
vector
modulation.
Furthermore,
make
it much
fitter
for
electric
vehicles
driving
than which
other transformation
Comparing
withand
FOC,
DTCvector
does not
require any
coordinate
low
torque
ripple
and
wide
range
of
speed
regulation,
which
transformation
and
space
vector
modulation.
Furthermore,
make
it
much
fitter
for
electric
vehicles
driving
than
other
transformation
space
modulation.
Furthermore,
make
it electric
much fitter
for electric
drivingmotor
than (IM),
other DTC also does not require rotator position sensor which is
general
machines
such vehicles
as induction
transformation
and
space
vector
modulation.
Furthermore,
make
it
much
fitter
for
electric
vehicles
driving
than
other
DTC also
also does
does not
not require
require rotator
rotator position
position sensor
sensor which
which is
is
general electric
electric machines
machines such
such as
as induction
induction motor
motor (IM),
(IM), DTC
general
essential
for
FOC.
DTC isrotator
natively
sensorless
leading
to
brushless
DC motor
(BLDC),
andas switch
reluctance
motor
DTC
alsofor
does
not require
position
sensorleading
which to
is
general
machines
suchand
induction
motor motor
(IM), essential
essential
for
FOC.
DTC is
is natively
natively
sensorless
leading
to
brushlesselectric
DC motor
motor
(BLDC),
and switch
switch
reluctance
motor
FOC.
DTC
sensorless
brushless
DC
(BLDC),
reluctance
simplified
implementation
and lower
cost. DTC
has
(SR)
as presented
by Chan
(1996).
essential
for
FOC.
DTC
is
natively
sensorless
leading
to
brushless
DC
motor
(BLDC),
and
switch
reluctance
motor
simplified
implementation
and
lower
cost.
DTC
has
(SR) as
as presented
presented by
by Chan
Chan (1996).
(1996).
simplified
and torque
lower performance
cost. DTC with
has
(SR)
comparable implementation
steady and dynamic
simplified
and torque
lower performance
cost. DTC with
has
(SR)
as presented
by Chan of
(1996).
comparable implementation
steady and
and dynamic
dynamic
torque
performance
with
steady
To promote
performance
IPMSM, current vector control comparable
FOC. Additionally,
DTCdynamic
has low torque
sensitivity
to parameters
comparable
steady
and
performance
with
To promote
promote performance
performance of
of IPMSM,
IPMSM, current
current vector
vector control
control FOC.
FOC.
Additionally,
DTC
has
low
sensitivity
to
parameters
To
Additionally,
DTC hasBut,
lowthe
sensitivity
to parameters
(CVC)
is theperformance
most widely
used
approach
tovector
regulate
the vibration
of electric machine.
disadvantages
of basic
To
promote
of used
IPMSM,
currentto
control
FOC.
Additionally,
DTC hasBut,
lowthe
sensitivity
to parameters
(CVC)
is the
the most
most widely
widely
used
approach
to regulate
regulate
the vibration
vibration
of electric
electric machine.
machine.
But,
the
disadvantages
of basic
basic
(CVC)
is
approach
the
of
disadvantages
of
torque
of
IPMSM
as
presented
by
Macminn
(1991)
and
DTC
is
also
obvious:
torque
and
flux
ripple,
deteriorated
(CVC)
is the
most as
used by
approach
to regulate
the vibration
of electric
machine.
But,
the
disadvantages
of basic
torque of
of
IPMSM
aswidely
presented
by
Macminn
(1991) and
and
DTC
is
also
obvious:
torque
and
flux
ripple,
deteriorated
torque
IPMSM
presented
Macminn
(1991)
DTC
is
also
obvious:
torque
and
flux
ripple,
deteriorated
Morimoto
(1994). When
using CVC,
stator current,
rather
atobvious:
low speed,
