Thermo1review v2

Basic Concepts
Mech 240 Thermodynamics 1
What is Temperature?
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Kinetic_theory_of_gases.svg
Molecules are in constant thermal motion in gases, liquids and solids

Velocity of molecules is directly related to Temperature (T u2)
Show Molecular Workbench Simulation
http://mw.concord.org/modeler/
Thermometer
What is Pressure?
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Kinetic_theory_of_gases.svg
Pressure is the force per unit area on a surface caused by the

momentum transferred from molecules colliding with the surface
These molecules are in constant thermal motion in gases and liquids
Show Molecular Workbench Simulation (http://mw.concord.org/modeler/)
Manometers
Barometers
http://www.free-online-private-pilot-ground-school.com/images/mercurial-barometer.gif
Absolute Temperature Scale
Lord Kelvin (William Thomson)

1824-1907
Important discoveries in
thermodynamics (absolute
temperature scale), fluid
mechanics, electromagnetism.
Became rich for developing the
first transatlantic submerged
telegraph cable
http://www.physics.gla.ac.uk/Physics3/Kelvin_online/Kelvin_society/Kelvin.gif
1st Law and Closed Systems
Boundary Work
Boundary Work Polytropic Process
Boundary Work Polytropic Process
Gas Power Cycles
Spark-Ignition (or Gasoline) Engine
Acura Integra engine cutaway

Image from:
www.khulsey.com/acura_int_engine.jpeg
In-line 4 Cylinder Engine
GIF movies courtesy of www.howstuffworks.com/engine2.htm

4-Stroke Engine
GIF movie courtesy

of Wikipedia
Internal Combustion Engine Terminology

Bottom Dead Center
(BDC)
Top Dead Center

(TDC)
Internal Combustion Engine Volume
Spark-Ignition Engine (Otto) Cycle
qout
(4)-(1)
Spark-Ignition Engine (Otto) Cycle
Real vs. Ideal Cycles
Assumptions used to Calculate Ideal Cycle
Compression Work
p
1
V
Boundary Work
W
pdV
Compression Work
p
1
V
Constant Volume Heat Addition

p
3
Qin
2
Vmin
V
Work Output of Otto Cycle

p
3
qin
2
4
1
qout

p
3
qin
2
4
1
qout
v
Compression Work, win

p
3
qin
Expansion Work, wout
2
4
1
qout

p
3
qin
Net Work Out, wnet
2
4
1
qout
Otto Cycle Analysis & Efficiency
Efficiency of Otto Cycle r

1
0.8
Wnet

Qin
0.6
0.4
0.2
Typical compression ratios
0
0
10
15
compression ratio, r = v1 / v2
Efficiency of Otto Cycle g

1
v1/v2 = 15
0.8
0.6
0.4
Air
Helium
0.2
0
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
Diesel Engine Animation
Diesel Engine Cutaway
Mercedes 2.5 L Five-Cylinder Inline Diesel Engine

1.) Double-roller timing chain
2.) Direct acting overhead cam
3.) Precombustion chambers
4.) Forged steel connecting rods
5.) Spin forged steel crankshaft
Ideal Diesel Cycle

p
2
Qin
4
1
Qout
Spark-Ignition and Diesel Engine Efficiencies
Biggest Diesel Engine in the World
Emma Mrsk Worlds biggest container ship
Wrtsil-Sulzer RTA96-C engine

84,42MW (114,800 bhp)
2.5m long stroke, 102rpm
S.I. and Diesel Engine Cutaway Images
Acura Integra engine cutaway

Image from:
www.khulsey.com/acura_int_engine.jpeg
Mercedes 2.5 L Five-Cylinder Inline Diesel Engine

1.) Double-roller timing chain
2.) Direct acting overhead cam
3.) Precombustion chambers
4.) Forged steel connecting rods
5.) Spin forged steel crankshaft
Traditional engine cycles

Spark-Ignition (SI) Engine
Compression-Ignition (CI) Engine
Combustion basics
Fuel (C x H y Oz ) Air(O 2 3.76 N 2 ) HEAT CO 2 H 2O pollutants
Premixed turbulent flame
Non-premixed turbulent flame
Turbulent flame, Leeds University

Courtesy of Leeds University
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fire_breathing_2_Luc_Viatour.jp
g
Combustion of fuel with air releases thermal energy (heat)

New engines must meet tough pollutant regulations 52
Spark-ignition (gasoline) engines

