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VariableFrequencyDrives
By:VincentW.Wedelich
ACInductionMotors
MotorEfficiencyandAssessment
MotorControllers
Harmonics
ApplicationConsiderations
AC motors convert AC electrical energy to Mechanical energy.
Induction
Motors
For industrial
applications, the
three-phase
induction motor is
used to drive
machines
Large three-phase
induction motor.
(Courtesy
Siemens).
Housing
Motor
Electrical
system
e, i
Electric
Machine
Mechanical
system
T, n
Motor
Energy flow
Generator
An electrical machine is link between an electrical

system and a mechanical system.
Conversion from mechanical to electrical: generator
Conversion from electrical to mechanical: motor
5
Single Phase Induction Motors

Three Types of Capacitor Start Motors
1.
Capacitor Start (disconnects capacitor after motor

speed picks up)
2.
Capacitor Run (Keeps the capacitor connected

during the operation of the motor, in order to keep the
electric power consumption low)
3.
Capacitor Start-Run (uses two capacitors, one for

starting and one for running. This further improves
Power Consumption)
Motor Construction
The Stator
The stator forms a hollow cylinder with coils of insulated wire

inserted into slots of the stator core.
The coils, plus the steel core form the electromagnets.
Motor Construction The Rotor
There are two types of motor rotors:

The wound rotor
The squirrel cage
The wound rotor has coils of wire wound in the slots of the rotor
(Similar to generator coils).
The Squirrel cage consists of bars of copper or aluminum
electrically connected at each end with conducting rings.
As the rotor rotates inside a magnetic field, it receives
electromagnetic induction, then current flows and form the rotor
electromagnet.
Types of Motor Enclosures

1.
ODP Open Drip Proof
2.
TENV Totally Enclosed Non-Ventilating
3.
TEFC Totally enclosed Fan Cooled
4.
XP Explosion Proof
ODP Open Drip Proof

Air flows through motor (fan blades help flow)
Used in environments free from contaminants
10
TENV Totally Enclosed Non-Ventilating

Protect motor from corrosive and harmful elements
Frame fins help to dissipate heat
11
TEFC Totally enclosed Fan Cooled

Similar to TENV except has external fan for cooling
12
XP Explosion Proof
Similar to TEFC but enclosures are cast iron
13
Three Phase AC Motor
It has three pairs of electromagnets, connected to one of the three

phases of the power supply.
It provides a lot higher power that what single phase motor can
deliver.
14
Induction Machines
Construction
15
AC Motor Data Plate
Each motor has a plate mounted on its frame, with electrical and
mechanical information
16
1.Whichofthefollowingisleastlikelytobe
foundonaninductionmotornameplate:
a)frequency
b)motorweight
c)fullloadcurrent
d)rpm
foundonaninductionmotornameplate?
a)fullloadp.f.
b)designcode
c)frequency
d)fullloadcurrent
8.A60HzACmotorisrunningat1178rpmsat
halfload.Themotorhashowmanypoles?
a)2
b)4
c)6
d)8
foundonaninductionmotornameplate?
a)fullloadrpm
b)fullloadhp
c)fullloadcurrent
d)fullloadtorque
Amotornameplateindicatesthefollowing:
HP=50ServiceFactor=1.25Voltage=460
Current=53RPM=1145CodeLetter=BPhases
=3DesignLetter=B
TemperatureRise=25 FFrequency60Hz
10.Thismotorhashowmanypoles?
a)8
b)6
c)4
d)2
=3DesignLetter=B
11.Themotormaximumhorsepoweris:
a)50
b)62.5
c)70
d)57.5
=3DesignLetter=B
12.Startingcurrentatratedservicefactoris
mostnearly:
a)175
b)200
c)225
d)275
ThemotorhasinsulationclassFandaservice
factorof1.15.
Thismeansthatitswindingtemperatureis
allowedtoriseto155 Cwithanadditional
10 Chotspotallowance.
MotorLifevs.Temperature
Mostinsulatingmaterialshaveanegative
temperaturecoefficient;thatis,their
resistancedecreasesasthetemperature
increases.
Therefore,electricalstressesaremorelikelyto
causeinsulationfailureatelevated
temperatures.
Insulationagingmaybeattributable,afteryearsofservice,
tothermalweakening,evenatratednameplate
temperatures.
Thisprocessisgreatlyacceleratedbyoperationathigher
thannormalcurrentratingbecauseheatingincreasesas
thesquareofthecurrent.Continuedoperationatelevated
temperaturesproducesembrittlementandmechanical
deteriorationofinsulation.
Hence,currentnameplatevaluesareexceededatthe
expenseofdecreasedinsulationlife.
Insulationdegradationisachemicalaction
andhighertemperaturesacceleratethis
process.
Arrhenius(IEEEC57.911981paragraph3.4.3)
expressedthechemicalreactionratebythe
followingequation:
T=Absolutetemperatureindegreeskelvin,(C
+273)usingthetemperatureatthehottest
spotinthewinding.
AandB=Constantsthatvarywiththetype
insulationsystem.TypicalvaluesforaClassA
insulationwouldbeA=11.968andB=
6328.8.
Althoughtheabovegivesageneralfeelforlife
expectancyduetotemperaturechanges,
othervariablessuchasvibration,moisture,
switchingsurges,etc.mustbefactoredinto
determinetheactuallife.
NEMAMotorDesign
NEMAalsousesletters(A,B,C,andD)toidentify
motordesignsbasedontorquecharacteristics.
ThemotorisadesignBmotor,themostcommon
type.
MotordesignAistheleastcommontype.
ThecharacteristicsofmotordesignsB,CandD
arediscussedinthiscourse.
SpeedTorqueCurveforNEMAB
Motor
Becausemotortorquevarieswithspeed,the
relationshipbetweenspeedandtorqueisoften
showninagraph,
calledaspeedtorquecurve.
Thiscurveshowsthemotorstorque,asa
percentageoffullloadtorque,overthemotors
fullspeedrange,shownasapercentageofits
synchronousspeed.
TorqueandMagneticFields
Torque,moment ormomentofforce isthe
tendencyofaforcetorotateanobjectaboutan
axis,fulcrum,orpivot.
Justasaforceisapushorapull,atorquecanbe
thoughtofasatwisttoanobject.
Mathematically,torqueisdefinedasthecross
productoftheleverarmdistanceandforce,
whichtendstoproducerotation.
Looselyspeaking,torqueisameasureofthe
turningforceonanobjectsuchasaboltora
flywheel.
Forexample,pushingorpullingthehandleof
awrenchconnectedtoanutorboltproduces
atorque(turningforce)thatloosensor
tightensthenutorbolt.
Thesymbolfortorqueistypically,theGreek
lettertau.Whenitiscalledmoment,itis
commonlydenotedM.
Themagnitudeoftorquedependsonthree
quantities:
theforceapplied,
thelengthoftheleverarm connectingtheaxistothe
pointofforceapplication,
andtheanglebetweentheforcevectorandthelever
arm.Insymbols:
Machinetorque
Torqueispartofthebasicspecificationofanengine:
thepoweroutputofanengineisexpressedasits
torquemultipliedbyitsrotationalspeedoftheaxis.
Internalcombustionenginesproduceusefultorque
onlyoveralimitedrangeofrotationalspeeds(typically
fromaround1,0006,000rpmforasmallcar).
Thevaryingtorqueoutputoverthatrangecanbe
measuredwithadynamometer,andshownasatorque
curve.
Torquemultiplier
Atorquemultiplierisagearboxwith
reductionratiosgreaterthan1.Thegiven
torqueattheinputgetsmultipliedasperthe
reductionratioandtransmittedtotheoutput,
therebyachievinggreatertorque,butwith
reducedrotationalspeed.
ACInductionMotors
MotorControllers
Harmonics
EfficiencyGains
Wemayviewthissystemasveryinefficient.
Wearelockedintowhateverefficiencies
themotorcanprovide,givenasomewhat
variableamountofloading.
Ifthemotorhappenedtobeanalternating
current(AC)motor,typically,thefollowing
wouldbetrue:
1. Themoreloadonamotor,themore
efficientthatmotoris.
2. Thehigherthemotorshorsepower(HP)
rating,thehighertheefficiency.
3. Thehighertheoperatingspeed,themore
efficientthemotor.
Constantandvariabletorqueload
Three types of Motor Load
Introduction
Motor loads
Description
Examples
Constant torque Output power varies but

loads
torque is constant
Conveyors, rotary kilns,

constant-displacement
pumps
Variable torque
loads
Centrifugal pumps, fans
Torque varies with square

of operation speed
Constant power Torque changes inversely

loads
with speed
Machine tools
Type of Electric Motors
Classification of Motors
Electric Motors
Alternating Current (AC)

Motors
Synchronous
Induction
Single-Phase
Three-Phase
Direct Current (DC)

Motors
Self Excited
Separately
Excited
Series
Compound
Shunt
DC Motors Components
Field pole
North pole and south pole
Receive electricity to form
magnetic field
Armature
Cylinder between the poles
Electromagnet when current goes through
Linked to drive shaft to drive the load
Commutator
Overturns current direction in armature

DC motors
Speed control without impact power
supply quality
Changing armature voltage
Changing field current
Restricted use
Few low/medium speed applications
Clean, non-hazardous areas
Expensive compared to AC motors
DC Machines
Construction
78

AC Motors
Electrical current reverses direction
Two parts: stator and rotor
Stator: stationary electrical component
Rotor: rotates the motor shaft
Speed difficult to control

Two types
Synchronous motor
Induction motor
AC Motors Synchronous motor
Constant speed fixed by system frequency

DC for excitation and low starting torque:
suited for low load applications
Can improve power factor: suited for high
electricity use systems
Synchronous speed (Ns):
Ns = 120 f / P
F = supply frequency
P = number of poles

AC Motors Induction motor
Most common motors in industry
Advantages:
Simple design
Inexpensive
High power to weight ratio
Easy to maintain
Direct connection to AC power source

Single-phase induction motor
One stator winding
Single-phase power supply
Squirrel cage rotor
Require device to start motor
3 to 4 HP applications
Household appliances: fans, washing machines,

dryers

Three-phase induction motor
Three-phase supply produces magnetic field

Squirrel cage or wound rotor
Self-starting
High power capabilities
1/3 to hundreds HP applications: pumps,
compressors, conveyor belts, grinders
70% of motors in industry!
Aslipring isan
electromechanicaldevice
thatallowsthetransmission
ofpowerandelectrical
signalsfromastationarytoa
rotatingstructure.Aslipring
canbeusedinany
electromechanicalsystem
thatrequiresunrestrained,
intermittentorcontinuous
rotationwhiletransmitting
powerand/ordata.Itcan
improvemechanical
performance,simplify
systemoperationand
eliminatedamageprone
wiresdanglingfrommovable
joints.