and and
variable
switching
frequency
torque of IPMSM
as presented
by Macminn
(1991)rather
and performance
DTC
is also at
torque
flux switching
ripple, deteriorated
Morimoto
(1994). When
When
using CVC,
CVC,
stator current,
current,
rather
performance
at low
low speed,
speed,
and variable
variable
switching
frequency
Morimoto
using
stator
performance
and
frequency
than torque(1994).
and stator
flux,
is CVC,
the closed-loop
controlled
of
inverter.
Morimoto
(1994).
When
using
stator
current,
rather
performance
than torque
torque and
and stator
stator flux,
flux, is
is the
the closed-loop
closed-loop controlled
controlled of
of inverter.
inverter. at low speed, and variable switching frequency
than
variable.
In
CVC
of
IPMSM,
voltage
space
vectors
of
the
than torque
and stator
flux, isvoltage
the closed-loop
controlled
variable.
In CVC
CVC
of IPMSM,
IPMSM,
voltage
space vectors
vectors
of the
the of
variable.
In
of
space
Forinverter.
the defects of basic DTC, much works have been made
inverter
are
the
only
input
for voltage
closed-loop
control
of of
stator
variable.
In
CVC
of
IPMSM,
space
vectors
the For
For the
the defects
defects of
of basic
basic DTC,
DTC, much
much works
works have
have been
been made
made
inverter are
are the
the only
only input
input for
for closed-loop
closed-loop control
control of
of of
stator
inverter
stator
over
thedefects
past few
decades.
DTCmuch
combined
with
space
vector
current.
The
stator
current
dynamics
will
affect
torque
and
For
the
of
basic
DTC,
works
have
been
made
inverter
are
the
only
input
for
closed-loop
control
of
stator
over
the
past
few
decades.
DTC
combined
with
space
vector
current. The
The stator
stator current
current dynamics
dynamics will
will affect
affect torque
torque and
and over
the past (DTC-SVM),
few decades. DTC
combined
with space
vector
current.
modulation
separately
proposed
by T.
G.
stator
flux
performance.
For dynamics
EVs, IPMSM
driver
will
receive
over
the
past
few
decades.
DTC
combined
with
space
vector
current.
The
stator
current
will
affect
torque
and
modulation
(DTC-SVM),
separately
proposed
by
T.
G.
stator flux
flux performance.
performance. For
For EVs,
EVs, IPMSM
IPMSM driver
driver will
will receive
receive Habetler
modulation
(DTC-SVM),
separately
proposed
by T.is G.
stator
(1992)
for
IM
and
Zhang
(2004)
for
IPMSM,
to
torque
command
from
car
controller
with
different
operating
modulation
(DTC-SVM),
separately
proposed
by
T.
stator
flux
performance.
For
EVs,
IPMSM
driver
will
receive
Habetler
(1992)
for
IM
and
Zhang
(2004)
for
IPMSM,
is
to
torque
command
from
car
controller
with
different
operating
Habetlerconstant
(1992) for
IM andfrequency
Zhang (2004)
for IPMSM,
is G.
to
torque The
command
from
car controller
with
different
operating
achieve
switching
of
inverter
as
well
as
to
mode.
torque,
precisely
controlled
or
not,
will
affect
car
Habetler
(1992)
for
IM
and
Zhang
(2004)
for
IPMSM,
is
to
torque
command
from
car
controller
with
different
operating
achieve
constant
switching
frequency
of
inverter
as
well
as
to
mode.
The
torque,
precisely
controlled
or
not,
will
affect
car
achieve
constant
switching
frequency
of
inverter
as
well
as
to
mode. The torque, precisely controlled or not, will affect car
mode. The torque, precisely controlled or not, will affect car achieve constant switching frequency of inverter as well as to