Premixed turbulent flame
Spark ignites a premixed fuel-air mixture within

cylinder close to stoichiometric mixture composition
Complete combustion of fuel carbon to carbon dioxide and fuel
hydrogen to water, no excess oxygen.
Courtesy of Leeds University
High-temperature flame propagates through fuel-air

mixture and flame properties determine combustion
completion and exhaust emissions
More-complete combustion lower UHC and CO emissions.
Flame properties determine NOx emissions.
Stoichiometric fuel-air mixtures little soot formation.
Engine knock occurs when gases self-ignite before

being consumed by the flame
Causes engine damage and must be avoided.
Adapted from: 1. http://motortrend.automotive.com (GM)
53
Decs model of diesel engine combustion

Non-premixed turbulent flame
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fire_breathing_2_Luc_Viatour.jp
g
Combustion in diesel engine is complicated by fuel-air mixing, fuel vaporization,

fuel-air ignition, and partially-premixed and non-premixed turbulent flames
Fuel-rich regions produce soot precursors and soot, some of which are not
burned out and are released to atmosphere in exhaust
54
Mech 240 Thermodynamics
1
Novel engine cycles

Homogeneous-Charge
Compression-Ignition
(HCCI) Engine
Low-Temperature Combustion
(LTC) CI Engine
HCCI and low-temperature diesel engines

In homogeneous-charge, compression-ignition
(HCCI) engines, a diluted fuel-air mixture is used to
keep combustion temperatures low
o Either use very fuel-lean mixtures (extra air dilutes the
combustion) or exhaust-gas recirculation (nitrogen, steam,
carbon dioxide dilute combustion)
o No high-temperature flame, combustion happens in many
small hot spots and is controlled by low-temperature
combustion chemistry
o Combustion stability and emissions are thus strongly
dependent on the low-temperature combustion properties
of the fuel blend, so fuel mixtures can be designed to
provide desired ignition properties
o Ignition control possible through in-cylinder reforming of
some fuel with exhaust gases during compression
Low-temperature diesels use same ideas, but are

not as well mixed higher emissions
o Control possible through adjusting fuel-injection timing
HCCI engine
Need precise
ignition
56
Mech 240 Thermodynamics
1
Carnot Cycle
Nicolas Lonard Sadi Carnot (1796-1832)

Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire
Maximizing Efficiency Stirling Engine
Stirling Cycle:
1-2: T = constant
2-3: V = constant
3-4: T = constant
4-1: V = constant
expansion (qin)
expansion (qregen to regenerator)
compression (qout)
compression (qregen from regenerator)
Stirling Engine Animations
Alpha Stirling Engine
Beta Stirling Engine

Solar Thermal Energy Using Stirling Engines
Stirling Energy Systems (www.stirlingenergy.com)

and Sandia National Labs have teamed up to
develop solar-thermal energy generators
Mojave desert lots of sun and unused land
Solar energy heat electricity
1st Law of Open Systems
Conservation of Mass Steady State
Boundary Work
Flow Work
Flow Work
Energy Equation for Flowing & Nonflowing fluids
1st Law for Open Systems

Energy (power) is conserved:
Mass flow rate

into system
Heat transfer
per unit time
Energy of fluid
entering system
per unit mass
Power
(work / time)
Conservation of mass (flux):
Steady State
(Energy in)
(Energy out)
Energy Balance for Control Volume
Mechanical Energy Hydroelectric Dam
500 L/s
100m
100%
Adapted from: Thermodynamics: an Engineering Approach

by Cengel and Boles
How a Water Turbine Works

http://www.bpa.gov/corporate/BPANews/Library/images/Dams/Water_turbine.jpg
http://www.rise.org.au/info/Tech/hydro/large.html
Water Turbine for Grand Coullee Dam (Washington, USA)
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7/Water_turbine_grandcoulee.jpg
Wind Turbines
http://www.tva.gov/news/files/buffmtn/turbines3.jpg
http://www.daviddarling.info/images/wind_turbine_blades.gif
http://www.finfacts.com/irelandbusinessnews/uploads/windaug012007.jpg
Guts of a Wind Turbine

http://www.clf.org/uploadedImages/CLF/General/Publications/Conservation_Matters/how_wind_turbine_works.jpg
http://www.alternative-energy-news.info/technology/wind-power/wind-turbines/
Compressor
http://www.powergeneration.siemens.com/press/press-pictures/compressors/compressor-12.htm
Compressor
Pumps
http://www.pumpschool.com/images/ExtGearLarge.gif
http://www.pumpschool.com/principles/lobe_ani.htm
Pumps
http://www.pumpschool.com/images/ExtGearLarge.gif
http://www.pumpschool.com/principles/lobe_ani.htm
Turbines
http://lowermyheatrate.com/turbine4.jpg
http://www.powergeneration.siemens.com/press/press-pictures/steam-turbines/steam-turbine-2.htm
Jet Engines
Diffuser
Compressor
Combustor
Turbine
Nozzle
Gas-Turbine Engines
Kawasaki Gas Turbine Model L20A.
Plasco Energy Group