Speed and slip
Motor never runs at synchronous speed

but lower base speed
Difference is slip
Install slip ring to avoid this
Calculate % slip:
% Slip = Ns Nb x 100
Ns
Ns = synchronous speed in RPM

Nb = base speed in RPM
Assessment of Electric Motors

Efficiency of Electric Motors
Motors loose energy when serving a load
Fixed loss
Rotor loss
Stator loss
Friction and rewinding
Stray load loss
Factors that influence efficiency

Age
Capacity
Speed
Type
Temperature
Rewinding
Load

Motor part load efficiency
Designed for 50-100% load
Most efficient at 75% load
Rapid drop below 50% load

Motor Load
Motor load is indicator of efficiency
Equation to determine load:
Load =
HP
Load
Pi
Pi x HP x 0.7457
= Motor operating efficiency in %
= Nameplate rated horse power
= Output power as a % of rated power
= Three phase power in kW
Motor Load
Three methods for individual motors

Input power measurement
Ratio input power and rate power at 100%
loading
Line current measurement

Compare measured amperage with rated
amperage
Slip method
Compare slip at operation with slip at full load

Motor Load
Three steps for three-phase motors
Step 1. Determine the input power:
Pi
V x I x PF x 3
1000
Pi
V
I
PF
= Three Phase power in kW

= RMS Voltage, mean line to
line of 3 Phases
= RMS Current, mean of 3 phases
= Power factor as Decimal

Motor Load
Step 2. Determine the rated power:
Pr hp x
0.7457
Pr
hp
r
= Input Power at Full Rated load in kW

= Name plate Rated Horse Power
= Efficiency at Full Rated Load
Step 3. Determine the percentage load:
Pi
Load
x 100%
Pr
Load = Output Power as a % of Rated Power

Pi
= Measured Three Phase power in kW
Pr
= Input Power at Full Rated load in kW

Motor Load
Result
Action
1. Significantly
oversized and
under loaded
Replace with more efficient,

properly sized models
2. Moderately
oversized and
under loaded
Replace with more efficient,

properly sized models when
they fail
3. Properly sized but

standard efficiency
Replace most of these with

energy-efficient models when
they fail
Energy Efficiency Opportunities

1. Use energy efficient motors
2. Reduce under-loading (and avoid oversized motors)
3. Size to variable load
4. Improve power quality
5. Rewinding
6. Power factor correction by capacitors
7. Improve maintenance
8. Speed control of induction motor

Use Energy Efficient Motors
Reduce intrinsic motor losses
Efficiency 3-7% higher
Wide range of ratings
More expensive but
rapid payback
Best to replace when
existing motors fail

Use Energy Efficient Motors
Power Loss Area
Efficiency Improvement
1. Fixed loss (iron)
Use of thinner gauge, lower loss core steel reduces eddy

current losses. Longer core adds more steel to the design,
which reduces losses due to lower operating flux densities.
2. Stator I2R
Use of more copper & larger conductors increases cross

sectional area of stator windings. This lower resistance (R)
of the windings & reduces losses due to current flow (I)
3 Rotor I2R
Use of larger rotor conductor bars increases size of cross

section, lowering conductor resistance (R) & losses due to
current flow (I)
4 Friction & Winding
Use of low loss fan design reduces losses due to air

movement
5. Stray Load Loss
Use of optimized design & strict quality control procedures

minimizes stray load losses

2. Reduce Under-loading
Reasons for under-loading
Large safety factor when selecting motor
Under-utilization of equipment
Maintain outputs at desired level even at low input
voltages
High starting torque is required
Consequences of under-loading
Increased motor losses
Reduced motor efficiency
Reduced power factor

2. Reduce Under-loading
Replace with smaller motor
If motor operates at <50%
Not if motor operates at 60-70%
Operate in star mode

If motors consistently operate at <40%
Inexpensive and effective
Motor electrically downsized by wire
reconfiguration
Motor speed and voltage reduction but unchanged
performance

3. Sizing to Variable Load
Motor selection based on
Motorshave
servicefactor
of15%above
ratedload
Highest anticipated load: expensive and risk of

under-loading
Slightly lower than highest load: occasional

overloading for short periods
But avoid risk of overheating due to

Extreme load changes
Frequent / long periods of overloading
Inability of motor to cool down

4. Improve Power Quality
Motor performance affected by
Poor power quality: too high fluctuations in voltage

and frequency
Voltage unbalance: unequal voltages to three

phases of motor
Example 1
Example 2
Example
3
Voltage unbalance (%)
0.30
2.30
5.40
Unbalance in current (%)
0.4
17.7
40.0
30
40
Temperature increase
(oC)

4. Improve Power Quality
Keep voltage unbalance within 1%

Balance single phase loads equally
among three phases
Segregate single phase loads and feed
them into separate line/transformer

5. Rewinding
Rewinding: sometimes 50% of motors

Can reduce motor efficiency
Maintain efficiency after rewinding by
Using qualified/certified firm
Maintain original motor design
Replace 40HP, >15 year old motors instead of
rewinding
Buy new motor if costs are less than 50-65% of
rewinding costs

6. Improve Power Factor (PF)
Use capacitors for induction motors
Benefits of improved PF
Reduced kVA
Reduced losses
Improved voltage regulation
Increased efficiency of plant electrical system
Capacitor size not >90% of no-load

kVAR of motor

7. Maintenance
Checklist to maintain motor efficiency

Inspect motors regularly for wear, dirt/dust
Checking motor loads for over/under loading
Lubricate appropriately
Check alignment of motor and equipment
Ensure supply wiring and terminal box and properly
sized and installed
Provide adequate ventilation

8. Speed Control of Induction Motor
Multi-speed motors
Limited speed control: 2 4 fixed speeds
Wound rotor motor drives

Specifically constructed motor
Variable resistors to control torque performance
>300 HP most common

Variable speed drives (VSDs)
Also called inverters
Several kW to 750 kW
Change speed of induction motors
Can be installed in existing system
Reduce electricity by >50% in fans and pumps
Convert 50Hz incoming power to variable
frequency and voltage: change speed
Three types

Direct Current Drives
Oldest form of electrical speed control
Consists of
DC motor: field windings and armature
Controller: regulates DC voltage to armature that
controls motor speed
Tacho-generator: gives feedback signal to
controlled
Synchronous Machines
Construction
108
Classificationof
ACRotatingMachines
Synchronous Machines:
Synchronous Generators: A primary source of electrical
energy
Synchronous Motors: Used as motors as well as power
factor compensators (synchronous condensers)
Asynchronous (Induction) Machines:
Induction Motors: Most widely used electrical motors in
both domestic and industrial applications.
Induction Generators: Due to lack of a separate field
excitation, these machines are rarely used as
generators.
109
SynchronousMachine
Unlike induction machines, the rotating air gap field and the
rotor rotate at the same speed, called the synchronous speed.
Synchronous machines are used primarily as generators of
electrical power, called synchronous generators or alternators.
They are usually large machines generating electrical power
at hydro, nuclear, or thermal power stations.
Application as a motor: pumps in generating stations, electric
clocks, timers, and so forth where constant speed is desired.
110
Synchronous Machines
Generator
Exciter
View of a two-pole round rotor generator and exciter
111
SynchronousMachine
Round Rotor Machine
The stator is a ring shaped

laminated iron-core with
slots.
Three phase windings are
placed in the slots.
Round solid iron rotor with
slots.
A single winding is placed in
the slots. Dc current is
supplied through slip rings.
112
Round Rotor Machine
113
SynchronousMachine
Salient Rotor Machine
The stator has a laminated ironcore with slots and three phase
windings placed in the slots.
The rotor has salient poles
excited by dc current.
DC current is supplied to the
rotor through slip-rings and
brushes.
114
Salient Rotor Machine
115
SynchronousGenerator
Principle of Operation
1) From an external source, the
field winding is supplied with
a DC current -> excitation.
2) Rotor (field) winding is
mechanically turned (rotated)
at synchronous speed.
3)Therotatingmagneticfield
producedbythefieldcurrent
inducesvoltagesintheouter
stator(armature)winding.The
frequencyofthesevoltagesisin
synchronismwiththerotorspeed.
116
ParallelOperationofSynchronous
Generator
Generators are rarely used in isolated situations.
More commonly, generators are used in parallel,
often massively in parallel, such as in the power grid.
The following steps must be adhered to:
When adding a generator to an existing power grid:
1) RMS line voltages of the two generators must be
the same.
2) Phase sequence must be the same.
3) Phase angles of the corresponding phases must
be the same.
4) Frequency must be the same.
117
Synchronous
Speed
ns =
120f
p
ns = synchronous speed [r/min]

f = frequency of supply [hertz/Hz]
P = total of magnetic pole
118
Slip and Slip Speed

The slip s of an induction motor is the difference between the
synchronous speed and the rotor speed, expressed as a
Percent (per unit) of synchronous speed
The per-unit slip is given by the equation
S=
ns - nr
ns
S = slip
ns = synchronous speed [r/min]
nr = rotor speed [r/min]
119
Voltage and frequency induced in the rotor

