THE IMPORTANCE OF MOTIVATION.

The key to leadership success is MOTIVATING OTHERS TO DO THEIR BEST.

The importance of satisfaction in the workforce cannot be overstated.
Losing an employee can cost over $100,000.
Motivating the right people to join and remain with the organization is a key
function of managers.
People are motivated by a variety of things.
An INTRINSIC REWARD is the good feeling you have when you have done a
good job.
An EXTRINSIC REWARD is something given to you by someone else as
recognition for good work and include pay increases, praise, and promotions.
MOTIVATION, the drive to satisfy a need, ultimately comes from WITHIN AN
INDIVIDUAL.
The purpose of this chapter is to help you learn how to stimulate people and
bring out that natural drive to do a good job.
The job of a manager is to find each workers commitment, encourage it, and
focus it on some common goal
EARLY MANAGEMENT STUDIES (TAYLOR).
FREDERICK TAYLOR is known as the "FATHER OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT."
His book The Principles of Scientific Management was published in 1911.
TAYLORS GOAL was to INCREASE PRODUCTIVITY by studying the most
efficient ways of doing things and then teaching workers these methods.
The way to improve productivity was to scientifically study the most efficient
way to do things then teach people those methods (SCIENTIFIC
MANAGEMENT.)
THREE ELEMENTS of his approach were: TIME, METHODS, and RULES OF
WORK.
TIME-MOTION STUDIES break down the tasks needed to do a job and measure
the time needed to do each task.
Henry L. Gant, on of Taylors followers, developed GANTT CHARTS by which

managers plotted the work of employees a day in advance.

FRANK AND LILLIAN GILBRETH used Taylors ideas in the PRINCIPLE OF
MOTION ECONOMYbreaking down every job into a series of motions
(therbligs) and then analyzing each motion to make it more efficient.
SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT viewed people as MACHINES that needed to be
properly programmed.
There was little concern for the psychological or human aspects of work.
Much emphasis in some companies is still placed on conformity to work rules
rather than on creativity, flexibility, and responsiveness.
THE HAWTHORNE STUDIES (MAYO.)
The HAWTHORNE STUDIES were conducted by Elton Mayo at the WESTERN
ELECTRIC COMPANYs Hawthorne plant in Cicero, Illinois.
Begun in 1927, the studies ended six years later.
The PURPOSE of the studies were to DETERMINE THE BEST LIGHTING for
optimum productivity.
The PRODUCTIVITY of the experimental group INCREASED compared to the
control group whether the lighting was bright or dim.
These results confused the researchers, who had expected productivity to fall
as the lighting was dimmed.
A second series of studies were conducted to see if OTHER FACTORS, such as
temperature and humidity, contributed to increased production.
PRODUCTIVITY INCREASED during each of the 13 experimental periods.
When conditions were returned to their original status (before the studies
were started), PRODUCTIVITY CONTINUED TO GO UP. Why?
Mayo hypothesized that HUMAN or PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS caused the
increases:
The workers in the test room thought of themselves as a SOCIAL GROUP.
The workers were involved in the PLANNING of the experiments.
The workers enjoyed the SPECIAL ATMOSPHERE and ADDITIONAL PAY for the
increased productivity.
The term HAWTHORNE EFFECT refers to the tendency for people to behave

differently when they know theyre being studied.

The Hawthorne studies results encouraged researchers TO STUDY HUMAN
MOTIVATION and the MANAGERIAL STYLES that lead to more productivity.
Mayos findings led to NEW ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT EMPLOYEES.
MONEY was found to be a relatively LOW MOTIVATOR.
MOTIVATION AND MASLOWS HIERARCHY OF NEEDS.
ABRAHAM MASLOW believed that MOTIVATION ARISES FROM NEED.
One is motivated to satisfy unmet needs.
Satisfied needs NO LONGER MOTIVATE.
Maslow placed needs on a HIERARCHY of importance:
PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS: Basic survival needs including the need to drink, eat,
and be sheltered from heat and cold.
SAFETY NEEDS: The need to feel secure at work and at home.
SOCIAL NEEDS: The need to feel loved, accepted, and part of the group.
ESTEEM NEEDS: The need for recognition and acknowledgment from others,
as well as self-respect and a sense of status.
SELF-ACTUALIZATION NEEDS: The need to develop to your fullest potential.
When one need is satisfied, another, higher-level need emerges to be
satisfied.
A SATISFIED NEED is no longer a motivator.
Lower-level needs, however, can pop up at any time and take attention away
from higher-level needs.
APPLYING MASLOWS THEORY
The text relates how Andrew Grove, president of Intel, uses Maslows
concepts to motivate employees in his firm.
Once one understands the need level of employees, it is easier to design
programs that will trigger self-motivation.
MCGREGORS THEORY X AND THEORY Y
DOUGLAS MCGREGOR categories managers by THEIR ATTITUDES which lead

to different managerial styles: THEORY X and THEORY Y.