2405-8963 2015, IFAC (International Federation of Automatic Control) Hosting by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Copyright
IFAC responsibility
2015
69 Control.
Peer reviewunder
of International Federation of Automatic
Copyright
IFAC
IFAC 2015
2015
69
Copyright

69
10.1016/j.ifacol.2015.09.161
Copyright IFAC 2015
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MICNON 2015
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obtain the desired torque and stator flux with little ripple by
synthesizing an appropriate voltage space vector through
SVM, which is more accurate than that of basic DTC to
compensate the error of desired and actual stator flux.

decided by stator flux vector. By applying appropriate

voltage space vector, basic DTC can control the magnitude
and angle of stator flux to obtain desired torque. The
framework of basic DTC is shown in Fig.1.

DTC with deadbeat control, namely DB-DTC, is proposed

for IM by Lee (2002) and Kenny (2003). Theoretically, DBDTC can reach the desired torque in one control period with
synthesized voltage space vector. The dynamics and steadystate error of DB-DTC are better than basic DTC and DTCSVM even at low switching frequency, which is necessary
for high power machines used for EVs. DB-DTC for IPMSM
proposed by Lee (2011) contains a discrete time flux observer
for accurate torque and stator flux control. Moreover, a dq
rotating reference frame current observer is designed to
eliminate the sampling delay caused by digital control
implementation.

Fig. 1. Framework of basic DTC.

In this paper, basic DTC, DTC-SVM and DB-DTC will be

comparatively evaluated through simulations with various
criteria. The comparison results will be used as guidance for
application of IPMSM to industry and electric vehicles.

IPMSM stator winding currents are measured by hall current

sensors, and its voltages are calculated by inverter switch
state. The actual stator flux and torque are calculated by flux
and torque observer. The actual stator flux and torque are
compared with the reference values in two separate hysteresis
controllers. The hysteresis controllers are two-level
comparator whose outputs are labelled with and . If the
actual value is less than down bounds of the reference value,
the comparator outputs true (also 1) meaning that the selected
voltage space vector should increase the actual value. On the
other side, if the actual value is larger than up bounds of the
reference value, the comparator outputs false(also 0) meaning
that the selected voltage space vector should decrease the
actual value. According to the outputs of two hysteresis
controllers and the stator flux position, an optimal voltage
space vector will be selected and applied to stator windings to
minimize the error of stator flux and torque in each control
period. The selection of optimal voltage space vector is
referred to Table 1. In this table, is the section of stator
flux position.

2. IPMSM MODEL
DTC is realized on base of IPMSM model. Expressions of
IPMSM in rotating dq reference frame are listed as follows

d d

ud = Rsid + dt eq

u = R i + d q +
s q
e d
q
dt
d Ld id + PM
=

q = Lq iq

(1)

(2)

where udq and idq are stator voltage and current;

stator resistance;

Rs is

Ld and Lq are d-axis and q-axis stator

inductance, respectively; dq is stator flux;

rotor angular velocity;
torque of IPMSM is

e is electrical

Table 1. Switch table of basic DTC

PM is permanent magnet flux. The

=
Te 1.5 p ( d iq q id )

(3)

where p is the number of rotator pole pairs.

3. DTC STRATEGY

3.1 Basic DTC

1
u6

2
u2

3
u3

u5

u4

u2

u1

4
u1

5
u5

6
u4

u6

u2

u3

u1

u3

u1

u5

u4

u6

u5

u4

u6

u2

u3

The parameters of IPMSM are listed in Table 2. The

performance of basic DTC is shown in Fig.2. The bound of
torque hysteresis control is 5N.m, and that of stator flux is
0.05Wb. Fig.2 demonstrates torque and stator flux are limited
within bounds of the two separate hysteresis controllers. The
ripple of torque and stator flux is controllable. The dynamic
response with step-up torque reference is about 0.15ms.