The voltage and frequency induced in the rotor both depend
on the slip. They are given by the following equation
f2 = s f
E2 = s Eoc (approx.)
f2 = frequency of the voltage and current in the rotor [Hz]
f = frequency of the source connected to the stator [Hz]
s = slip
E2 = voltage induced in the rotor at the slip s
Eoc = open-circuit voltage induced in the rotor when at rest [V]
120
Active Power in a Induction Motor
Efficiency () =
Poutput
Pinput
121
MotorTorque
Tm =
=
9.55 Pm
n
9.55 (1 s) Pr
ns (1 s)
= 9.55 Pr / ns
Tm = 9.55 Pr / ns
122
I2R lossesintherotor
Pjr = s Pr
Pjr = rotor I2R losses [W]
s = slip
Pr = power transmitted to the rotor [W]
MechanicalPower
Pm = Pr - Pjr
= Pr - s P r
= (1 s) Pr
123
Example1
Calculatethesynchronousspeedofa3phaseinduction
motorhaving20poleswhenitisconnectedtoa50Hz
source.
124
Knowingquantities:
Sourcefrequency=50Hz,numberofpoles=20
120 f
Synchronousspeedns =
p
=
120 x 50
20
ns = 300 r/min
125
Example2
A0.5hp,6poleinductionmotorisexcitedbya3phase,60Hz
source.Ifthefullloadis1140r/min,calculatetheslip.
126
Knowingquantities:
Sourcefrequency=60Hz,numberofpoles=6
Fullload/rotorspeed=1140r/min
120 f
Synchronousspeedns =
p
=
120 x 60
6
ns = 1200 r/min
127
Slipspeed:ns n=1200 1140=60r/min

Slip:s=(ns n)/ns
=60/1200
=0.05or5%
128
MeasurementofmotoroutputisbasedontheprinciplethatslipRPMislinearfromten
percentloadto110percentload
Thecurrentisreversed
ACInductionMotors
MotorControllers
Harmonics
ControlofElectricMotors
Types of Motor Controllers
MagneticUnits
o Contactors
o MotorStarters
SolidState
Programmable
VFD
Magnetic Controllers
Magnetic Controllers
Universallyused.
Madeupofcomponentssuchas:
o
o
o
o
o
o
RelaysorContactors:
MagneticCoils
ElectromagnetsandMovingArmatures
ContactsandArcingHorn
Springloadedcomponents(Pushbuttons)
Fuses
Timers
Interlocks
Switches
MainOperation:
o
OpensandClosesanElectricalCircuitbymeansofcontacts
MOTOR STARTER
Basically Made up of:
Contactor Special Relay containing coils, contacts,

pressure spring, arching horn, armature
Overload Protection
Undervoltage Release / Protection
Difference between a Contactor and a Motor Starter is the

added Overload Protection or Undervoltage release protection
in the Motor Starter.
Overload Protection
Implemented when overheating occurs.
Overheating causes:
Stalled Rotor
Low Voltage
Low Frequency (in the case of AC motor)
Unbalanced Voltages
THERMAL RELAY
Consists of:
Heater Element connected in series with Motor
Bimetallic Element Deflected by high heater temperature
Contacts Open when bimetallic element deflects
Reset Button manually closes contacts
See Current Time characteristics of a typical Thermal Overload Relay
Undervoltage Release and Under-voltage

Protection
Implemented when loss of power of low voltage occurs.
Undervoltage Release allows for the voltage to be restored

automatically.
Undervoltage Protection prevents automatic restarting when voltage

is restored.
Connection Wiring Diagram
It shows the Physical Layout.
It shows the Wire Connector numbers.
Darker lines usually depicts the power circuit.
Elementary Wiring or Ladder Diagram

It shows the power on vertical lines called RAILS.
It shows the components on horizontal lines called RUNGS.
Two sections:
o Power Circuit
o Control or Logic Circuit
Diagram Symbols
Diagram Symbols (Contd)
The Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)
Asemiconductordevicethatisamemberofa
familyofcontroldevicesknownasThyristors.
Theworkhorseoftheindustrialcontrolindustry.
Itsevolutionovertheyearshasyieldedadevice
thatislessexpensive,morereliable,andsmallerin
sizethaneverbefore.
Typicalapplicationsinclude:
DCMotorControl
GeneratorFieldRegulation
VariableFrequencyDrive
LightingSystemControl
The Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)
Athreeleaddevicewithananodeandacathode(aswithastandard
diode)plusathirdcontrolleadorgate.Asthenameimplies,itisa
rectifierwhichcanbecontrolled ormorecorrectly onethatcanbe
triggeredtotheON statebyapplyingasmallpositivevoltagetothe
gatelead.
OncegatedON,thetriggersignalmayberemovedandtheSCRwill
remainconductingaslongascurrentflowsthroughthedevice.
TheloadtobecontrolledbytheSCRisnormallyplacedintheanode
circuit.Seedrawingbelow.
The Gate-Turn-Off Device (GTO)
AnothermemberoftheThyristorFamilyistheGTO,orGate
TurnOffDevice.
Whilethiscomponenthasbeenaroundformanyyears,ithas
justrecentlyevolvedtothepointwhereitiscapableof
carryingthehighcurrentsrequiredformotorcontrolcircuitry.
UnliketheSCR,theGTOcanbeturnedONandOFFwitha
signalappliedtothegate.
Theturnonsignalisasmallpositivevoltage;theturnoff
signalisanegativecurrentpulse.
Itisnowfindingapplicationsintheoutputstageofmedium
voltage,highhorsepower,VariableFrequencyDrives.
The TRIAC (Triode for Alternating Current)
TheTRIACSymbol
ItsjustaBidirectionalSCR.
ItrepresentsSCRsconnectedbacktoback.
ACMotorControlutilizesTRIACinsteadofSCRsfor
control.
Circuits using SCR

CircuitbelowshowsanSCRcontrollingaLoadinaDC
Circtui.
Circuits using SCR (Contd)

ACDCCrowbar
Itisusedforovervoltageprotection.
ItconsistsofanSCRplacedinparallelwiththeoutputofaDCpowersupply,for
thepurposeofplacingadirectshortcircuitontheoutputofthatsupplyto
preventexcessivevoltagefromreachingtheload.
DamagetotheSCRandpowersupplyispreventedbythejudiciousplacementofa
fuseorsubstantialseriesresistanceaheadoftheSCRtolimitshortcircuitcurrent.
Circuits using SCR (Contd)

ACMotorSpeedControl
ThiscircuitwillallowyoutocontrolthespeedofanACmotor,forexamplean
electricdrill.
Thebridgerectifierproducesdcvoltagefromthe120vacline.Aportiononthis
currentpassesthroughthe10Kohmpot.
Thecircuitcomprisedofthe10kpot,thetwo100ohmresistorsandthe50uf
capacitorsdeliversgatedriveoftheSCR.
ThediodeD1protectsthecircuitfromreversevoltagespikes.Theratingsofthe
bridgerectifierandtheSCRshouldbe25ampsandPIV600volts.ThediodeD1
shouldberatedfor2ampswithPIVof600volts.
Thecircuitcanhandlealoadupto10amps.TheSCRshouldbeverywellheatsink.
PLCIntroductoryLaboratory
Designtheladderlogictocontrolthesystemshown
1.WhenPushbutton1isONANDpushbutton2isOFF,thebluelightturnsON.
2.AslongasPushbutton2isON,theredlightturnson.(independentlywhether
pushbutton1isONofOFF).
3.IfbothPushbuttonsareOFF,neitherlightturnson.
PB #1
BLUE
PLC
PB #2
RED
ACInductionMotors
MotorControllers
Harmonics
GTO
DarlingtonBipolarTransistors
Powerdeviceswitchingtimesand
circuitcardsrequired
Constanttorqueapplication
Variabletorqueapplication
HVAC
CourseContents
Systemdescriptionandoperation
WhatisaVariableFrequencyDrive
ACMotor
Controller
Operatorinterface
Driveoperation
Benefits
Energysavings
Controlperformance
VFDtypesandratings
Generictopologies
Controlplatforms
Loadtorqueandpowercharacteristics
Availablepowerratings
Drivesbymachines&detailedtopologies
Applicationconsiderations
AClineharmonics
Longleadeffects
Motorbearingcurrents
Dynamicbraking
Regenerativedrives
CommonlyUsedSolidStateSwitching
DevicesforPowerConverters.
Variablefrequencydrive
Avariablefrequencydrive(VFD)
adjustablefrequencydrive
variablespeeddrive
ACdrive
microdrive
inverterdrive
isatypeofadjustablespeeddriveusedin
electromechanicaldrivesystemstocontrol
ACmotorspeed
torquebyvaryingmotorinputfrequencyandvoltage.
VFDsareusedinapplicationsrangingfromsmall
appliancestothelargestofminemilldrivesand
compressors.
However,aboutathirdoftheworld'selectrical
energyisconsumedbyelectricmotorsinfixed
speedcentrifugalpump,fanandcompressor
applicationsandVFDs'globalmarketpenetration
forallapplicationsisstillrelativelysmall.
Thishighlightsespeciallysignificantenergy
efficiencyimprovementopportunitiesfor
retrofittedandnewVFDinstallations.
Overthelastfourdecades,powerelectronics
technologyhasreducedVFDcostandsizeand
improvedperformancethroughadvancesin
semiconductorswitchingdevices,drive
topologies,simulationandcontroltechniques,
andcontrolhardwareandsoftware.
VFDsareavailableinanumberofdifferent
lowandmediumvoltageACACandDCAC
topologies.
ACMotor
TheACelectricmotorusedinaVFDsystemis
usuallya threephase inductionmotor.
Sometypesof singlephasemotorscanbeused,
butthreephasemotorsareusuallypreferred.
Varioustypesof synchronousmotors offer
advantagesinsomesituations,butthreephase
inductionmotorsaresuitableformostpurposes
andaregenerallythemosteconomicalchoice.
ACMotor
Motorsthataredesignedforfixedspeed
operationareoftenused.
Elevatedvoltagestressesimposedon
inductionmotorsthataresuppliedbyVFDs
requirethatsuchmotorsbedesignedfor
definitepurposeinverterfeddutyin
accordancetosuchrequirementsasPart31
of NEMA StandardMG1.
TypicalSixPulseASDConfiguration
VariableVoltageInverterDrive
CurrentSourceInverterDrive
PulseWidthModulatedDrive
Controller(theVFD)
Thevariablefrequencydrivecontrolleris
a solidstate powerelectronicsconversion
systemconsistingofthreedistinctsub
systems:
a rectifier bridgeconverter,
a directcurrent (DC)link,
andaninverter.
Controller(theVFD)
Voltagesource inverter(VSI)drivesarebyfar
themostcommontypeofdrives.
Mostdrivesare ACAC drivesinthatthey
convertAClineinputtoACinverteroutput.
However,insomeapplicationssuchas
commonDCbusor solar applications,drives
areconfiguredasDCACdrives.
Controller(theVFD)
ThemostbasicrectifierconverterfortheVSIdriveis
configuredasathreephase,sixpulse, fullwave diode
bridge.
InaVSIdrive,theDClinkconsistsofa capacitor which

