Translation Science Introduction

We may say that translation is an old activity although translation is a

recent study. There are about 4-5000 languages but only some of them
have a written tradition. The oldest translated texts in history of
translation have had a two-fold role, intermediately because they served
as means of exchanging knowledge and experience between people.
Sometimes it was used as means by which more civilized people, larger
civilizations have subdued less civilized ones. Second, it had what we may
call an encouraging role because it served as a transfer of inn ovation and
values, such as scientific, artistic, technological values, so that it served as
an enrichment of the target society and culture. The first notable
translations of the modern civilization were Roman translations of Greek
texts (odyssey G-L) the most widely translated text of the middle ages was
the Bible. The Roman empire, however, discouraged the translation of the
Bible because they believed that it may distort Latin. In this area (the area
of the Slavic languages) the Bible was translated into old Slavic in the 9-th
century. Probably the most culturally and socially influential translation
was the translation of the Bible by Martin Luther in the 16-th century who
translated the Old and the New Testament into east-middle German which
was not the official German which means that through this translation he
made this dialect gain prominence and also his translation is not literal. It
is adjusted to probably his ideas and conceptions of the religion and the
Bible for which he was criticized. In the period of the renaissance the
language which was the most translated from was Italian. In that period in
Serbia the texts which were the most translated were ecclesiastical,
historical texts and texts on nature. In the 18-th and the 19-th century it
was believed that the young literature was not less valuable than the
literature of older generations, so that people started to translate from
French, German and Spanish and that was the time when Goethe and
Pushkin translated Serbian poems. In 1847 Vuk Karadzic translated The
New Testament into Serbian. Translation studies is a discipline devoted to
the study of the theory and phenomena of translation. It is multilingual
and interdisciplinary and embraces large varieties of languages. A number
of linguistic fields, comparative literature (finding a common ground of
numerous
languages),
communication
studies,
cultural
studies,
psychology, information technologies etc. The term translation has several
meanings. There is a difference between translation (written) and
interpreting (oral). In English translation means both the process of
translation and the product of this process. The text which is translated is
the target text and the language translated into is the target one, and the
text which is translated is the source text and the language from which is
translated is the source language. There are 3 types of translation as a
process : 1. Intro-lingual (unutarjezicni) rewording, the translation of

verbal signs by means of some other signs within the same language.
(Prevodjenje na znakovni jezik)Occurs when one summarizes a text or
rewrites a text. 2. Inter-lingual (medjujezicni) or translation proper. A
translation of verbal signs of one language by means of the verbal signs of
some other language. 3) Intersemiotic it is a translation of verbal signs
by the means of the signs of a non-verbal system. Occurs when one
translates a text into music, film, etc. Translation studies has become an
academic discipline due to the influence and needs and the nature of the
G-T teaching method, comparative literature and contrastive linguistics. In
the US it was promoted in the 60-s especially literary translation through
translation workshops, because comparative literature needed translation
since literature is studied across cultures and literary traditions. Another
area which had an impact on translation studies is contrastive analysis
which is the study of two languages in contrast. In an attempt to identify
general and specific similarities and differences between them. The first
profound account of translation studies was given by James Holmes who
described the nature of translation studies (TS). The description of these
studies is the following: on a most general scale TS are divided into pure
and applied. Pure TS are divided into theoretical and descriptive.
Theoretical TS is divided into general and partial, and finally partial
theoretical pure TS is divided into 1. Medium-restricted 2. Area restricted
3. Rank restricted 4. Text-type restricted 5. Time-restricted 6. Problemrestricted. Descriptive TS is divided into product oriented, process
oriented, function oriented. Finally applied TS is divided into translation
training, translation aids, and translation criticism. General theoretical TS
deals with the descriptions which would involve every type of translation
in order to generalize about the translation as a whole. Partial theoretical
is restricted according to the following parameters: medium restricted TS
refers to the medium through which translation is produced which in
modern times usually refers to human and machine or it may also refer to
whether the translation is written or oral and whether oral is simultaneous
or consecutive. Area restricted TS is restricted to specific languages or
specific cultures ( zasto se prevode neke knjige a ne neke druge). This
area restricted studies may also relate to cultural studies, contrastive
linguistics and stylistic studies. Rank restricted is restricted by the
linguistic level by which something is translated. There are studies which
were primarily concerned with translating words, some others are
concerned with translating sentences and others are concerned with
translating texts. Text type restricted studies deal with specific types of
texts, technological, scientific, literary, poetry, drama, manuals, and
specific discourse register and computers and in that sense the most
prominent types of TS are literary, technological, and business. Time
restricted means that it is restricted to specific period and involves the