For AC machines, the torque is proportional to vector product

s and rotator flux r . For IPMSM, rotator

flux is induced by permanent magnet, then r PM ,

of stator flux

which is almost a constant. The angle velocity of rotator

varies little when voltage space vector affects on stator
windings during one sample period, so the torque is only
70

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67

For basic DTC, one of the only eight voltage space vectors
(six non-zero and two zero voltage space vectors ) can be
selected and applied to stator windings to minimize the error
of reference and actual of torque and stator flux. But, the
magnitude of voltage space vector is constant, and it will
activate within one whole control period continuously.
Therefore, the ripple of torque and stator flux are inevitable.
In order to recede the ripple of torque and flux, a more
accurate voltage space vector should be applied to stator
windings. Based on space vector synthesis, an arbitrary
desired voltage space vector can be synthesized by two
adjacent non-zero and one zero voltage space vectors. The
block diagram of DTC-SVM is shown in Fig. 3.

60
50
40

0.105
0.1
0.095

Ia(A)

Stator Flux(Wb)

Torque(N.m)

3.2 DTC-SVM

100
50
0
-50
-100
0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

Time(s)

Stator Flux(Wb)

Torque(N.m)

(a)
45
40
35

0.105

Fig. 3. Block diagram of DTC-SVM.

0.1

Reference flux vector calculator (RFVC) and space vector

modulator (SVM) substitute for the two hysteresis controllers
of basic DTC. Flux and torque observer is just same as that of
basic DTC. Because of the torque's non-linearity to stator
flux angle position, a PI regulator is used for torque variation
to stator flux angle position variation. The reference flux
vector calculator is just shown in Fig.4.

0.095
0.2

0.201

0.202

0.203

0.204

0.205

Time(s)

(b)
65

Torque(N.m)

60
55
50
45

0.15ms

40
35
0.2997

0.2998

0.2999

0.3

0.3001

Fig. 4. Block diagram of reference flux vector calculator.

0.3002 0.3003

Time(s)

The performance of DTC-SVM is shown in Fig.5. The ripple

of torque is about 1.7N.m and the stator flux is nearly
reference value with little error. The steady-state performance
of torque and stator flux is much better than that of basic
DTC. The dynamic response is about 0.25ms, much longer
than basic DTC, which is mainly caused by PI regulator
existing in RFVC.

(c)
Fig. 2. Dynamic and steady performance of basic DTC.
Mechanical angle velocity: 100rad/s; torque reference value:
original 40N.m, step up to 60N.m at 0.3s; stator flux
reference value: 0.1Wb. (a) Performance of IPMSM; (b)
Amplification; (c) Dynamics of torque.

71

The torque of IPMSM is expressed as (3). Then, the

corresponding differential equation is
60

di
d
dTe
d
di
1.5 p ( d iq d q q id q d ) (4)
dt
dt
dt
dt
dt

50
40

The differential frame stator currents and stator flux of d-q

reference frame are substituted into (4) from (1) and (2). Thus,
the differential torque equation can be rewritten as (5),

Stator Flux(Wb)

Torque(N.m)

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Ia(A)

0.1
0.0999
0.0998

100
50
0
-50
-100
0

dTe
dt

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

Ld Lq
L Lq d PM Lq
uq d
1.5 p ud q
Ld Lq
Ld Lq

(5)
e
2
2

Lq Ld d q LqdPM
Ld Lq

0.5

Time(s)

2
q

2
d

L2qPM

Te (k 1) Te (k )
Ts

Ld Lq

1.5 p ud (k )q (k )
L
L

d q

Ld Lq d (k ) PM Lq
uq ( k )
Ld Lq

0.1001
0.1
0.0999
0.2

L2d L2q

L L

and the discrete time form of (5) is

42
41
40
39
38

Stator Flux(Wb)

Torque(N.m)

(a)

Rsq

0.202

0.204

0.206

0.208

0.21

Time(s)

(b)

(6)

e ( k )
Lq Ld d (k )2 q (k )2
Ld Lq
Lqd (k )PM

Torque(N.m)

60

55
50

40
0.2997

0.2998

0.2999

0.3

0.3001

L2d L2q

L L (k ) L
2
q

2
d

2
q

PM

Ts in (6) is sampling period. The torque variation in (6) can

be expressed as an variable Te by

0.25ms

45

Rsq (k )

Te (k ) Te (k 1) Te (k )

0.3002 0.3003

(7)

The relationship of d-q axis stator voltage can be developed

from (6) including Te ( k ) as the desired torque change

Time(s)

uq (k )Ts Mud (k )Ts B

Fig. 5. Dynamic and steady performance of DTC-SVM.