smooth'souttheconverter'sDCoutput ripple and
providesastiffinputtotheinverter.
ThisfilteredDCvoltageisconvertedtoquasi
sinusoidal ACvoltageoutputusingtheinverter'sactive
switchingelements.
6pulserectifierfrontend
Diodesorthyristorsareusuallygroupedin3
phasebridgerectifiers
Each3phasebridgeisa6pulseconverter
A6pulseconverterhasadistinctharmonic
currentsignature
A6pulseconverterhasatleast30%harmonic
currentdistortion
6pulsewaveformseenbyutility
Controller(theVFD)
VSIdrivesprovidehigher powerfactor and
lower harmonicdistortion than phase
controlled currentsource inverter(CSI)and
loadcommutatedinverter(LCI)drives.
Thedrivecontrollercanalsobeconfiguredas
a phaseconverter havingsinglephase
converterinputandthreephaseinverter
output.
Controller(theVFD)
Controlleradvanceshaveexploiteddramatic
increasesinthevoltageandcurrentratings
andswitchingfrequencyofsolidstatepower
devicesoverthepastsixdecades.
Introducedin1983, the insulatedgatebipolar
transistor (IGBT)hasinthepasttwodecades
cometodominateVFDsasaninverter
switchingdevice.
Controller(theVFD)
Invariabletorque applicationssuitedforVolts
perHertz(V/Hz)drivecontrol,
ACmotorcharacteristicsrequirethatthe
voltagemagnitudeoftheinverter'soutputto
themotorbeadjustedtomatchtherequired
loadtorqueina linear V/Hzrelationship.
Controller(theVFD)
Forexample,for460volt,60 Hzmotorsthis
linearV/Hzrelationshipis460/60=7.67V/Hz.
Whilesuitableinwiderangingapplications,
V/Hzcontrolissuboptimalinhigh
performanceapplicationsinvolving
lowspeedordemanding,
dynamicspeedregulation,
positioningandreversingloadrequirements.
Controller(theVFD)
SomeV/Hzcontroldrivescanalsooperate
in quadratic V/Hzmodeorcanevenbe
programmedtosuitspecialmultipointV/Hz
paths.
Controller(theVFD)
Thetwootherdrivecontrolplatforms,
vectorcontrol and
directtorquecontrol (DTC),
adjustthemotor
voltagemagnitude,anglefromreferenceand
frequency
suchastopreciselycontrolthemotor'smagnetic
fluxandmechanicaltorque.
Controller(theVFD)
Although spacevector pulsewidthmodulation (SVPWM)is
becomingincreasinglypopular,
sinusoidalPWM(SPWM)isthemoststraightforward
methodusedtovarydrives'motorvoltage(orcurrent)and
frequency.
WithSPWMcontrol,quasisinusoidal,variablepulsewidth
outputisconstructedfromintersectionsofasawtoothed
carrierfrequencysignalwithamodulatingsinusoidalsignal
whichisvariableinoperatingfrequencyaswellasin
voltage(orcurrent).
Controller(theVFD)
Operationofthemotorsaboveratednameplate
speed(basespeed)ispossible,butislimitedto
conditionsthatdonotrequiremorepowerthan
thenameplateratingofthemotor.
Thisissometimescalled"fieldweakening"and,
forACmotors,meansoperatingatlessthanrated
V/Hzandaboveratednameplatespeed.
Controller(theVFD)
Permanentmagnet synchronousmotorshave
quitelimitedfieldweakeningspeedrangedue
totheconstantmagnet fluxlinkage.
Woundrotorsynchronousmotorsand
inductionmotorshavemuchwiderspeed
range.
Controller(theVFD)
Forexample,
a100 hp,460V,60 Hz,1775 RPM (4pole)
inductionmotor
suppliedwith460V,75 Hz(6.134V/Hz),
460V/75Hz=6.134V/Hz
wouldbelimitedto60/75=80%torqueat125%
speed(2218.75RPM)=100%power.
Controller(theVFD)
Athigherspeedstheinductionmotortorque
hastobelimitedfurtherduetothelowering
ofthebreakawaytorque ofthemotor.
Thusratedpowercanbetypicallyproduced
onlyupto130...150%oftheratednameplate
speed.
Controller(theVFD)
Woundrotorsynchronousmotorscanberun
atevenhigherspeeds.
Inrollingmilldrivesoften200...300%ofthe
basespeedisused.
Themechanicalstrengthoftherotorlimitsthe
maximumspeedofthemotor.
Controller(theVFD)
An embedded microprocessor governstheoverall
operationoftheVFDcontroller.
Basic programming ofthemicroprocessoris
providedasuserinaccessible firmware.
Userprogrammingof display,variableand
functionblockparametersisprovidedtocontrol,
protectandmonitortheVFD,motoranddriven
equipment.
Controller(theVFD)
Thebasicdrivecontrollercanbeconfiguredto
selectivelyincludesuchoptionalpower
componentsandaccessoriesasfollows:
Connectedupstreamofconverter
circuitbreakeror
Fuses
isolation contactor
EMC filter
line reactor
passivefilter
Controller(theVFD)
ConnectedtoDClink
brakingchopper
braking resistor
Connecteddownstreamofinverter
outputreactor
sinewavefilter
dV/dtfilter.
Operatorinterface
Theoperatorinterfaceprovidesameansfor
anoperatortostartandstopthemotorand
adjusttheoperatingspeed.
Additionaloperatorcontrolfunctionsmight
includereversing,andswitchingbetween
manualspeedadjustmentandautomatic
controlfromanexternal process
control signal.
Operatorinterface
Theoperatorinterfaceoftenincludes
an alphanumeric displayand/orindicationlightsand
meterstoprovideinformationabouttheoperationof
thedrive.
Anoperatorinterfacekeypadanddisplayunitisoften
providedonthefrontoftheVFDcontrollerasshownin
thephotographabove.
Thekeypaddisplaycanoftenbecableconnectedand
mountedashortdistancefromtheVFDcontroller.
Operatorinterface
Mostarealsoprovidedwith input and
output (I/O)terminalsforconnecting
pushbuttons,switchesandotheroperator
interfacedevicesorcontrolsignals.
A serialcommunications port isalsooften
availabletoallowtheVFDtobeconfigured,
adjusted,monitoredandcontrolledusinga
computer
Drive
operation
Driveapplicationscanbecategorizedassinglequadrant,twoquadrantorfourquadrant;thechart'sfour
quadrantsaredefinedasfollows:
QuadrantI Drivingormotoring, forward accelerating quadrantwithpositivespeedandtorque
QuadrantII Generatingorbraking,forwardbrakingdecelerating quadrantwithpositivespeedandnegative

torque
QuadrantIII Drivingormotoring,reverse acceleratingquadrantwithnegativespeedandtorque
QuadrantIV Generatingorbraking,reverse brakingdeceleratingquadrantwithnegativespeedandpositive