history of translation. Problem restricted deals with translation problems

such as equivalence or translation universals which may apply to all
languages. Descriptive TS which are product oriented examine existing
translations and it involves the analyzing and describing a pair of source
text and target text. Function oriented descriptive TS deals with the
function that translation may have in the recipient language community
and it promotes the study of context, so that they are in a way
sociologically oriented. Process oriented descriptive TS is concerned with
psychology of the translation that is with what is going in the mind of
translator while translating. Applied TS includes translation training such
as teaching methods, testing technologies and circular design. Translation
aids includes dictionaries and information technology. Translation criticism
includes the evaluation of translation and reviews of published
translations.

Translation studies week 2

A professional translator has access to:

target language knowledge
text type knowledge (has to be able to discern between different
types of texts linguistic and textual features)
source language knowledge (be fluent in the language he translates
from; subject area knowledge (especially technical translation))
extralinguistic knowledge, encyclopedic, real-world
contrastive (to differentiate the features of 2 languages)

Translation competence involves:

Grammatical competence the knowledge of the grammatical rules
of both languages, including vocabulary, word-formation, spelling,
sentence structure syntax; necessary to express and understand
the literal meaning of utterance
Discourse competence the ability to combine form and meaning to
produce unified spoken or written texts in different genres; this
competence involves achieving cohesion in form necessary for
producing well-structured sentences by means of grammatical
elements, which facilitates the interpretation of text (pronouns,
logical connectors, discourse markers) and achieving coherence in
meaning the relationship between different meanings in a text

which adds to the logic of the content; also involves achieving

communicative functions in different types of discourse
Sociolinguistic competence the ability to understand and produce
utterances in a specific social context; the context is limited by
topic, the social status or roles of participants and by the purpose of
the communicative act or the function of the text
Communicative competence (in both languages) the translator has
to be able to comprehend the text in the source language and
express his ideas in the target language
Extralinguistic competence the knowledge of the theory of
translation, translation procedures/methods, linguistic fields, cultural
knowledge, encyclopedic knowledge
Transfer competence involves the ability to perform the process of
transfer of form and content from the target language to the source
language and vice versa by choosing the most appropriate
translation method and procedure
Professional competence the knowledge and skills related to
translation practice the use of new technologies, dictionaries,
machine-readable texts, the use of new translation policy and
professional conduct
Strategic competence the translator has to have a strategy when
solving problems he encounters during the translation process;
involves detecting problems, decision-making in solving the
problems and revising his own translation and correcting errors
Psycho-physiological cognitive faculties (logical thought,
memorizing, creativity, critical judgement
Literary competence the ability needed to interpret literary texts

Translation competence is comprehensive knowledge of the source and

target language including the pragmatic dimensions and the ability to
integrate the 2 monolingual competences on a higher level

Translator
o a born bilingual person is not necessarily a translator because he
may lack analytical skills in analytical and linguistical sense since he
may not be well-acquainted what are and he may not be able to
easily decide upon what linguistical unit should be in a given context
or translation process
o In terms of processing the source text there are different types of
processing techniques translators use