Mechanical angle velocity: 100rad/s; torque reference value:
original 40N.m, step up to 60N.m at 0.3s; stator flux
reference value: 0.1Wb. (a) Performance of IPMSM; (b)
Amplification; (c) Dynamics of torque.

where

3.3 DB-DTC
72

Lq Ld q (k )
Ld Lq d (k ) LqPM

(8)

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Ld Lq

Ld Lq d (k ) LqPM

Torque(N.m)

RsTsq (k )
L2d L2q

Stator Flux(Wb)

2T (k ) T
2
2
e
e s

3 p L L Lq Ld d (k ) q (k )
d q

Lqd (k )PM

69

L2q L2d d (k ) L2qPM

0.3

0.2

0.1

0.4

0.5

0.208

0.21

(a)

(10)

dq (k 1) is the desired stator flux, that is,

s* (k ) d (k 1) 2 q (k 1) 2

100
50
0
-50
-100
0

(9)

Stator Flux(Wb)

In (10),

0.099
0.098

Time(s)

When the stator resistance is small enough to be negligible,

the discrete time of stator flux vector is approximately

dq (k 1) dq (k ) udq (k )Ts

40

0.1

Torque(N.m)

dq udq Rs idq dt

50

0.101

Ia(A)

Using (8), stator voltage vectors will be calculated to achieve

the desired torque variation over the next sample time, which
implements deadbeat torque control. But, the stator flux will
not be controlled simultaneously with the torque and vary in
random. In order to achieve deadbeat flux control, the d-q
axis stator flux vectors should be taken into account and
imported into torque control. Then, the voltage model of
stator flux is introduced as

60

(11)

The block diagram of DB-DTC is shown in Fig.6. The flux

and torque estimation with current observer is different from
that of basic DTC and DTC-SVM. It contains current
predictive model composed of PI regulators and current
filters presented by Lee (2011). The DB-DTC controller is
equations with (7), (8), (10) and (11).

42
41
40
39
38

0.101
0.1
0.099
0.2

0.202

0.204

0.206

Time(s)

(b)

Torque(N.m)

60
55
50

0.85ms

45
40
0.2998

0.3

0.3002 0.3004 0.3006 0.3008 0.301 0.3012

Time(s)

(c)

Fig. 6. Block diagram of DB-DTC.

Fig. 7. Dynamic and steady performance of DB-DTC.

Mechanical angle velocity: 100rad/s; torque reference value:
original 40N.m, step up to 60N.m at 0.3s; stator flux
reference value: 0.1Wb. (a) Performance of IPMSM; (b)
Amplification; (c) Dynamics of torque.

The performance of DB-DTC is shown in Fig. 7. The torque

ripple is less than 1N.m, and also less than that of DTC-SVM.
But, the stator flux ripple is nearly 1%, larger than that of
DTC-SVM. The dynamic response is about 0.85ms, much
longer than basic DTC and DTV-SVM, mainly caused by PI
regulator existing in stator flux and torque estimation.
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Torque(N.m)

4. Performance Evaluation
4.1 Parameter Sensitivity

Stator Flux(Wb)

In various applications, IPMSM's parameters may vary with

ambient temperature. The machine's parameters mainly are
stator resistance, d-q axis inductance and rotator permanent
magnet flux. The parameter sensitivity of control strategies
will determinate the performance of IPMSM. Here, the
performance of DTC strategies with variation of machine's
parameters is evaluated through some simulations. Fig. 8
shows the torque ripple and flux ripple of the three different
DTC strategies with the value of stator resistance exceeding
the actual value by 20% and q-axis inductance by less 20%.