Ottawa Plant
Zorya-Mashproekt Gas-Turbine Engine

UGT 16000
Proposed Los Angeles Waste-to-Energy Plant:
Brayton Cycle Schematic
Idealized Brayton Cycle
p-v diagram of Brayton cycle

p
Q in m qin
qin
W out m h3 h4
.
1
qout
W in m h2 h1
.
1st Law for Open Systems

Energy (power) is conserved:
Mass flow rate

into system
Heat transfer
per unit time
Energy of fluid
entering system
per unit mass
Power
(work / time)
Conservation of mass (flux):
Gas-Turbine Engine Efficiency

1
.
W net
0.8
Q in
0.6
0.4
.
W net W out W in
0.2
Typical pressure ratios
0
0
10
15
20
25
Q in m qin
p2 / p1

1
p2/p1 = 15
0.8
0.6
0.4
Air
Helium
0.2
0
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
Improving Gas-Turbine Engine Efficiencies I

Increasing p2/p1, but for high pressure ratios, the temperatures can
become too hot and cause materials problems in the engine.
Can cool the turbine blades and walls with excess air
High temperatures lead to increased pollutant (NOx) emissions
Can design more efficient compressor/turbine components

Using sophisticated computational fluid dynamics (CFD) software
Modify the basic cycle by adding regeneration:

p
Heat saved by regeneration

qin
2
qregeneration
g=
pv
pv g
=c
on
s
con
sta
tant
nt
qout
v
Improving Gas-Turbine Engine Efficiencies II

Can reduce the work required to compress the gas by cooling it at
intermediate stages
Can increase the work out of the turbine by re-heating it at
intermediate stages
Jet-Propulsion Cycles
p
qin
4
ant
onst
g c
pv =
pv g
=c
on
sta
5
nt
qout
v
Jet-Propulsion Cycles
Turbojet
Turbofan
Turboprop
Ramjet
Pictures courtesy of: http://wings.avkids.com

Jet Engines
Diffuser
Compressor
Combustor
Turbine
Nozzle
Gas Turbine Combustors

Rich-quench-lean (RQL) combustor:
Gas-turbine combustor simulation
http://www.stanford.edu/group/cits/simulation/pw_combustors.html
Gas Turbine Combustors

Premixed staged combustor:
Cooling air
Pilot air
Fuel
Ericsson Cycle
The Ericsson cycle is the ideal constant-p heat regeneration cycle

Stirling cycle involves constant-V heat regeneration
Brayton Cycle with Inter-cooling and Re-heat
The Ericsson cycle is an ideal limit of the Brayton cycle already discussed
infinite number of compression and expansion stages using inter-cooling and re-heat
regenerator effectiveness of 1.
2nd Law
The Second Law of Thermodynamics
Otto Cycle as a Heat Engine
Heat Engine (Rankine Cycle)
Kelvin-Planck Statement of 2nd Law

It is impossible for any device that operates on a cycle to receive
heat from a single reservoir and produce a net amount of work
ie. qout cannot be zero!
efficiency of heat engine must be less than 1.
Kelvin-Planck Statement of 2nd Law

It is impossible for any device that operates on a cycle to receive
heat from a single reservoir and produce a net amount of work
ie. qout cannot be zero!
efficiency of heat engine must be less than 1.
Clausius Statement of the 2nd Law

It is impossible to construct a device that operates in a cycle and
produces no other effect than the transfer of heat from a lowertemperature body to a higher-temperature body
ie, heat is always transferred from hot to cold, never cold to hot
You cannot design a refrigerator or heat pump that uses no energy
Clausius Statement of the 2nd Law