torque.
Driveoperation
Mostapplicationsinvolvesinglequadrant
loadsoperatinginquadrantI,suchasin
variabletorque(e.g.centrifugalpumpsor
fans)andcertainconstanttorque(e.g.
extruders)loads.
Driveoperation
Certainapplicationsinvolvetwo
quadrantloadsoperatingin
quadrantIandIIwherethespeed
ispositivebutthetorque
changes polarity asincaseofafan
deceleratingfasterthannatural
mechanicallosses.
Somesourcesdefinetwoquadrant
drivesasloadsoperatingin
quadrantsIandIIIwherethe
speedandtorqueissame(positive
ornegative)polarityinboth
directions.
Driveoperation
Certainhighperformance
applicationsinvolvefour
quadrantloads(QuadrantsItoIV)
wherethespeedandtorquecan
beinanydirectionsuchasin
hoists,elevatorsandhilly
conveyors.
Regenerationcanonlyoccurin
thedrive'sDClinkbuswhen
invertervoltageissmallerin
magnitudethanthemotorback
EMF andinvertervoltageand
backEMFarethesamepolarity.
Driveoperation
Instartingamotor,aVFDinitiallyappliesalow
frequencyandvoltage,thusavoidinghighinrush
currentassociatedwith directonlinestarting.
AfterthestartoftheVFD,theappliedfrequency
andvoltageareincreasedatacontrolledrateor
rampeduptoacceleratetheload.
Thisstartingmethodtypicallyallowsamotorto
develop150%ofitsratedtorquewhiletheVFDis
drawinglessthan50%ofitsratedcurrentfrom
themainsinthelowspeedrange.
Driveoperation
AVFDcanbeadjustedtoproduceasteady
150%startingtorquefromstandstillrightup
tofullspeed.
However,motorcoolingdeterioratesandcan
resultinoverheatingasspeeddecreasessuch
thatprolongedlowspeedmotoroperation
withsignificanttorqueisnotusuallypossible
withoutseparatelymotorizedfanventilation.
Driveoperation
WithaVFD,thestoppingsequenceisjustthe
oppositeasthestartingsequence.
Thefrequencyandvoltageappliedtothe
motorarerampeddownatacontrolledrate.
Whenthefrequencyapproacheszero,the
motorisshutoff.
Driveoperation
Asmallamountofbrakingtorqueisavailabletohelp
deceleratetheloadalittlefasterthanitwouldstopif
themotorweresimplyswitchedoffandallowedto
coast.
Additionalbrakingtorquecanbeobtainedbyaddinga
brakingcircuit(resistorcontrolledbyatransistor)to
dissipatethebrakingenergy.
Withafourquadrantrectifier(activefrontend),the
VFDisabletobraketheloadbyapplyingareverse
torqueandinjectingtheenergybacktotheACline.
Energysavings
Manyfixedspeedmotorloadapplicationsthat
aresupplieddirectfromAClinepowercansave
energywhentheyareoperatedatvariablespeed,
bymeansofVFD.
Suchenergycostsavingsareespecially
pronouncedinvariabletorquecentrifugalfan
andpumpapplications,wheretheloads'torque
andpowervarywiththesquareand cube,
respectively,ofthespeed.
Energysavings
Thischangegivesalargepowerreduction
comparedtofixedspeedoperationfora
relativelysmallreductioninspeed.
Forexample,at63%speedamotorload
consumesonly25%ofitsfullspeedpower.
Thisisinaccordancewith affinitylaws thatdefine
therelationshipbetweenvariouscentrifugalload
variables.
SimplifiedFixedSpeedPumpSystem
UsingControlValves
TypicalASDControlledPumpSystem
AffinityLawsforCentrifugal
Equipment
Inpractice,thisdegreeofpowerreduction
doesnotoccurbecausethesystemstatichead
andlossesrequirethemotortooperateata
speedgreaterthan60percenttoprovide60
percentflow.
Energysavings
IntheUnitedStates,anestimated6065%of
electricalenergyisusedtosupplymotors,
75%ofwhicharevariabletorquefan,pump
andcompressorloads.
Eighteenpercentoftheenergyusedinthe40
millionmotorsintheU.S.couldbesavedby
efficientenergyimprovementtechnologies
suchasVFDs.
Energysavings
Onlyabout3%ofthetotalinstalledbaseofAC
motorsareprovidedwithACdrives.
However,itisestimatedthatdrivetechnology
isadoptedinasmanyas3040%ofallnewly
installedmotors.
Energysavings
Anenergyconsumptionbreakdownofthe
globalpopulationofACmotorinstallationsis
asshowninthefollowingtable:
Controlperformance
ACdrivesareusedtobringaboutprocessand
qualityimprovementsinindustrialand
commercialapplications
Acceleration
Flow
Monitoring
Pressure
Speed
Temperature
Tensionand
Torque.
Controlperformance
Fixedspeedoperatedloadssubjectthemotorto
ahighstartingtorqueandtocurrentsurgesthat
areuptoeighttimesthefullloadcurrent.
ACdrivesinsteadgraduallyrampthemotorupto
operatingspeedtolessenmechanicaland
electricalstress,reducingmaintenanceandrepair
costs,andextendingthelifeofthemotorandthe
drivenequipment.
Controlperformance
Variablespeeddrivescanalsorunamotorin
specializedpatternstofurtherminimize
mechanicalandelectricalstress.
Forexample,anScurvepatterncanbeappliedto
aconveyorapplicationforsmootherdeceleration
andaccelerationcontrol,whichreducesthe
backlashthatcanoccurwhenaconveyoris
acceleratingordecelerating.
Controlperformance
Performancefactorstendingtofavoruseof
DC,overAC,drivesincludesuchrequirements
as
continuousoperationatlowspeed
fourquadrantoperationwithregeneration
frequentaccelerationanddecelerationroutines
andneedformotortobeprotectedforhazardous
area.
Controlperformance
ThefollowingtablecomparesACandDCdrives
accordingtocertainkeyparameters:
VFDtypesandratings
Voltagesourceinverter(VSI)drive
topologies:InaVSIdrive,theDCoutputof
the diodebridgeconverterstoresenergyin
thecapacitorbustosupplystiffvoltageinput
totheinverter.Thevastmajorityofdrivesare
VSItypewithPWMvoltageoutput.
VFDtypesandratings
Currentsourceinverter(CSI)drive
topologies:InaCSIdrive,theDCoutputof
the SCRbridgeconverterstoresenergyin
seriesreactor connectiontosupplystiff
currentinputtotheinverter.CSIdrivescanbe
operatedwitheitherPWMorsixstep
waveformoutput.
VFDtypesandratings
Sixstepinverterdrivetopologies: Nowlargely
obsolete,sixstepdrivescanbeeitherVSIorCSI
typeandarealsoreferredtoas
variablevoltageinverterdrives
pulseamplitude modulation (PAM)drives
Squarewave drivesor D.C.chopper inverterdrives.
Inasixstepdrive,theDCoutputoftheSCRbridge
converterissmoothedviacapacitorbusandseries
reactorconnectiontosupplyvia Darlington
Pair or IGBT inverterquasisinusoidal,sixstepvoltageor
currentinputtoaninductionmotor
VFDtypesandratings
VFDtypesandratings
Cycloconverterormatrixconverter(MC)topologies (see
image): Cycloconverter andMCsare ACACconverters thathaveno
intermediateDClinkforenergystorage.
Acycloconverteroperatesasathreephasecurrentsourceviathree
antiparallelconnectedSCRbridgesinsixpulseconfiguration,
eachcycloconverterphaseactingselectivelytoconvertfixedline
frequencyACvoltagetoanalternatingvoltageatavariableload
frequency.
MCdrivesareIGBTbased.
Cycloconverter
VFDtypesandratings
Doublyfedsliprecoverysystemtopologies:
A doublyfed slip recoverysystemfeeds
rectifiedslippowertoasmoothingreactorto
supplypowertotheACsupplynetworkviaan
inverter,thespeedofthemotorbeing
controlledbyadjustingtheDCcurrent.
Doublyfedsliprecoverysystem
Controlplatforms
Mostdrivesuseoneormoreofthefollowing
controlplatforms:
PWMV/Hz scalar control
PWM fieldorientedcontrol (FOC)orvector
control
Directtorquecontrol(DTC).
TypicalVolts/HertzControlBlock
Diagram
Loadtorqueandpowercharacteristics
Variablefrequencydrivesarealsocategorizedbythe
followingloadtorqueandpowercharacteristics:
Variabletorque,suchasincentrifugalfan,pumpand
blowerapplications
Constanttorque,suchasinconveyoranddisplacement
pumpapplications
Constantpower,suchasinmachinetoolandtraction
applications.
VFDsareavailablewithvoltageandcurrentratings
coveringawiderangeofsinglephaseandmultiphase
ACmotors.
Lowvoltage(LV)drivesaredesignedtooperateat
outputvoltagesequaltoorlessthan690 V.
WhilemotorapplicationLVdrivesareavailablein
ratingsofuptotheorderof5or6MW, economic
considerationstypicallyfavormediumvoltage(MV)
driveswithmuchlowerpowerratings.
DifferentMVdrivetopologiesareconfiguredin
accordancewiththevoltage/currentcombination
ratingsusedindifferentdrivecontrollers'switching
devices suchthatanygivenvoltageratingisgreater
thanorequaltoonetothefollowingstandardnominal
motorvoltageratings:
generallyeither
2.3/4.16 kV(60 Hz)or
3.3/6.6 kV(50 Hz),
withonethyristormanufacturerratedforupto12 kV
switching.
Insomeapplicationsastepup transformer isplacedbetweenaLV
driveandaMVmotorload.
MVdrivesaretypicallyratedformotorapplicationsgreaterthan
betweenabout375 kW(500 hp)and750 kW(1000 hp).
MVdriveshavehistoricallyrequiredconsiderablymoreapplication
designeffortthanrequiredforLVdriveapplications.
ThepowerratingofMVdrivescanreach100 MW,arangeof
differentdrivetopologiesbeinginvolvedfordifferentrating,
performance,powerqualityandreliabilityrequirements.
TypicalDriveVoltageandHPRatings
Drivesbymachines&detailed
topologies
FluxVectorControlSchemeBlock
Diagram
POWERMODULESFORVFD
Powermoduleconsistsof:
a. Thyristorsasswitchingdevice
b. Heatsinkstodissipateheatgeneratedindevice
c. Snubberresistorandcapacitortoprotectdevice
againstovervoltages
d. Sharingresistorsforequalisingthevoltage
acrossseriesconnectedthyristors.
e. Pulsetransformertosupplygatepulsesto
thyristorandtoprovideisolationbetween
controlandpowercircuit.
POWERMODULESFORVFD
Construction:
1.2kVmodule
Twothyristorsareusedinseries.
Snubberprovidesprotectiontothyristoragainst
overvoltages.
ReactorlimitsrateofriseofOnstatecurrent
HPTFmodulegivesfiringpulsestothyristorsand
alsoindicateshealthinessofthyristors.
POWERMODULESFORVFD
POWERMODULESFORVFD
POWERMODULESFORVFD
POWERMODULESFORVFD
POWERMODULESFORVFD
POWERMODULESFORVFD
Three-terminal thyristor:
p1
n1
p2
n2
cathode
-
anode
+
J1
J2
J3
Ig
POWERMODULESFORVFD
POWERMODULESFORVFD
Three-terminal thyristor:
0-1: Forward blocking / OFF state
J1,J3: forward, J2: reversed biased
2-3: Forward conduction / ON state
J1, J2, J3: Forward biased
0-4: Reversed biased
J1,J3: reverse, J2: forward biased
4-5: Breakdown
ON
switching (dV/dI=0)
OFF
forward break-over voltage