THEORY X.
The ASSUMPTIONS of Theory X management are:
The average person DISLIKES WORK and will avoid it if possible.
Because of this dislike, the average person must be FORCED, CONTROLLED,
DIRECTED, OR THREATENED WITH PUNISHMENT TO BE MOTIVATED to put
forth the effort to achieve the organizations goals.
The average worker prefers to be directed, wishes TO AVOID RESPONSIBILITY,
has relatively LITTLE AMBITION, and wants SECURITY.
Primary motivators are FEAR and MONEY.
The CONSEQUENCE OF SUCH ATTITUDES is a manager who is very "busy."
Motivation is more likely to take the form of PUNISHMENT for bad work rather
than REWARD for good work.
Theory X managers give workers little responsibility, authority, or flexibility.
Those were the assumptions behind Taylors scientific management
THEORY Y.
THEORY Y makes entirely different ASSUMPTIONS about people:
Most people LIKE WORK; it is as natural as play or rest.
Most people NATURALLY WORK TOWARD GOALS to which he or she is
committed.
The depth of a persons commitment to goals depends on the perceived
REWARDS for achieving them.
Under certain conditions, most people not only accept but SEEKS
RESPONSIBILITY.
People are capable of using a high degree of IMAGINATION, CREATIVITY, and
CLEVERNESS to solve problems.
In industry, the average persons INTELLECTUAL POTENTIAL IS ONLY
PARTIALLY REALIZED.
People are MOTIVATED BY A VARIETY OF REWARDS. Each worker is stimulated
by a reward unique to that worker (time off, money, recognition, etc.)

Theory Y emphasizes a relaxed managerial atmosphere in which workers are

free to set objectives and be flexible.
EMPOWERMENT is a key technique in meeting these objectives. To be a real
motivator, empowerment requires management to:
Find out what people think the problems in the organization are.
Let them design the solutions.
Get out of the way and let them put those solutions into action.
The trend in many U.S. businesses is toward Theory Y management.
OUCHIS THEORY Z.
Another reason for a more flexible managerial style is to meet competition
from foreign firms.
In the 1980s WILLIAM OUCHI researched how corporations in Japan are run
differently from U.S. companies.
The Japanese management approach, called TYPE J, involved:
Lifetime employment.
Consensual decision making.
Collective responsibility for the outcomes of decisions.
Slow evaluation and promotion.
Implied control mechanisms.
Nonspecialized career paths.
Holistic concern for employees.
The American management approach, called TYPE A, involved:
Short-term employment.
Individual decision making.
Individual responsibility for the outcomes of decisions.
Rapid evaluation and promotion.
Explicit control mechanism.
Specialized career paths.

Segmented concern for employees.

Type J firms are based on the culture of Japan; Type A firms are based on the
culture of America.
Ouchi realized that American managers could not be expected to accept a
concept based on another culture.
Ouchi recommended a hybrid of the two approaches, THEORY Z.
Long-term employment.
Collective decision making.
Individual responsibility for the outcome of decisions.
Slow evaluation and promotion.
Moderately specialized career path.
Holistic concern for employees.
Today economic changes are forcing Japanese managers to reevaluate their
management styles.
Today there is a realization that Japanese firms need to become more
efficient.
Some Japanese managers are changing the way they do business.
Many managers think that conformity has hurt Japanese business.
Many managers think that conformity has hurt Japanese business.

THEORIES X, Y, AND Y are CONCERNED WITH MANAGEMENT STYLES.