It is impossible to construct a device that operates in a cycle and
produces no other effect than the transfer of heat from a lowertemperature body to a higher-temperature body
ie, heat is always transferred from hot to cold, never cold to hot
You cannot design a refrigerator or heat pump that uses no energy
Equivalence of Kelvin-Planck and Clausius 2nd Laws
Number of Heads in a Coin Toss

10 coins
N = 10
0.25
Probability
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Number of heads
Number of Heads in a Coin Toss

Most-probable distribution
1000 coins
N = 1000
0.03
Probability
0.025
0.02
0.015
0.01
0.005
0
0
200
400
600
800
Number of heads
1000
Boltzmanns Equation for Entropy

S = k ln(W)
Entropy = Constant ln(Probability)
Ludwig Boltzmann (1844-1906)

The father of Statistical Thermodynamics
and the Kinetic Theory of Gases
The Third Law of Thermodynamics
Entropy is lowest for solids, and highest for gases.

So, as we add energy to the system, we tend to convert from one phase to the next.
Third Law:
The entropy of a pure crystalline substance at absolute zero temperature is zero.
Third law states that at T = 0K the entropy for a pure crystalline solid
(well-ordered, regular structure) becomes S = 0.
Entropy Generation via Heat Transfer
Entropy Generation During Heat Transfer
Thermo Properties
Periodic Table of the Elements
From: http://www.chem.queensu.ca/people/faculty/Mombourquette/FirstYrChem/atomic/index.htm
The mole
The mole is a measure of the amount of matter that something contains
i.e., how many atoms (or protons, neutrons and electrons) it is made of
Traditionally defined as one gram per atomic mass unit

Atomic mass unit is approximately equal to the mass of a proton or neutron
Now defined as the amount of substance of a system, which contains as

many elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kilogram (or 12
grams) of carbon-12, where the carbon-12 atoms are unbound, at rest and
in their ground state.
Carbon 12 has 6 protons, 6 neutrons and 6 electrons
The number of atoms in a mole is given the name Avogadros constant and
has a value of: NA=6.02214179(30)1023 mol-1
A mole of gas at room temperature and atmospheric pressure occupies a
volume of approximately 23 liters.
A mole is a big number:
Astronomers estimate that there are a mole of stars in the universe.
A mole of marshmallows would cover the entire surface of the earth to a depth of 12 miles.
One mole of moles (animal-type), placed head to tail, would stretch 11 million light years and
weigh 9/10 as much as the moon.
Moles, or atoms, are very important units in chemistry because these are
also conserved along with mass and energy
Intensive and Extensive Properties
Density and Specific Volume
Joules Experiment on Internal Energy (1843)
Ideal Gas Properties Nitrogen
Ideal Gas Properties
Monoatomic Gases
Helium
Argon
Diatomic Molecules
http://neon.otago.ac.nz/chemlect/chem306/pca/IR_Raman/images/diatomic_spring.jpg
Ideal Gas Properties
Fundamental Vibrational Energy Modes of CO2
Fundamental Vibrational Energy Modes of H2O

Symmetric Stretch
Asymmetric Stretch
Bending
http://www.atmos.albany.edu/deas/atmclasses/atm335/vib1.htm
Fundamental Vibrational Energy Modes of H2O
Librations refers to rocking or swaying motions here, but is a

term normally used in the context of the moons orbits (look it up
on wikipedia).
http://www.lsbu.ac.uk/water/vibrat.html
Polyatomic Molecules
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Octane_molecule_3D_model.png
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Isooctane-3D-balls.png
Rotational/Vibrational Temperatures
Compound
Rotational
Temperatures [K]
Vibrational Temperatures
[K]
N2
3,395
O2
2,275
H2 O
13
21
40
2,296
5,264
5,406
0.6
961 (x 2)
1,998
3,382
CO2
Fits to Specific Heat vs. Temperature
Use of Average Specific Heats as Approximation
Internal Energy Changes are Process-Independent
Water (Steam) is not an Ideal Gas
Phases of Matter
Solid
Liquid
Gas
Thermodynamic Properties of Solids
Specific Heat of Solids
Characteristic Temperatures of Metallic Crystals

Element
Debye Temperature qD [K]
Lead, Pb
86
Tin, Sn
165
Silver, Ag
215
Platinum, Pt
225
Copper, Cu
308
Aluminum, Al
398
Iron, Fe
453
Nickel, Ni
456
Phases of Matter
Solid
Liquid
Gas
Thermodynamic Properties of Liquids
Heating Liquid Water
V2 > V1
Slight increase in volume as liquid water is heated.