 Contextual global translators prefer translating texts (both

spoken and written) where minute accuracy is not important but a
general appropriateness escort (?) interpreters prefer literary over
technical translation
Linear translator prefer specializing in a specific subject area
Sequential translator prefers translating or interpreting at meetings
where speakers have prepared texts, so that they themselves are
prepared and they avoid spontaneous contexts (for example court
interpreting dont know what the speaker will say)
Abstract translator prefer working in academic contexts where they
teach translation and translation theory
Concrete translators prefer to process the source text on their own
and in that way they learn to translate on their own rather than
being taught how to translate; try to master translation process by
learning how to do it, through trial and error

Translation process:
- translate
- edit
- sublimate

1st Translator acts and probably translates intuitively by relying on his

translation competence
2nd Translator thinks about what he has done, tests his solutions against
what he knows about the 2 languages (subject matter, reading
audience) and corrects errors
3rd Translator sublimates what he has learned from the process so that
translating eventually becomes his 2nd nature

The phases suggest that the translator is at the same time:

1 a professional as he solves complicated linguistic and translation
problems by applying appropriate procedures
2 a learner who solves problems on a daily bases which ensures
personal and professional growth expertise and interest

The aim of the process of translation it should include reproducing as

closely and accurately as possible lexical and grammatical features at the
source text by finding adequate equivalents in the target language and at
the same time preserving factual information of the source text (he should
retain the form and content of the source text)

Translation process:
1 Translation means rendering the meaning of the text into another
language in a way that the author intended the text
2 rendering the source text into the target text to ensure that:
the meaning of the 2 will be similar
the structures of the source text will be preserved as closely as
possible, but not so closely that the target language structures
will be distorted

The extent to which the source text features are preserved 2 methods:
semantic translation concentrates on aesthetic values and
preserves the authors individual language and cultural components
communicative translation concentrates on the message and its
aim is to retain the original purpose as closely as possible (uputstva,
udbenici)

Textual approach to translation

o originates in the systematic functional linguistics and text linguistics
which is concerned with the analysis of written texts; by the
influence of text linguistics the focus on word and sentence as
translation units has moved on to the text itself

Text linguistics interested in how texts function as internally coherent

systems and how texts function in larger sociological contexts. It is closely
related to discourse analysis and literary criticism ( how texts create
meaning and how these meanings provide insight into other aspects of
culture and society
* studies texts in 2 ways:

 as a product within text grammar

as a process within the theory of texts
* From the product study they study cohesion, coherence, the
organization of the topic and its communicative function. From the
process studies it studies text production and interpretation

Trece predavanje 01.11.13. Translation errors

The origin of a translation error is usually translation problem which has

not been shown appropriately. This omission can occur at any stage of
translation process meaning that it can occur even in the phase reading
comprehension of the source text and the errors also, indicate the
appropriateness of the techniques the translator uses or competence or
incompetence. Very often translator mistakes of linguistic solutions for
translational solution, which means that in translation what is linguistically
equivalent is not necessarily translational equivalent this is because the
process of translation is complex and demanding and involve numerous
factors which do not include only linguistic equivalent. The possible
sources of translation errors may be inappropriate rendering, translations
which affect the target text on a larger scale to the extent that it may be
misunderstood, such renderings affect the content of the target text and
include countersense (nonsense, addition/omission of information). Loss of
meaning and inappropriate linguistic variation in style, dialect, register,
etc., and to inappropriate renderings which affect the expression in the
target language and they include spelling, grammar, vocabulary, text and
style. By some other criterion errors are divided also into 2 groups into
referential and linguistic. Referential mistakes include mistakes related to
information or facts about the real world; whereas, linguistic mistakes
stem from the translators lack of proficiency in the target language.
Translation evaluation has suggested that there are 4 categories of the
sources of errors: 1) correct interpretation and incorrect translation. It
suggests that the translator has produced translation which has errors due
to his lack of communicative competence which is required for
comprehension of any text in the source language. 2) Incorrect
interpretation and incorrect translation. This kind of translation that is the
target text has errors at 2 levels and the level of the comprehension of the
source text and the level of proficiency of the target language. 3) Incorrect
interpretation and the omission of translation, 4) relationship, correct
interpretation and correct translation no source of errors. In this case of
the correct interpretation and correct translation the translator correctly