holding voltage
p1
n1
p2
n2
cathode
-
anode
+
J1
J2
J3
POWERMODULESFORVFD
POWERMODULESFORVFD
POWERMODULESFORVFD
POWERMODULESFORVFD
POWERMODULESFORVFD
General mounting arrangement
POWERMODULESFORVFD
POWERMODULESFORVFD
POWERMODULESFORVFD
Thyristorstack:1.2kV
POWERMODULESFORVFD
POWERMODULESFORVFD
POWERMODULESFORVFD
Construction:
2.3kVmodule
Threethyristorsareusedinseries.
overvoltages.
HPTKmodulegivesfiringpulsesandindicates
healthinessofthyristors.
NTDAmoduleindicateshealthinessofthyristors
XPTNmodulegivesattenuatedvoltagefor
control
POWERMODULESFORVFD
POWERMODULE2.3kV
POWERMODULESFORVFD
THYRISTORSTACK2.3kV
POWERMODULESFORVFD
POWERMODULESFORVFD
POWERMODULESFORVFD
Snubber:2.3kV
POWERMODULESFORVFD
POWERMODULESFORVFD
POWERMODULESFORVFD
HPTKmodule
POWERMODULESFORVFD
POWERMODULESFORVFD
XPTNModule
POWERMODULESFORVFD
SynchronousFieldExcitermodule
Features:
Sixthyristorsinaccontrollerconfiguration.
overvoltages.
NHVLmodulegivesfiringpulsestothyristors
andalsoindicatesthyristorhealthiness
Voltageattenuatorandcurrentfeedback
POWERMODULESFORVFD
POWERMODULESFORVFD
POWERMODULESFORVFD
POWERMODULESFORVFD
FieldExciterModule
POWERMODULESFORVFD
ACInductionMotors
MotorControllers
Harmonics
Itisverycommonpracticeforpowercompanies
ortheircustomerstoimposeharmonicdistortion
limitsbasedOn IEC or IEEE standards.
Forexample,IEEEStandard519limitsatthe
customer'sconnectionpointcallforthe
maximumindividualfrequencyvoltageharmonic
tobenomorethan3%ofthefundamentaland
callforthevoltage totalharmonic
distortion (THD)tobenomorethan5%fora
generalACpowersupplysystem.
Harmonic
Steadystatedistortionofthewaveform
Periodicandcontinuousinnature.
HarmonicSourcesnonlinearloads
Singlephaseloads:fluorescentlights,personalcomputers
Threephaseloads:arcfurnaces,ac/dcconverters
BasicHarmonicPrinciples
Harmonicsarepersistentdistortionsinawave
shape.
Theyrepresentintegersmultiplesofthe
fundamentalfrequencies.
HarmonicSpectrumAnalysis
Allperiodicsignalsoffrequencyf"canberepresentedintheform
ofacompositesum:
1. ofasinusoidaltermatfrequencyf":theFUNDAMENTAL(H1).
2. ofsinusoidaltermsofwhichfrequenciesareintegermultiplesof
fundamentalH1:theHARMONICS(Hn).
3. ofapossiblecontinuouscomponent(DCcomponent)
y(t) = h1(t) + h3(t)
Harmonics:OrderandSpectrum
Order:
Theorderoftheharmonicisthe
valueoftheintegerwhich
determinesitsfrequency.
Example:harmonicoforder5,
frequency=250Hz
(whenfundamentalf is50Hz)
Spectrum:
Thespectrumofasignalisthe
graphrepresentingamplitudesof
theharmonicsasafunctionof
theirfrequency.
Tosummarize:theharmonicsarenothinglessthanthecomponentsof
adistortedwaveformandtheiruseallowsustoanalyzeanyperiodic
nonsinusoidalwaveformthroughdifferentsinusoidalwaveform
components.
Figurebelowshowsagraphicalrepresentationofthisconcept.
Non-sinusoidal waveform
Third harmonic
First harmonic (fundamental)
Fifth harmonic
Two sinusoidal sources connected in series

U1max = 60 V @ 50 Hz
U2max = 20 V @ 150 Hz
U1
U2
U3
fundamental and third harmonic

80
60
40
20
fundamental
0
-20
-40
-60
-80
third harmonic
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37
total
EXAMPLE OF HARMONICS
harmonics analyzis
25
20
15
Ampers
10
Basic harmonic
3th harmonic
7th harmonic
-5
-10
-15
-20
-25
5th harmonic
9th harmonic
11th harmonic
total curent
HARMONICS IN POWER SYSTEM

A harmonic is any voltage or current whose frequencies are
integral multiples of f. For example a set of sine waves whose
frequencies are 50, 150, 250, 450 Hz is said to possess the
following components:
Fundamental frequency 50 Hz (the lowest frequency)
Third harmonic: 150 Hz (3 x 50 Hz)
Fifth harmonic: 250 Hz (5 x 50 Hz)
Ninth harmonic: 450 Hz (9 x 50 Hz)
The distortion of a voltage or current can be traced to the
harmonics it contains. This distortion can be produced by
magnetic saturation in the core of transformers or by the
switching of thyristors or IGBTs in electronics drive.
fundamental + harmonics
25
20
15
10
5
0
-5 1
-10
-15
-20
-25
22 43 64 85 106 127 148 169 190 211 232 253 274 295 316 337 358
fundamental
all harmonics
total current
SourcesofHarmonics
Therearemanysourcesofpowersystemharmonics.Someexamplesofharmonicproducing
devicesare:
Transformers:
Thirdharmoniccurrentsarepresentinthemagnetizingcurrent(asmallportionofthe
transformerfullloadcurrent).Ifthetransformersaturates(duetoovervoltage),the
harmonicdistortionlevelofthecurrentincreasessubstantially.
FluorescentLamps:
Thesedevicesproduceapredominantlythirdorderharmoniccurrentontheorderof20%
to30%ofthefundamentalcurrent.Electronicballastshaveslightlydifferentcharacteristics
butexhibitsimilarlevelsofharmonics.
PulseWidthModulatedConverters:
Thesedevicesuseanexternalcontrollerforswitchingtheinputtransistorsallowingthe
currentwaveformtobeshapedmoredesirably.However,theseconvertersarelimitedin
powerandtypicallyusedinapplicationslessthanafewhundredkilowatts.
SwitchedModePowerSupplies:
Typicallyfoundinsinglephaseelectronicdevicessuchascomputersandotherbusiness
andconsumerelectronics,thesedevicesuseaswitchingregulatortopreciselycontrolthe
DCvoltage.
Theinputofthesepowersuppliesnormallyconsistsofafullwavebridgerectifieranda
DCfiltercapacitorwhichproducesanalternatingpulsecurrentwaveformrichinthird
harmonic.
Thoughtheyarenotusedinlargepowerapplications,thecumulativeeffectsofmany
devicesmaycreateconcerns,particularlyfor400/230VoltYsystems.
Waveshapeofcurrentabsorbedbysomenonlinearloads.
Lightdimmerorheatingregulator
H3H5H7H9H11H13H15H17H19
54181811118866
Switchmodepowersupplyrectifier
H3H5H7H9H11H13H15H17H19
754515763332
Threephaserectifierwithfrontendcapacitor
H3H5H7H9H11H13H15H17H19
08075040350105
ThreephaserectifierwithDCfilteringreactor
H3H5H7H9H11H13H15H17H19
0257094053
Harmoniccurrentsinthreephasesystems
Neutral conductor
Harmonicsgetmorecomplicatedinthreephaseapplications.
Herenotonlydowehavetodealwithphaseconductors,butalsotheneutralconductor,
triplen(oddmultiplesof3i.e.3rd,9th,15th etc,)harmonics,andsequenceharmonics.
Thetriplenharmonicsarethemajorcauseofheatbecausetheyaddtogetherinthe
neutralconductor.
Themagnitudeoftheharmoniccurrentproducedbythetriplenscanapproachtwicethe
phasecurrent.
Thiscausestheneutralconductortooverheatbecauseneutralconductorswere
historicallydesignedwiththesameampacityasthephaseconductors.
Forexample,a3rd harmonicof75%,thecurrentflowingintheneutral
is2.25timesthefundamental.ThecurrentineachphaseisonlySQR
(1+0.752 )=1.25timesthefundamental.
neutral current
150
100
50
0
-50
9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37
-100
-150
Ia
Ib
Ic
Ia 3rd
Ib 3rd
Ic 3rd
neutral current
Induction motor
Asituationthatproducesabnormalamountsofheatinmotorsisthecombinationof
positiveandnegativesequencedharmonics.
Thepositivesequencedharmonicsarethefundamental,7th,13th,19th,etc.Theytend
toapplyanadditionalforwardforceinthedirectionofthemotorrotation.
Thenegativesequencedharmonicsarethe5th,11th,17th,etc. Theypresentaforcethat
opposesthemotorrotationandtriestomakethemotorrotateintheopposite
direction.
Theforceoftheseharmonicsactinguponeachothercreatesheatwhichleadsto
prematurefailure.
Harmonicvoltagedistortioncausesincreasededdycurrentlossesinthemotors,inthe
samewayasseenfortransformers.
HarmonicCurrentsaddintheNeutral
The120 phase
shiftbetween
linearload
currentswill
resultintheir
balanced
portions
instantaneously
cancelinginthe
neutral.
Withlinearloads,theneutralcanbethesamesizeasthephase
conductorsbecausetheneutralcurrentcannotbelargerthan
thelargestphasecurrent,evenwhentheloadiscompletely
unbalanced.
Whentheloadisnon
linearhowever,the
currentpulseonone
phasewillnothavea
pulseoneitherofthe
otherphasesforwhichto
cancel.Thepulsesare
additivewhichoften
leadstoheaviercurrent
ontheneutralconductor
thanonanyphase
conductor.Thefrequency
ofthisneutralcurrentis
primarily150Hz(3rd
harmonic).
Withnonlinearloads,theneutralcurrent
generallyexceedsthelargestphase
current,evenwhentheloadsarein
perfectRMScurrentbalance.
HarmfulEffectsonReceivers
Cables:
Overheatingofcables
Additionallossesduetoskineffect
Increaseindielectriclossesofinsulation
Inductionmotors:
Increaseincore(stator)andJoulelosses
Pulsatingtorquescausingefficiencyreduction,
abnormalvibration,rotoroverheating
GeneralSolutions
Limitinjectedharmoniccurrents:
Installlimitationinductioncoilsforspeeddrives
Installspecificrectifierscalledactivefrontend
Installantiharmonicsinductioncoils
Installfilterstotrapharmonics:
Passivefilters
Activefilters
Hybridfilters
Oversizeequipment
Passiveharmonicfilters
Passiveortrapfiltersemploypassiveelements(capacitors
andinductors)totraporabsorbharmonics.
Passivefiltersaregenerallyconfiguredtoremoveonlyoneor
twospecificharmonics.
Passivefiltersaregenerallyregardedasunsuitablefor
filtering3rd harmonics.
Forthisreason,theyarebestsuitedforapplicationsinwhich
3rd harmonicsarenotanissue,powerfactorcorrectionis
required,andspecificharmonicssuchas5th or7th are
creatingtheproblem.
Passivefiltersareidealforsystemsthathaveahigh
percentageof6pulsedrivesandotherlinearloads.
However,thefiltersmayneedtoberetunedforchangesin
thepowersystem.
Filterscanbedesignedforseveralnonlinearloadsorforan
individualload,
Non
linear
load
Harmonic
trap filter
Principleofcompensationofharmoniccomponentsbyshunttype
activeharmonicconditioner
Thedeviceshouldbeabletoinject
atanytimeacurrentwhereeach
harmoniccurrenthasthesame
amplitudeasthatofthecurrentin
theloadandisinoppositionof
phases,thenKirchoffslawatpoint
Aguaranteesthatthecurrent
suppliedbythesourceispurely
sinusoidal
IsolationTransformers:
Anisolationtransformerprovidesseveraladvantages.
Firstandforemost,itprovidesimpedancetothedrive,which
reducescurrentdistortion.
Itobviouslyresolvesvoltagemismatchbetweenthesupplyand
theload.
Ifthesecondaryisgrounded,itisolatesgroundfaultsandreduces
commonmodenoise.
HarmonicsResonance
SourcesofHarmonics
Saturabledevicestransformersandnonlinear
reactors
Arcingdevicesarcfurnaces,welders,and
florescentlighting
Powerelectronicequipmentadjustablespeed
motordrives,dcmotordrivesandelectronic
powersupplies
DCMotorDriveCurrent
Why do we see such a high even