45
40
35

0.105
0.1

0.095
0.2

0.202

0.201

0.203

0.204

0.205

Time(s)

Torque(N.m)

(a)

Stator Flux(Wb)

The simulation results demonstrate that, when the q-axis

inductance and stator resistance vary, the steady performance
of stator flux and torque are not much deteriorated. The
torque ripple gets increased a little while parameters vary.
Therefore, the three DTC strategies are non-sensitive to this
machine's parameters variation.

42
41
40
39
38

0.1001
0.1
0.0999

4.2 Computational Complexity

For these three DTC strategies, the computational complexity
is linear to the core algorithm. The flux and torque observer
of basic DTC and DTC-SVM are identical. This observer
only calculates actual values of stator flux and its angle
position and torque by the measured stator currents and stator
voltages deduced by switch state of inverter. But, DB-DTC's
flux and torque estimation contains current observer with PI
and filters, who will consume more computational time.
Besides of flux and torque observer, basic DTC needs
minimum time for computation who has only hysteresis
comparator and voltage selection. On the other hand, DBDTC has the maximum time for computation because of its
computation complexity of reference d-q axis stator voltages.
DB-DTC have the same space vector modulation as DTCSVM for constant stator flux.

0.2

0.204

0.202

0.206

0.208

0.21

0.208

0.21

Time(s)

Stator Flux(Wb)

Torque(N.m)

(b)
42
41
40
39
38

0.101
0.1
0.099
0.2

0.202

0.204

0.206

Time(s)

(c)

4.3 Stator Current THD

Fig. 8. Performance with variation of machine's parameters.

(a) basic DTC; (b) DTC-SVM; (c) DB-DTC.

For electric vehicle, power losses of motor and driver affect

the efficiency of car electrical system, and furthermore the
travel distance. The frequency spectrum of stator currents
affects iron losses of motor. For AC machine, the total
harmonic distortion (THD) is widely used for frequency
spectrum performance. When steady, the stator currents and
their THD are shown in Fig.9. The simulation is set at
mechanical angle velocity of 100rad/s constantly and the
desired torque of 40N.m for different DTC strategies.

Table 2. Parameters of IPMSM

Rated power

PN (kW)
U dc (V)

Rated DC voltage
Rated Torque

Te (N.m)
Rs ( )

Stator Resistance

From Fig.9, it can be seen that basic DTC has the highest
THD, while DTC-SVM and DB-DTC have almost equivalent
lower THD. Correspondingly as formulations before, basic
DTC has the highest torque ripple and flux ripple. The
highest stator current THD of basic DTC is primarily caused
by the torque ripple and flux ripple, which could be improved
by decreasing the hysteresis comparator bounds and
enhancing sampling and switching frequency of inverter.

336
64
0.02

Inductance of d axis

Ld (mH)

0.336

Inductance of q axis

Lq (mH)

0.5

Permanent Magnet Flux of

Rotator PM (Wb)
Pole pairs
74

20

0.1
4

MICNON 2015
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71

Ia(A)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work is financially supported by National Nature
Science Foundation of China under Grant 51277048, Nature
Science Foundation of Zhejiang Province under Grant
LZ13E070002 and LQ13F030014, Science and Technology
Project of Zhejiang Province under Grant 2013R40030.

80
40
0
-40
-80
0.2

0.25

Time(s)

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Ia(A)

(a)
80
40
0
-40
-80
0.2

0.25

Time(s)

Ia(A)

(b)
80
40
0
-40
-80
0.2

0.25

Time(s)

(c)
Fig. 9. THD for stator current.(a)Basic DTC: Fundamental
(60Hz) = 67.37, THD= 16.63%; (b)DTC-SVM: Fundamental
(60Hz) = 67.77, THD= 7.59%; (c)DB-DTC: Fundamental
(60Hz) = 67.71, THD= 7.57%.

75