interprets the content of the source text and correctly translates into the
target language. Types of translation errors: 1) misinterpretation the
information loss or distortion caused by the comprehension of the source
text or the lack of cultural knowledge, 2) incorrect meaning occurs when
meaning is attributed to a word or a segment of the source text which it
doesnt have, 3) false friend which is a word of the source language in its
form resembles the word in the target language but whose meaning is
completely different, 4) interferences (negative) introduction of the
feature of the source language into the target text (structure recenica), 5)
loss a disappearance of an element of meaning of the source text which
results in the reduction of the form of the expression, in the reduction of
stylistic features in the target language (kitnjasto flowery), 6) omission
is a failure to translate a necessary element of information from the source
text, 7) undertransaltion is the exclusion of any explanation or
amplification from the source text. 8) Over-translation is the addition of an
unnecessary explanation of a source text segment that should have
remained implicit. 9) addition occurs when the translator adds
information or a stylistic feature to the target text which is non-existent in
the source text.
Translation quality assessment
This kind of assessment evaluated the quality of translated texts usually to
measure the efficiency of the text with regard to the syntactic, semantic
and pragmatic function of the source text within the given context either
social or cultural, and with regard to expressive potentials of both the
source and the target language. There are several parameters by which
one may access the quality of translation. 1) Text function and textual
features through which one compares the structures of the source text and
target text, the narratives and the function they have. If the source text is
didactic the target text should have the same function. 2) Formal
correspondence involves the comparison of the arrangement of textual
elements in both texts, division into paragraphs and punctuation. 3)
Coherence involves a comparison of the logical structure of the elements
of the logical structure of the elements of the content and the logical line
or reasoning in both texts. 4) Cohesion - involves comparison of pragmatic
or discoursal elements of textual organization such as pronouns,
demonstrative pronouns, conjunctions, logical connectors. 5) Pragmatic
parameters through which one compares the texts with regard to their
intended effect or purpose so the target text should have the same effect
as the source text. 6) Lexical properties through which the texts may be
compared with regard to the lexical meaning, connotation, emotions, or
with regard to social variations: such as jargon, collocational language

formal language, and so on. 7) Syntactic property involves word order,

tense, sentence structure, etc.
Textual approach
Text can be understood as an instance of spoken or written language use
and is a relatively self-contained unit of communication. There are seven
criteria of textuality which are the principles of communication through
texts. These are: cohesion, coherence, intentionality, acceptability,
informativity, situationality and intertextuality. There are also some basic
principles of textual communication which are : efficiency, effectiveness,
appropriateness. The principle of efficiency requires that the text should
be used with a minimum effort. The principle of effectiveness requires that
the text should leave an impression on the reader, so that it presupposes
the use of creative language whereas the principle of efficiency
presupposes the use of simple language. In some cases however texts
which meet the effectiveness principle may produce the communication
breakdown. The principle of appropriateness requires a kind of balance
between the previous two principles.
Cohesion
It refers to the way in which linguistic elements of a text are meaningfully
interconnected in a sequence. It is carried out by means of preference
which includes personal pronouns and demonstrative pronouns, lexical
cohesion / organization which includes synonymous lexemes of the same
lexical field, conjunctions such as but, yet, because, since, and so on.
Coherence
It is a sub-surface level of textual organization. It is concerned with the
way in which meanings or ideas of concepts are established in a text and
developed further. This includes relations such as cause and consequence
manifested by and, so; condition-consequence relation realized by if,
unless; the relation of contrast such as however, although; the relation of
addition furthermore, moreover; instrument and achievement by, by
means of.
Intentionallity
It refers to the intention of the sender of the message of the author.
Coherent, reasonable text to achieve a certain goal so that the text
performs a certain function
Acceptability