Another theory looks at what managers can do with the job itself to motivate
employees.
FREDERICK HERZBERGS work is CONCERNED IS WITH THE CONTENT OF
WORK rather than style of management.
Frederick HERZBERG surveyed workers to find out how they RANK JOBRELATED FACTORS. The results were:

Sense of achievement.
Earned recognition.
Interest in the work itself.
Opportunity for growth.
Opportunity for advancement.
Importance of responsibility.
Peer and group relationships.
Pay.
Supervisors fairness.
Company policies and rules.
Status.
Job security.
Supervisors friendliness.
Working conditions.
Herzberg noted that the HIGHEST RANKING FACTORS DEALT WITH JOB
CONTENT.
He referred to these as MOTIVATORS since they gave employees a great deal
of satisfaction.
They include the work itself, achievement, and responsibility.
The OTHER FACTORS had to do with JOB ENVIRONMENT.
They could CAUSE DISSATISFACTION If them were missing but NOT
NECESSARILY MOTIVATION if they increased.
These so called HYGIENE FACTORS include working conditions and salary.
APPLYING HERZBERGS THEORIES
The text offers several current examples of Herzbergs theories in action,
including Kingston Technology and Sunnen Products.
These firms believe that the best motivator for some employees is a simple
"Thanks, I really appreciate what youre doing."

Further surveys support his finding that the number one motivator is not
money, but a sense of achievement and recognition.
One study identified lack of enough praise and recognition as the primary
reason employees leave their job.
There is a good deal of similarity in Maslows hierarchy and Herzbergs twofactor theory.
JOB ENRICHMENT.
JOB ENRICHMENT is a motivational strategy that emphasizes motivating the
worker through the job itself.
The FIVE CHARACTERISTICS of work believed to be IMPORTANT IN AFFECTING
MOTIVATION AND PERFORMANCE are:
SKILL VARIETY, the extent to which a job demands different skills of the
person.
TASK IDENTITY, the degree to which the job requires doing a task with a
visible outcome from beginning to end.
TASK SIGNIFICANCE, the degree to which the job has a substantial impact on
the lives of others in the company.
AUTONOMY, the degree of freedom, independence, and discretion in
scheduling work and determining procedures.
FEEDBACK, the amount of direct, clear information received about job
performance.
The text uses the examples of Herb Kelleher of Southwest Airlines, and Roger
Sant if AES.
OTHER JOB DESIGNS
JOB SIMPLIFICATION produces task efficiency by breaking down the job into
simple steps, sometimes necessary with people learning new skills.
JOB ENLARGEMENT combines a series of tasks into one assignment that is
more challenging and motivating.
JOB ROTATION makes work more interesting by moving employees from one
job to another
GOAL-SETTING THEORY AND MANAGEMENT BY OBJECTIVES.
GOAL-SETTING THEORY is based on setting specific, attainable goals.

This will lead to high motivation and performance if the goals are accepted,
accompanied by feedback, and facilitated by organizational conditions.
Peter Drucker developed such a system in the 1960s called MANAGEMENT BY
OBJECTIVES (MBO.)
MANAGEMENT BY OBJECTIVES (MBO) is an example of goal-setting.
Management by Objectives was developed to HELP EMPLOYEES MOTIVATE
THEMSELVES.
MBO is a system of goal setting and implementation that involves a cycle of
discussion, review, and evaluation of objectives among all levels of
management and employees.
There are six steps in the MBO process.
Some critics see MBO as being out of date and inconsistent with
contemporary management thought.
Almost one-half of firms surveyed, however use some form of MBO.
Management by objectives is most effective in relatively stable situations.
It is important to understand the difference between helping and coaching
subordinates because helping tends to make subordinates weak and
dependent while coaching makes them feel capable and part of the team.
HELPING is working with the subordinate, even doing part of the work if
necessary.
COACHING means acting as a resourceteaching guiding, recommending
but not helping by doing the task.
Problems can arise when management uses MBO as a strategy for FORCING
managers to commit to goals that are not mutually agreed upon.
MEETING EMPLOYEE EXPECTATIONS: EXPECTANCY THEORY.
According to VICTOR VROOMs EXPECTANCY THEORY, employee expectations
can affect an individuals motivation.
The amount of effort employees exert on a specific task depends on their
expectations of the outcome.
Vroom contends that employees ask three questions before committing
maximum effort to a task:
Can I accomplish the task?

If I do accomplish it, whats my reward?

Is the reward worth the effort?
Expectation varies from individual to individual.
FIVE STEPS TO IMPROVE EMPLOYEE PERFORMANCE:
Determine what rewards are valued by employees.
Determine the employees desired performance standard.
Ensure performance standards are attainable.
Guarantee rewards are tied to performance.
Be certain rewards are considered adequate.
TREATING EMPLOYEES FAIRLY: EQUITY THEORY.
The basic principle of EQUITY THEORY is that workers try to maintain equity
between inputs and outputs compared to people in similar positions.
When workers do perceive inequity, they will try to reestablish equitable
exchanges.
They can reduce or increase their efforts or rationalize the situation.
In the workplace, inequity leads to lower productivity leads to lower
productivity, reduced quality, increased absenteeism, and voluntary
resignation.
Equity judgements are based on perceptions, and are therefore subject to
errors in perception.
Organizations can try to deal with this by keeping salaries secret.
However, the best remedy, in general, is clear and frequent communication.
BUILDING TEAMWORK THROUGH OPEN COMMUNICATION.
Explain how open communication builds teamwork, and describe how
managers are likely to motivate teams in the future.