THD%?
ODD 35.4%
THD 35.9%
EVEN 5.9%
Currentvs.VoltageHarmonics
Harmoniccurrentsflowingthroughthesystem
impedanceresultsinharmonicvoltagesatthe
load.
IEEE519
Harmonicsgeneratedbynonlineardevice
characteristics
Mostdeviceslooklikesourcesofharmonic
currents
Voltagedistortioncausedbysystemresponse
characteristics
IEEE519LimitsHarmonicLevels
Thecustomerisresponsibleforlimiting
harmoniccurrentsinjectedontothepower
system.
Theutilityisresponsibleformaintaining
qualityofvoltagewaveform.
HarmonicVoltageLimits
UtilityResponsibility
HarmonicCurrentLimits
Customerresponsibility
Valuesshownareinpercentofaveragemaximumloadcurrent.SCR=shortcircuit
ratio(utilityshortcircuitcurrentatpointofcommoncouplingdividedbycustomers
averagemaximumdemandloadcurrent.
MitigationTechniques
Phasemultiplication
LineReactor
PhaseshiftingTransformers
KFactorTransformers
DeRatingTransformers
Filters
Dowehaveaharmonicproblem?
Changedthedrivetoa12pulse.
12pulsewith5%ACreactor.
AddPFCorrection
Capnotuning
AddPFCorrection
Captunedto3rd harmonic
HarmonicAnalysis
Buildamodelofthesystemofinterest
Determineharmonicsourcecharacteristics
Runsimulation
Examineresults
DesignSolutions
CheckSolutions
Ingeneralitisbesttoapplythefilterator
belowthelowestharmonicofconcern
Thefilterschematicisshownbelow.
HarmonicSummary
Harmonicsarepersistentdistortionsina
waveshape.
Powerelectronicsaretheprimesourceof
harmonics.
Powerfactorcapacitorsaggravateharmonic
issues.
Modelingandsimulationscanevaluation
varioussolutionalternatives.
ACInductionMotors
MotorControllers
Harmonics
AClineharmonics
While harmonics inthePWMoutputcaneasilybefilteredbycarrier
frequencyrelatedfilterinductancetosupplynearsinusoidal
currentstothemotorload,
theVFD'sdiodebridgerectifierconvertsAClinevoltagetoDC
voltageoutputbysuperimposing nonlinear halfphasecurrent
pulsesthuscreatingharmoniccurrentdistortion,andhencevoltage
distortion,oftheAClineinput.
WhentheVFDloadsarerelativelysmallincomparisontothelarge,
stiffpowersystemavailablefromthe electricpowercompany,the
effectsofVFDharmonicdistortionofthe ACgrid canoftenbe
withinacceptablelimits.
AClineharmonics
Furthermore,inlowvoltagenetworks,harmonicscaused
bysinglephaseequipmentsuchascomputersandTVsare
partiallycancelledbythreephasediodebridgeharmonics
becausetheir5thand7thharmonicsareincounterphase.
However,whentheproportionofVFDandothernonlinear
loadcomparedtototalloadorofnonlinearloadcompared
tothestiffnessattheACpowersupply,orboth,isrelatively
largeenough,theloadcanhaveanegativeimpactonthe
ACpowerwaveformavailabletootherpowercompany
customersinthesamegrid.
Twootherharmonicsmitigationtechniques
exploituseofpassiveoractivefiltersconnected
toacommonbuswithatleastoneVFDbranch
loadonthebus.
Passivefiltersinvolvethedesignofoneor
more lowpass LCfiltertraps,eachtrapbeing
tunedasrequiredtoaharmonicfrequency(5th,
7th,11th,13th,...kq+/1,wherek=integer,
q=pulsenumberofconverter).
Whenthepowercompany'svoltagebecomes
distortedduetoharmonics,lossesinotherloads
suchasnormalfixedspeedACmotorsare
increased.Thismayleadtooverheatingand
shorteroperatinglife.
Also substation transformersandcompensation
capacitorsareaffectednegatively.Inparticular,
capacitorscancauseresonanceconditionsthat
canunacceptablymagnifyharmoniclevels.
Inordertolimitthevoltagedistortion,ownersofVFDload
mayberequiredtoinstallfilteringequipmenttoreduce
harmonicdistortionbelowacceptablelimits.
Alternatively,theutilitymayadoptasolutionbyinstalling
filteringequipmentofitsownatsubstationsaffectedby
thelargeamountofVFDequipmentbeingused.
Inhighpowerinstallationsharmonicdistortioncanbe
reducedbysupplyingmultipulserectifierbridgeVFDsfrom
transformerswithmultiplephaseshiftedwindings.
Itisalsopossibletoreplacethestandarddiodebridge
rectifierwithabidirectionalIGBTswitchingdevice
bridgemirroringthestandardinverterwhichusesIGBT
switchingdeviceoutputtothemotor.
Suchrectifiersarereferredtobyvariousdesignations
includingactiveinfeedconverter(AIC), activerectifier,
IGBTsupplyunit(ISU),activefrontend(AFE)orfour
quadrantoperation.
Itisalsopossibletoreplacethestandarddiode
bridgerectifierwithabidirectionalIGBT
switchingdevicebridgemirroringthestandard
inverterwhichusesIGBTswitchingdeviceoutput
tothemotor.
Suchrectifiersarereferredtobyvarious
designationsincludingactiveinfeedconverter
(AIC), activerectifier,IGBTsupplyunit(ISU),
activefrontend(AFE)orfourquadrant
operation.
WithPWMcontrolandsuitableinputreactor,
AFE'sAClinecurrentwaveformcanbenearly
sinusoidal.AFEinherentlyregeneratesenergy
infourquadrantmodefromtheDCsideto
theACgrid.
Thusnobrakingresistorisneededandthe
efficiencyofthedriveisimprovedifthedrive
isfrequentlyrequiredtobrakethemotor.
Longleadeffects
Thecarrierfrequencypulsedoutputvoltageofa
PWMVFDcausesrapidrisetimesinthesepulses,
thetransmissionlineeffectsofwhichmustbe
considered.
Sincethetransmissionline impedance ofthe
cableandmotoraredifferent,pulsestendto
reflectbackfromthemotorterminalsintothe
cable.
Longleadeffects
Theresultingvoltagescanproduce
overvoltages equaltotwicetheDCbusvoltageor
upto3.1timestheratedlinevoltageforlong
cableruns,puttinghighstressonthecableand
motorwindingsandeventualinsulationfailure.
Notethatstandardsforthreephasemotorsrated
230Vorlessadequatelyprotectagainstsuch
longleadovervoltages.
Longleadeffects
On460or575Vsystemsandinverterswith
3rdgeneration0.1microsecondrisetime
IGBTs,themaximumrecommendedcable
distancebetweenVFDandmotorisabout50
mor150feet.
Longleadeffects
Solutionstoovervoltagescausedbylonglead
lengthsinclude
minimizingcabledistance,
loweringcarrierfrequency,
installingdV/dtfilters,
usinginverterdutyratedmotors(thatarerated600V
towithstandpulsetrainswithrisetimelessthanor
equalto0.1microsecond,of1,600Vpeak
magnitude),and
installingLCRlowpasssinewavefilters.
Longleadeffects
Regardingloweringofcarrierfrequency,note
thataudiblenoiseisnoticeablyincreasedfor
carrierfrequencieslessthanabout6 kHzand
ismostnoticeableatabout3 kHz.
Longleadeffects
NotealsothatselectionofoptimumPWMcarrier
frequencyforACdrivesinvolvesbalancing
noise,
heat,
motorinsulationstress,
commonmodevoltageinducedmotorbearingcurrent
damage,
smoothmotoroperation,andotherfactors.
Furtherharmonicsattenuationcanbeobtainedbyusingan
LCRlowpasssinewavefilterordV/dtfilter.
BearingCurrents
PWMdrivesareinherentlyassociatedwithhigh
frequencycommonmodevoltagesandcurrentswhich
maycausetroublewithmotorbearings.
Whenthesehighfrequencyvoltagesfindapathto
earththroughabearing,transferofmetalor electrical
dischargemachining (EDM)sparkingoccursbetween
thebearing'sballandthebearing'srace.
OvertimeEDMbasedsparkingcauseserosioninthe
bearingracethatcanbeseenasaflutingpattern.
BearingCurrents
BecausethevoltageoutputoftheVFDisa
resultofhighspeedswitching,thewaveform
morecloselyresemblesasquarewaveinstead
ofasinewave.
Asaconsequence,animbalanceispresent
betweenthethreephasesthatareentering
themotorleads,referredtoascommonmode
voltage,
BearingCurrents
BearingCurrents
BearingCurrents
AssoonasthemotorisstartedwithaVFD,the
commonmodevoltageimbalancesearchesforapath
toground,andaparasiticcouplingoftherotorand
statorwindingsdevelops.
Oncetheoilfilminthedielectricbreaksdown,voltage
levelsincreaseonthemotorshaft,andthelowest
impedancepathforthecurrentimbalancebecomes
themotorbearingsthemselves.
Voltagebeginstoarcacrossthebearingathigh
frequencies,leadingtoelectricaldischargemachining
(EDM).
Inlargemotors,the straycapacitance ofthe
windingsprovidespathsforhighfrequency
currentsthatpassthroughthemotorshaftends,
leadingtoacirculatingtypeofbearingcurrent.
Poor grounding ofmotorstatorscanleadtoshaft
groundbearingcurrents.Smallmotorswith
poorlygroundeddrivenequipmentare
susceptibletohighfrequencybearingcurrents.
Preventionofhighfrequencybearingcurrent
damageusesthreeapproaches:
goodcablingandgroundingpractices,
interruptionofbearingcurrents,and
filteringordampingofcommonmodecurrents.
Goodcablingandgroundingpracticescanincludeuseofshielded,
symmetricalgeometrypowercabletosupplythemotor,
installationofshaftgroundingbrushes,andconductivebearing
grease.
Bearingcurrentscanbeinterruptedby:
installationofinsulatedbearings
andspeciallydesignedelectrostaticshieldedinductionmotors.
Filteringanddampinghighfrequencybearing,or,insteadofusing
standard2levelinverterdrives,usingeither3levelinverterdrives
ormatrixconverters.
Sinceinverterfedmotorcables'high
frequencycurrentspikescaninterferewith
othercablinginfacilities,suchinverterfed
motorcablesshouldnotonlybeofshielded,
symmetricalgeometrydesignbutshouldalso
beroutedatleast50 cmawayfromsignal
cables.
Motorframesize Motorbearingcurrentshavea
directrelationshiptomotorsize.
Specifically,motorsabove450hphavebeenfoundto
bethegreatestcandidatesforbearingcurrents,dueto
thehigherlikelihoodofmagneticasymmetryinthe
constructionofthemotorwindings.
Whilelargemotorswillexperiencesomeamountof
bearingcurrents,motorspoweredfromVFDsintroduce
additionalmagneticasymmetryfromcommonmode
voltage.
Roughhandling
Motorsareatanincreasedriskofshaftvoltageiftheywere
handledroughlyduringshipment.
Oftentimes,damagecanoccurinthefactory,intransit,or
whenthemotorisbeingliftedontoitspedestal.
Minormotordamageduringshipmentmaynotcause
noticeableproblemswithmotorperformance;however,it
increasesthelikelihoodofmagneticasymmetryleadingto
bearingcurrentdevelopment.
MeasuringforBearingCurrents
Aftertheambientnoisemeasurementhas
beencompleted,thecarbonbrushisplaced
directlytothespinningmotorshaft.
Severalmeasurementsshouldberecorded,
witheffortstoensuretheentirewaveformcan
beviewedontheoscilloscope.
Carefulobservationofthewaveformshould
revealifasharpspikeinvoltageispresent,which
wouldbeindicativeofashaftvoltagedischarge.
Voltageinexcessof0.5mV(peaktopeak)is
oftentimescauseforfurtherinvestigation.
However,inVFDs,thenominalvaluewillalmost
alwaysbeinexcessof0.5mV.Theexamples
discussedbelowindicatevariousexamplesof
shaftvoltagetests.
MotorA
Theoscilloscopescreenshotshownin presents
clearevidenceofshaftvoltage,withapeakto
peakvalueof74.3V.
ThisiswellabovetheIEEE112allowablevalueof
0.5mV,aswellasthemanufacturersallowable
voltageof1Vto2VforVFDs.
Apeakvoltageof74.3Vimposedupontheshaft
likelymeansthatthebearingwillnotsurvive
muchlongerunlessremedied.
CompareSimilarMotors
Whentestingamotor,itisoftenusefultotest
theBmotortocomparevalues.
Thescreenshotshownin istheBmotorof
theacrossthelinemotorthatwasdropped
duringshipment.
MotorB
CompareSimilarMotors
Clearly,thereisnoevidenceofshaftvoltage
ordamagetothebearinginthiswaveform.
Oftentimes,comparingtwosimilarmotorscan
helppinpointiftheproblemliesinthemotor
itself,withtransientvoltagepowersupplies,
orinafaultygroundingsystem.
Dynamicbraking
Torquegeneratedbythedrivecausesthe
inductionmotortorunat synchronous speedless
theslip.
Ifloadinertiaenergyisgreaterthantheenergy
deliveredtothemotorshaft,motorspeed
decreasesasnegativetorqueisdevelopedinthe
motorandthemotoractsasa generator,
convertingoutputshaftmechanicalpowerback
toelectricalenergy.
Dynamicbraking
Thispowerisreturnedtothedrive'sDClink
element(capacitororreactor).
ADClinkconnectedelectronicpowerswitch
or brakingDCchopper (eitherbuiltinor
externaltothedrive)transfersthisenergyto
externalresistorstodissipatetheenergyas
heat.
Dynamicbraking
Coolingfansmaybeusedtopreventresistor
overheating.
Dynamicbrakingwastesbrakingenergyby
transformingittoheat.Bycontrast,regenerativedrives
recoverbrakingenergybyinjectingthisenergyonthe
ACline.
Thecapitalcostofregenerativedrivesishowever
relativelyhigh.
Dynamicbraking
Regenerativedrives
RegenerativeACdriveshavethecapacitytorecover
thebrakingenergyofaloadmovingfasterthanthe
designatedmotorspeed(an overhauling load)and
returnittothepowersystem.
CurrentSource(Cycloconverter,Scherbius,matrix,CSI
andLCI)drivesinherentlyallowreturnofenergyfrom
theloadtotheline
whilevoltagesourceinvertersrequireanadditional
convertertoreturnenergytothesupply.
Regenerativedrives
RegenerationisonlyusefulinVFDswherethe
valueoftherecoveredenergyislarge
comparedtotheextracostofaregenerative
system, andifthesystemrequiresfrequent
brakingandstarting.
RegenerativeVFDsarewidelyusedwhere
speedcontrolofoverhaulingloadsisrequired.
Regenerativedrives
Someexamples:
Conveyorbeltdrivesformanufacturing,which
stopeveryfewminutes.Whilestopped,parts
areassembledcorrectly;oncethatisdone,
thebeltmoveson.
Acrane,wherethehoistmotorstopsand
reversesfrequently,andbrakingisrequiredto
slowtheloadduringlowering.
Questions?
Contact:
vwedelich@gmail.com