It relates to the receivers expectations that the text should be of some

relevance to them.
Informativity
If the text is acceptable for he receiver than it is in a way informative in
the given situation.
Situationallity
If the text is acceptable and informative, it is applicable to the given
situation. If the text has this feature of situationallity, than the author is
concerned with the situation which the text may be relevant
Intertextuality
Refers to the way in which the use of some texts affects the use and
knowledge of some other texts. It affects the use and acceptance of the
given text.
Generally this approach views use text as the minimum unit of
communication (narodna knjizevnost, forma I reci, brzalice) text types
the type of a text in translation is important because it is a kind of a
guideline for applying a certain translation strategy.
Functional approach
It is especially dominant with the German translation exports and
translators. Within this approach K. Rei insisted upon the equivalence
between the source text and the target text by viewing the text as the key
level at which the communication takes place, and at which the
equivalence may be achieved. She has clarified different types of texts
according to the function they have in the situation they are used. The
functions of the text are the following:
1.
Informative based on playing communication of facts. Such texts
contain pieces of information on a subject (scientific knowledge and
opinion). The language used to translate such informative texts should not
be metaphorical but logical and referential. The focus should be on the
topic of the source text.
2.
Expressive quite opposite to the previous one. Centered around the
creative composition, creativity in expressive texts. the author does not
use the referential or informative potential of the text but its esthetic
dimension so focus is not on the content but on the form to a smaller
extent and on the expression on the larger extent (expression of feelings).

3.
Operative texts demand operation. Such texts require some action
on the part of the reader. They appeal to thereader in a sense that they
read the text as a kind of instruction or to do (how to behave) For
example recipes, instructions for use, manuals. Such texts are usually
written in a form of imaginary dialog.
4.
Audio-medial texts such as films, adds, visual and spoken, in which
linguistic forms are supplemented with images, sound, music and such.
Depending on the text type K. Rei suggests specific methods to apply in
translation : 1. The translation of informative text should transmit the full
content of the target text with all the references and the contents. It
should be in plain prose, without redundant information, and with some
explanation if needed, meaning it should use more words if necessary to
preserve the information provided.
2. The translation of an expressive text should transmit the esthetic and
artistic form of the source text in a way that translator should adopt the
standpoint or the voice of the author of the source text.
3. The translation of operative text should produce the desired response in
the reader of the translation just as the source text did in the reader.
4. The translation of audio-medial text should also be accompanied by
audio-visual supplements. The followers of the functional approach to
translation developed the so called Skopos theory. (u prevodu sa grckog
znaci purpose). What is important in this theory is not the form but the
purpose the translation has when produced and the purpose of the
translation action taken. This theory specifically applies to technical texts
whose purpose determined the methods and techniques of translation and
the translator should produce the text which is functionally adequate for
the given situation/aim. What is crucial for the translator is not the form /
vocabulary / grammar/ the voice of the author, but the reason why the
source text is to be translated, and what is the purpose of the target text
or translation. Within this theory there are certain rules, for example, the
translation text must be internally coherent, the target text must be
coherent with the source text if the purpose of the target text demands so
the information of the culture of the source text may be omitted or left out.
The relevance of coherence is indicated by the so called coherence rule
which says that the target text should be interpreted so as to be coherent
with the receivers situation that it must be of semblance, logical, so that in
the given circumstances and in regard to their --- the receivers should be
able to understand it so that the text fulfills its purpose. Nord has
discussed 2 types of translation methods which depend on the function or
the purpose of the text. These are documentary and instrumental. In

documentary texts the target text should serve as a document of a source

text culture. It allows for almost no modification of the source text.
Documentary text is used in literary translations, in which the reader of
the translation should have access to the ideas of the source text , and the
authors standpoint. In such translations the linguistic items such as
vocabulary are retained and translation retains the local colour of the
source text culture and society. Instrumental translation should serve as a
message which is independent from the source text and its culture. It
should fulfill its purpose without the reader being aware of that it is
translation. The text should read as if it is the original. For example, the
translation of the computer manual in Serbian should also instruct the
reader as it did with the English readers. This instrumental translation is
also a kind of functional preserving translation method. This translation is
for example applied to the translation of brochures, travel guides, guide
books. Sometimes the translation is instrumental if it is concerned with
adapting the text to the certain kind of audience (the translation of
Gullivers travels for children).