Companies with highly motivated workforces usually have open

communication systems and self-managed teams.
Communication must flow freely when teams are empowered to make

decisions.
Also, most learning happens at the peer level.
Empowerment works when people share their knowledge with their peers.
PROCEDURES FOR ENCOURAGING OPEN COMMUNICATION INCLUDE:
Create an organizational culture that rewards listening.
Train supervisors and managers to listen.
Remove barriers to open communication.
Actively undertake efforts to facilitate communication.
APPLYING OPEN COMMUNICATION IN SELF-MANAGED TEAMS.
The text offers several examples of communication among members of selfmanaged teams in such organizations as FORD MOTOR COMPANY.
For companies to implement such groups, managers must RE-INVENT WORK.
CHANGING ORGANIZATIONS IS NOT EASY.
MANY MANAGERS WERE TRAINED UNDER A DIFFERENT SYSTEM.
Many are used to telling people what to do rather than consulting them.
It is difficult for such managers to change.
Employees often have a difficult time changing as well, and some have
trouble getting involved in participative management.
A MODEL FOR THE FUTURE: EMPLOYEE EMPOWERMENT.
The text tells the story of MILLER BREWING COMPANY and MARY KAY
COSMETICS as an example of a company that successfully created an
efficient and effective team.
Understanding what motivates employees is the key to success in goodsproducing companies such as MILLER BREWING COMPANY and service-based
firms such as MARK KAY COSMETICS.
The lessons learned from these companies include:
The future growth of industry depends on a motivated, productive work force.
Motivation is largely internally generated by workers themselves.
The first step in any motivational program is to establish open

communications.
MOTIVATION IN THE FUTURE
Employees are not alikedifferent employees respond to different managerial
and motivational styles.
Tomorrows managers will not be able to use any one formula for all
employees.
They will need to work with each employee as an individual and fit the
motivational effort to that individual.
Different cultures experience motivational approaches differently.
Cultural differences also apply to generations:
Baby boomers (born between 1946 and 1964) experienced economic
prosperity and optimism about the future.
Generation X (born between 1965 and 1980) were raised with dual-career
families and insecurity about a life-long job.
Boomer managers need to be flexible with Gen X employees.
Gen Xers focus on career security, not job security, and are willing to change
jobs to do it.
Gen Xers focus on career security, not job security, and are willing to change
jobs to do it.
Managers need to give workers what they need to do a good jobthe right
tools, the right information, and the right amount of cooperation.

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mportance of Motivation

Motivation is a very important for an organization because of the following

benefits it provides:

Puts human resources into action

Every concern requires physical, financial and human resources to
accomplish the goals. It is through motivation that the human resources can
be utilized by making full use of it. This can be done by building willingness in
employees to work. This will help the enterprise in securing best possible
utilization of resources.
Improves level of efficiency of employees
The level of a subordinate or a employee does not only depend upon his
qualifications and abilities. For getting best of his work performance, the gap
between ability and willingness has to be filled which helps in improving the
level of performance of subordinates. This will result intoIncrease in productivity,
Reducing cost of operations, and
Improving overall efficiency.
Leads to achievement of organizational goals
The goals of an enterprise can be achieved only when the following factors
take place :There is best possible utilization of resources,
There is a co-operative work environment,
The employees are goal-directed and they act in a purposive manner,
Goals can be achieved if co-ordination and co-operation takes place
simultaneously which can be effectively done through motivation.
Builds friendly relationship
Motivation is an important factor which brings employees satisfaction. This
can be done by keeping into mind and framing an incentive plan for the
benefit of the employees. This could initiate the following things:
Monetary and non-monetary incentives,
Promotion opportunities for employees,
Disincentives for inefficient employees.
In order to build a cordial, friendly atmosphere in a concern, the above steps

should be taken by a manager. This would help in:

Effective co-operation which brings stability,
Industrial dispute and unrest in employees will reduce,
The employees will be adaptable to the changes and there will be no
resistance to the change,
This will help in providing a smooth and sound concern in which individual
interests will coincide with the organizational interests,
This will result in profit maximization through increased productivity.
Leads to stability of work force
Stability of workforce is very important from the point of view of reputation
and goodwill of a concern. The employees can remain loyal to the enterprise
only when they have a feeling of participation in the management. The skills
and efficiency of employees will always be of advantage to employees as well
as employees. This will lead to a good public image in the market which will
attract competent and qualified people into a concern. As it is said, Old is
gold which suffices with the role of motivation here, the older the people,
more the experience and their adjustment into a concern which can be of
benefit to the enterprise.
From the above discussion, we can say that motivation is an internal feeling
which can be understood only by manager since he is in close contact with
the employees. Needs, wants and desires are inter-related and they are the
driving force to act. These needs can be understood by the manager and he
can frame motivation plans accordingly. We can say that motivation therefore
is a continuous process since motivation process is based on needs which are
unlimited. The process has to be continued throughout.

We can summarize by saying that motivation is important both to an

individual and a business. Motivation is important to an individual as:
Motivation will help him achieve his personal goals.
If an individual is motivated, he will have job satisfaction.
Motivation will help in self-development of individual.
An individual would always gain by working with a dynamic team.
Similarly, motivation is important to a business as:

The more motivated the employees are, the more empowered the team is.
The more is the team work and individual employee contribution, more
profitable and successful is the business.
During period of amendments, there will be more adaptability and creativity.
Motivation will lead to an optimistic and challenging attitude at work place.
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Introduction
Motivation is defined as the desire and action towards goal-directed behavior.
This is an important concept in psychology as well as in business, schools,
and other areas. For example, we want our children to behave and do their
homework. Businesses want to get the population to buy their products.
Adults may want to change the behaviors of romantic others. All of these
situations are examples of times that we may want to motivate someone else
to do what we want them to do. Motivation can be intrinsic or
extrinsic.Intrinsic Motivation: A person is intrinsically motivated if the desire
for change comes from within the individual. The person may want to learn
something because he or she is interested. Another person may want to
accomplish a goal or task because it is something he or she feels competent
at and enjoys doing. Extrinsic: On the other hand, extrinsic motivation comes
from outside the person. They are bribed to do something or they earn a
prize or reward. Paychecks are extrinsic motivators. Fear of punishment and
coercion are also extrinsic motivators.
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Key Figures & Theories
Abraham Maslow
Abraham Maslow was a humanistic psychologist who believed people were
motivated by survival and other needs. The needs he identified were
physiological, security, needs of belonging, esteem, and self-actualization.
Physical needs: food, water, sleep
Security/safety: shelter, safe environment
Belongingness and love: friends, family, and intimacy
Esteem: Respect, self-esteem, recognition
Self-actualization: achieving an individual's full potential

He organized these needs into a triangle he called the hierarchy of needs.

Maslow believed all people had an innate desire or drive to become selfactualized; however, people met their needs according to a particular order
or hierarchy. The most important needs for life are those that are physically
sustaining such as food, water, and shelter. Maslow stated that people had to
fulfill these basic needs before other needs such as esteem and belonging
could be met.
original image:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maslow's_hierarchy_of_needsFrederick Herzberg
Frederick Herzberg proposed a two-factor theory of motivation based on his
research with job satisfaction. His theory is also referred to as the motivationhygiene theory. The motivation piece of his theory states that people are
motivated towards behaviors that offer growth and personal satisfaction.
Hygiene refers to physical and emotional comforts. Herzberg believed that
people are motivated to avoid deprivation. For example, people work to avoid
being fired or losing pay. You may notice that his two-factor theory sounds
familiar to the intrinsic versus extrinsic model. Motivation would be
considered intrinsic while hygiene corresponds to extrinsic
motivation.Another important piece of this theory is that motivation can give
positive satisfaction but if not met, it won't necessarily create dissatisfaction.
On the other hand, hygiene factors won't motivate a person to action but if
they aren't met, they will cause dissatisfaction. In other words, people who
get great benefits at their job won't necessarily be motivated to work harder.
If they don't have any benefits, however, they will be unhappy or dissatisfied.
In terms of motivation, people may have higher satisfaction at their jobs if
they feel competent and are given appropriately challenging tasks. If they
aren't given growth opportunities, it doesn't mean they will have a decrease
in job satisfaction. Clayton Alderfer
Clayton Alderfer expanded on Maslow's theory and categorized needs into 3
categories; existence, relatedness, and growth (ERG). Alderfer's existence
need refers to physical needs such as food, water, shelter, etc. Relatedness
needs are the need to have relationships with other people. Growth needs
refer to the need to develop to one's full potential. You will see that these are
very similar to the needs in Maslow's hierarchy. Contrary to Maslow's theory,
however, Alderfer believed that needs are not met in any order but
simultaneously to different degrees. Some people place more priority on
"higher needs" than "lower needs," e.g. someone spends more time studying
and meeting their growth needs than they spend eating or sleeping. A final
point on the ERG theory is the idea of frustration-regression. If a higher order
need such as growth is not being met, an individual will regress to an easier
need and focus more energy on meeting that need. Alderfer's model also
accounts for how people's needs change over time based on their

