VARIABLE-ENTERED MAP (VEM)

The Karnaugh map (K -map) is most commonly used method for simplifying logic
functions for up to six variables. For logic functions having more than six variables, the
Quine-McCluskey tabular method (which will be discussed later!) is more suitable.

CD

00 01 11 10
00 1 0 0 0

AB

01 0

11 0D 1

10 1

Using the variable -entered map (VEM), it is

possible to use the K-map for large numbers of
variables if some of the variables (the seldom used
variables) can be conveniently entered on the map.
This technique amounts to a reduction in the map size
and a very useful extension to the power of the map.

Steps :
1. Group all the 1s counting all the map-entered variables (MEVs) as 0s just like an
ordinary k-map.
2. Take each map-entered variable separately and find an encirclement using each
previously circled 1 as a dont care. Or, treat other map-entered variables as 0s and
1s as dont cares.
3. The expression found in step 1 should be eliminated if the 1s that are grouped are
double covered. Only those that are not double-covered should be included in the
minimized expression.
NB: A 1 in a VEM is double-covered if its covered twice, i.e., once by a cluster
containing the complement of the same map-entered variable.

A VEM that contains two or more variables ORed together or two or more variables
ANDed together must follow the following procedure:
1. Cover or group each map-entered variable in the OR expression with dont cares;
other map-entered variables are taken as 0s and 1s as dont cares.
2. For an AND expression, the minimum expression is found by simply covering the
AND expression while treating all other map-entered variables as 0s and all 1s as
dont cares.

SWIDLEC Lecture Notes

Edzel R. Lapira
zell@mozcom.com

Quine McCluskey Method

(Tabular Minimization)

Except in special cases or for particularly sparse truth tables, the

K-map method simply breaks down beyond six variables. The obvious
disadvantage of the map is the heuristic procedure that relies on the
ability of the human user to recognize certain patterns.

The Quine - McCluskey method, developed in the 1950s, find

the minimized expression of any Boolean expression. It provides a
systematic procedure for generating all prime implicants and then
extracting a minimum set of primes covering the on-set.

Determination of the Prime Implicants

1. Group the minterms according to the number of ones they contain.
2. Compare each minterm in one group to the minterms of other adjacent group. If the
two terms differ only in one variable, eliminate that variable.
3. Replace the eliminated variable with a dash (-).
4. Repeat steps 2 to 4 until no comparisons can be made.

F ( w,x,y,z ) = (1,4,6,7,8,9,10,11,15)

Example:
wxyz
0001
0100
1000

wxyz
1
4
8

0110
1001

6
9

1010

10

0111

1011

11

1111

15

Exercise:
SWIDLEC Lecture Notes
Edzel R. Lapira
zell@mozcom.com

wxyz

-001
01-0
100-

1,9
4,6
8,9

(8)
(2)
(1)

10-0

8,10

(2)

6,7

(1)

01110-1
101-

9,11 (2)
10,11 (1)

-111
1-11

7,15 (8)
11,15 (4)

10-10--

8,9,10,11
8,9,10,11

F ( w,x,y,z ) = (1,2,8,10,11,14,15 )

(1,2)
(1,2)

Creation of the Prime Implicant Table

1. Each prime implicant is represented in a row.
2. Each minterm is represented in a column.
3. Xs are placed in each row to show composition of minterms that make the prime
implicants.
4. A minimum set of prime implicants is then chosen that covers all the minterms in the
function.

Prime Implicants
-001
1,9
01-0
011-111

4,6
6,7
7,15

1-11
10--

11,15
8,9,10,11

10

11

15

Selection of Prime Implicants

1. The completed prime-implicant table is inspected for columns containing only a
single X. These are called essential prime implicants.
2. A check mark is placed in the table next to the essential prime implicant to indicate
they have been selected.
3. Check each column whose minterm is covered by the selected essential prime
implicants.
4. Inspect the table and include other prime implicant(s) to cover all minterms.

Prime Implicants
-001
1,9
01-0
4,6
011-111
1-11
10--

10

6,7
7,15
11,15
8,9,10,11

The simplified function is:

F ( w,x,y,z ) = x ' y ' z + w ' xz '+ xyz + w x '

SWIDLEC Lecture Notes

Edzel R. Lapira
zell@mozcom.com

11

15

CUBES
A cube is usually defined as a solid object bounded by six equal squares.
This concept can be generalized to other than three dimensions. A twodimensional cube is a square, a one-dimensional cube is a line, and a zerodimensional cube is a point.
One can represent the truth table of an n-input Boolean
function as a cube in an n-dimensional Boolean space. There
is one axis for each variable, over which it can take exactly two
values: 0 or 1. Each node is labeled with its coordinates in the ndimensional space.