29.11.13. Cognitive Pragmatic Approach

Relevance theory (RT)
From the perspective of RT translation is an example of a communication
centered around a cause and effect model which promotes the processes
inter-protection and inferences (citanje izmedju redova, namece se
implicitno). Successful communication bearing in mind that translation is a
kind of communication as well depends on the speakers or writers
making sure that his/her intention to inform is grasped by the receiver.
This is said to be that this is achieved by making the stimulants which is
words, gestures, intonation, optimally relevant to the extent necessary for
the receiver to derive. Adequate effect without spending unnecessary
effort to the principle guiding a successful communication is the maximum
effect with minimum effort. Mainly the speaker or the writer gives the so
called communicative clues which make the inferencing possible.
Translators are also faced with the similar situation while translating and
by deciding what is actually relevant in a text they have the following
possibilities: they need to decide whether it is possible and how it
impossible to retain and transfer the informative intention of the writer,
whether to translate descriptively or interpretively and at what the degree
is the target text resemblance to the source text should be. These
decisions are based on the translators ability to evaluate the cognitive
environment of the reader to succeed in translation and communication.
The translator must share some basic assumptions with the reader and his

intention must agree with a readers expectations. Regarding the cognitive

sight of this approach we can say that the translation studies and the
translation process have shifted its focus from text to mental process, to
cognition, to understanding. Translation is seen as a special instance of
communication which largely depends on the decision making of the
translator which depends on his inferences. The process of inferencing is
crucial cognitive activity in any act of domination such as reading and
translating. Inferencing means deriving conclusions from evidence and
ones line of reasoning rather than from explicit statement. To understand
what is on hearers, readers and translators engage in inferencing speaking
of translation. Satisfactory translation must guide the receivers of the
translation towards appropriate inferences and therefore the translator
must decide what to say and how to say to achieve the goal. Example:
Dickens: It was the best of times it was the worst of times. The process
of inferencing presupposes the relevance of context in this case the
context is mental, cognitive rather than situational or cultural and it
involves assumptions. So these assumptions make the cognitive
environment. If the writer and the reader or the translator or the writer
and the translator share this cognitive environment it means that they
share assumptions on a certain topic, event. Then the translation will be
successful and the translator will not be involved in unnecessary effort
also if translator and the receiver of the translation share relevant
assumptions then the receiver of the translation will not be involved in the
unnecessary effort. When deciding which steps to take that is which
strategy to apply the translator can choose between the direct and the
indirect translation. This difference between the two refers to the
situations in which the translator is either free to elaborate or summarize
or he has to stick closely to the content of the text. Translations which are
done by means of indirect translating should survive on their own and
involve any change which the translator considers necessary to maximize
the relevance for the readers. The most important relationship between
the source text and the target text is not in the formal similarities,
according to this theory, of their formal features but in the resemblance of
their intended interpretation which is achieved through communicative
clues which the translator has to take notice of, interpret and transfer to
the target text so that the interpretation of the source text is the same as
of the target text of the translation. In guiding the reader in the process of
inferencing, i.e. what is relevant, stylistic features are also important, not
in themselves, not as aesthetic or expressive elements, but as
communicative clues. Speaking of communicative clues relevance theory
places great importance on the stimulus which triggers the process of
inferencing and has an effort on the success of the communication. It
considers such stimulus as an element of communication which

yields/provides cognitive effect in the sense of applied meaning. Speaking

of language stimulus is regarded important due to its specific linguistic
features or phonic substance as in poetry for example, a communicative
clue is also stress in some languages through which the speaker achieves
emphasis. For example, some communicative clues which are not
attainable in the target language can be substituted by communicative
clues of different kind, of different structure. For example, stress from the
source language can be substituted by some syntactic means, for
example, by wh-sentences such as what is important is or what is impaired
in him is his hearing, or cleft sentences - it is his hearing that is impaired.
It is the setting of the scene that is significant.