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AC motors convert AC electrical energy to Mechanical energy.

An electrical machine is link between an electrical

Single Phase Induction Motors

Capacitor Start (disconnects capacitor after motor

Capacitor Run (Keeps the capacitor connected

Capacitor Start-Run (uses two capacitors, one for

The stator forms a hollow cylinder with coils of insulated wire

Motor Construction The Rotor

There are two types of motor rotors:

Types of Motor Enclosures

ODP Open Drip Proof

TENV Totally Enclosed Non-Ventilating

TEFC Totally enclosed Fan Cooled

Types of Motor Enclosures

ODP Open Drip Proof

Types of Motor Enclosures

TENV Totally Enclosed Non-Ventilating

Types of Motor Enclosures

TEFC Totally enclosed Fan Cooled

Types of Motor Enclosures

Three Phase AC Motor

It has three pairs of electromagnets, connected to one of the three

AC Motor Data Plate

Three types of Motor Load

Constant torque Output power varies but

Conveyors, rotary kilns,

Centrifugal pumps, fans

Torque varies with square

Constant power Torque changes inversely

Type of Electric Motors

Alternating Current (AC)

Direct Current (DC)

Type of Electric Motors

Type of Electric Motors

Expensive compared to AC motors

Type of Electric Motors

Speed difficult to control

Type of Electric Motors

AC Motors Synchronous motor

Constant speed fixed by system frequency

Type of Electric Motors

Type of Electric Motors

AC Motors Induction motor

Household appliances: fans, washing machines,

Type of Electric Motors

AC Motors Induction motor

Three-phase supply produces magnetic field

Type of Electric Motors

AC Motors Induction motor

Motor never runs at synchronous speed

Ns = synchronous speed in RPM

Assessment of Electric Motors

Assessment of Electric Motors

Efficiency of Electric Motors

Factors that influence efficiency

Assessment of Electric Motors

Designed for 50-100% load

Most efficient at 75% load

Rapid drop below 50% load

Assessment of Electric Motors

Assessment of Electric Motors

Three methods for individual motors