T-V Diagram for Water at Constant p

p = 1atm
Thermodynamic Properties of Liquid Water
Boiling Water
Saturated liquid

p = 1atm
T = Tsat = constant
Saturated liquid
4
Completion of Boiling
Saturated vapour

p = 1atm
T = Tsat = constant
Saturated liquid
4
Saturated vapour
Thermodynamic Properties of Liquids
Same for melting:

Latent heat of fusion
It takes energy to boil something, we call this the:

Latent heat of vaporization
Heating the Water Vapour (Steam)

p = 1atm
Saturated liquid
Saturated vapour
Dependence of Boiling Temperature (Tsat) with Pressure

Elevation
[m]
Atmospheric
Pressure
[kPa]
Boiling
Temperature
[C]
101.33
100.0
1,000
89.55
96.5
2,000
79.50
93.3
5,000
54.05
83.3
10,000
26.50
66.3
20,000
5.53
34.7
Keeping Things Cold Using Boiling
Vacuum Cooling/Freezing
T-V Diagram for Various Pressures
T-V Diagram for Various Pressures
p-V Diagram for Various Temperatures
What About Solid Phase?
Substance that contracts on freezing
Substance that expands on freezing
p T Diagrams
The triple line on a p-V or T-V diagram becomes a single point

when we plot a p-T diagram
Keeping Things Cold by Sublimation
Dry Ice (CO2) has a triple-point pressure above atmospheric

pressure (517 kPa), so it converts directly from a solid to a vapour
This process is called sublimation
Ttp=216.55 K -57C
http://www.shawnlani.com/WORKS/ICY%20BODIES/IcyBodiesQT/IcyBodiesMovie.html=
p V T Surface
Substance that contracts on freezing
Substance that expands on freezing
Thermodynamic Properties of Liquid/Vapour Mixtures
Liquid-Vapour Mixtures
x=0
x=1
Liquid-Vapour Mixtures
x=0
x = 0.5
x=1

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Basic Concepts

Mech 240 Thermodynamics 1

Molecules are in constant thermal motion in gases, liquids and solids

Mech 240 Thermodynamics 1

Pressure is the force per unit area on a surface caused by the

Mech 240 Thermodynamics 1

Mech 240 Thermodynamics 1

Absolute Temperature Scale

Mech 240 Thermodynamics 1

Mech 240 Thermodynamics 1

Lord Kelvin (William Thomson)

1st Law and Closed Systems

Mech 240 Thermodynamics 1

Mech 240 Thermodynamics 1

Mech 240 Thermodynamics 1

Mech 240 Thermodynamics 1

Mech 240 Thermodynamics 1

Mech 240 Thermodynamics 1

Mech 240 Thermodynamics 1

Mech 240 Thermodynamics 1

Boundary Work Polytropic Process

Mech 240 Thermodynamics 1

Boundary Work Polytropic Process

Mech 240 Thermodynamics 1

Gas Power Cycles

Mech 240 Thermodynamics 1

Spark-Ignition (or Gasoline) Engine

Acura Integra engine cutaway

Mech 240 Thermodynamics 1

In-line 4 Cylinder Engine

GIF movies courtesy of www.howstuffworks.com/engine2.htm

GIF movie courtesy

Internal Combustion Engine Terminology

Top Dead Center

Mech 240 Thermodynamics 1

Internal Combustion Engine Volume

Mech 240 Thermodynamics 1

Spark-Ignition Engine (Otto) Cycle

Mech 240 Thermodynamics 1

Spark-Ignition Engine (Otto) Cycle

Mech 240 Thermodynamics 1

Real vs. Ideal Cycles

Mech 240 Thermodynamics 1

Assumptions used to Calculate Ideal Cycle

Mech 240 Thermodynamics 1

Mech 240 Thermodynamics 1

Mech 240 Thermodynamics 1

Mech 240 Thermodynamics 1

Constant Volume Heat Addition

Work Output of Otto Cycle

Mech 240 Thermodynamics 1

Work Output of Otto Cycle

Work Output of Otto Cycle

Expansion Work, wout

Mech 240 Thermodynamics 1

Work Output of Otto Cycle

Net Work Out, wnet

Mech 240 Thermodynamics 1

Otto Cycle Analysis & Efficiency

Mech 240 Thermodynamics 1

Otto Cycle Analysis & Efficiency

Mech 240 Thermodynamics 1

Otto Cycle Analysis & Efficiency