1-cube
xyz
011

xy
11

01

111

010

110
001
y

y
00

10

101

z
x

000

2-cube

100

3-cube
1011

0011

0111

wxyz
1111

1110

1010
1001

0010

1101

0110
0001

y
0000

0101

z
w
x

SWIDLEC Lecture Notes

Edzel R. Lapira
zell@mozcom.com

0100

1100

1000

4-cube

Mapping Truth Tables onto Cubes

The elements of the on-set are represented by black nodes and those of the off-set by
white nodes (dont cares are represented by X nodes).
Example:

F(x,y) = (2,3)
xy
11

01

y
00

10

F(x,y) = x
Another example:

F(x,y,z) = (3,5,6,7)
yz
xyz
111

011
010

xz

110
001

101

000

100

xy

Still another example:

F(x,y,z) = (4,5,6,7)
xyz
111

011
010
110
001
y
000

SWIDLEC Lecture Notes

Edzel R. Lapira
zell@mozcom.com

101

z
x

100

LOGIC GATES
(ANSI/IEEE Standard 91-1984)

NOT

&

AND

>=1

OR

&

NAND

>=1

NOR

=1

XOR

=1

XNOR

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Edzel R. Lapira
zell@mozcom.com

The Universal Property of NAND and NOR Gates

Digital circuits are more frequently constructed with NAND or NOR gates than with
AND and OR gates. NAND and NOR gates are easier to fabricate with electronic
components and are the basic gates used in all IC digital logic families.
Because of the prominence of NAND and NOR gates in the design of digital circuits,
rules and procedures have been developed for the conversion from Boolean functions given
in terms of AND, OR and NOT into equivalent NAND and NOR logic diagrams.

Alternative Graphical Symbols

NAND Gate

a
b

a
b

AND-Invert (NAND)

c
Invert-OR

NOR GATE

a
b

c
OR-Invert (NOR)

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Edzel R. Lapira
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a
b

c
Invert-AND

The NAND Gate as a Universal Logic Element

A
AB

A
B

AB = AB

A
B

AB

AB = A + B

A
B

A+B

A+B

A
B

A+B

AB = A + B

The NOR Gate as a Universal Logic Element

A
A+B

A
B

A+B

A
B

A+B

A + B = AB

A
B

AB

A
AB
AB

SWIDLEC Lecture Notes

Edzel R. Lapira
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A
B

AB

Two-Level Implementations
The logic diagram of any function can be drawn using a two-level implementation.
The first level takes care of the base term (either a sum term or a product term). The number
of first-level gates to be used to implement the function depends on the number of base terms.
The second level takes into consideration the operation being
done on the base
terms. There is always a single gate at the second level.
There are four basic types of gates:
AND, OR, NAND and NOR. If one type of
gate is assigned for the first level and one type
for the second, there will be 16 possible
combinations.

Two types of two-level implementations:

1. Degenerate Forms
2. Nondegenerate Forms

Degenerate Forms
Of the sixteen combinations, there are eight (8) degenerate forms. They are called
such because they degrade to a single operation. The degenerate forms are:
AND-AND = AND
AND-NAND = NAND
NOR-NAND = OR
NOR-AND = NOR

OR-OR = OR
OR-NOR = NOR
NAND-NOR = AND
NAND-OR = NAND

Nondegenerate Form
The other eight (8) combinations are nondegenerate forms that produce an
implementation in sum of products or product of sums. They are:
AND OR
NAND NAND
NOR OR
OR NAND

OR AND
NOR NOR
NAND AND
AND NOR

Note that any two forms listed in the same line are the duals of each other.

SWIDLEC Lecture Notes

Edzel R. Lapira
zell@mozcom.com

Nondegenerate Forms
1. AND - OR
Required: F in SOP
Example: F = AB + CD
A

C
B

D
C

AB + CD

2. OR - AND
Required: F in POS
Example: F = (A + B)(C + D)
A

C
B

D
C

(A + B)(C + D)

3. NAND - NAND
Required: F in SOP
Example: F = AB + CD F = ABCD
A

C
B

D
C

ABCD

SWIDLEC Lecture Notes

Edzel R. Lapira
zell@mozcom.com

4. NOR - NOR
Required: F in POS
Example: F = ( A + B ) ( C + D ) F = ( A + B ) + ( C + D )
A

C
B

D
C

( A + B) + ( C + D )

5. AND - NOR
Required: F in POS
Example: F = ( A + B ) ( C + D ) F = ( A + B ) + ( C + D ) F = AB + CD
A

C
B

D
C

AB + CD

or
Required: F in SOP
Example: F = AB + CD F = AB + CD F = AB + CD
A

C
B

D
C

AB + CD

SWIDLEC Lecture Notes

Edzel R. Lapira
zell@mozcom.com

6. NAND - AND
Required: F in POS

( )( )

Example: F = ( A + B ) ( C + D ) F = ( A + B ) + ( C + D ) F = AB + CD F = AB CD
A

( AB )( CD)

or
Required: F in SOP
Example: F = AB + CD F = AB + CD F = AB + CD F = ( AB) ( CD )
A

D
C

( AB) ( CD )

7. OR NAND
Required: F in SOP

)(

Example: F = AB + CD F = ABCD F = A + B C + D
A

C
B

D
C

( A + B)( C + D)

SWIDLEC Lecture Notes

Edzel R. Lapira
zell@mozcom.com

or
Required: F in POS
Example: F = (A + B)(C + D) F = (A + B)(C + D) F = (A + B)(C + D)
A

D
C

(A + B)(C + D)

8. NOR OR
Required: F in SOP

)(

) (

Example: F = AB + CD F = ABCD F = A + B C + D F = A + B + C + D
A

C
B

D
C

( A + B) + ( C + D )

or
Required: F in POS
Example: F = (A + B)(C + D) F = (A + B)(C + D) F = (A + B)(C + D) F = (A + B)+(C + D)
A

C
B

D
C

(A + B)+(C + D)

SWIDLEC Lecture Notes

Edzel R. Lapira
zell@mozcom.com