environment and perceptions of experience. Douglas McGregor

Douglas McGregor proposed "Theory X" and "Theory Y" to explain motivation
in the workplace. His Theory X was that people avoid work because they
don't like it. (is that profound or what?) People who meet the criteria for
theory x are not ambitious, they want to do the minimum of work required,
and they only complete tasks for job security. On the other hand, "Theory Y"
refers to people who are creative and want responsibility. These people are
usually ambitious and gain satisfaction from work.McGregor believed that if
the motives behind work were understood, managers could meet workers on
their level and use the correct strategies to motivate each type. For example,
if you are a theory x worker, then you won't be motivated to try harder if the
reward was a promotion. To you, a promotion would mean more responsibility
and more work that you didn't want to do. Therefore, I would need to use
tactics such as performance reviews that you would need to score highly on
to keep your job. David McClelland
David McClelland proposed the theory that people not only have needs, but
they develop more needs as they mature. His theory, the acquired needs
theory, consisted of 3 specific needs; achievement, affiliation, and power.
Achievement is the need to master tasks and be successful. Affiliation is the
need to form positive relationships. And lastly, power is the need to be in
control or have authority over others. McClelland hypothesized that our
experiences, particularly our early experiences as children, determined which
of these three needs would develop and to what degree. Therefore, I as an
adult have a need to control others (power) then power and control were
things that were reinforced as a child or something happened that made me
want to control others. Victor Vroom
Victor Vroom was responsible for the expectancy theory. This theory states
that if an individual believes he or she can do something then he or she is
more likely to accomplish it. Thoughts and effort are vital to this theory
because if someone does not think they are able to do a task, he or she is not
likely to put forth much effort. Therefore, motivation is decreased. Failure
does not motivate a person to try harder. Successes, even if they are small,
motivate people to improve. Stacy Adams
Stacy Adams' theory, equity theory, is based on comparisons and equality.
She believed that people were motivated if they felt they were receiving
compensation that was equal to what others received. A common plot of high
school depictions on television is the situation in which one student is
discriminated to the point that he or she always receives low scores no
matter what homework is turned in. In this plot, no one believes the student
so he or she switches homework with a fellow classmate known for getting
high grades. In the end, the student still gets a low grade and the A student

does well despite the fact that they switched homework. This is an example
of how inequality would result in a decrease of motivation for both students.
The "A" student would not feel validated for his or her effort and the other
student would possibly quit. According to Stacy's theory, if there is inequality
or "inequity" then individuals will increase or decrease their effort, they may
contest the inequality and request fairness, or they may even quit entirely. B.
F. Skinner
Skinner believed that people are motivated by rewards. Skinner's theory,
operant conditioning, concerns reinforcement and punishment.
Reinforcement is a stimulus that is given immediately after a behavior that
will increase the likelihood that the target behavior will be repeated.
Punishment is a stimulus that is given immediately after a behavior that will
decrease the likelihood that the target behavior will be repeated.
Reinforcement and Punishment are also further divided into 2 types, positive
and negative. Positive is something that is added while negative means
something has been taken away. These types are outlined in the following
table:
Reinforcement

Punishment

Positive
Something is added to increase the likelihood a behavior will
occur Something is added to decrease the likelihood a behavior will occur
Negative
Something (usually unpleasant) is taken away to increase the
likelihood a behavior will occur Something (usually pleasant) us taken away
to decrease the likelihood a behavior will occur
An example of a powerful negative reinforcer is a screaming child. The sound
is so annoying that many adults will give the child anything he or she wants
in order to get the screaming to stop. The child will stop screaming (take
away the piercing sound) when the adult gives him or her candy (increase
likelihood that behavior occurs.) Therefore, the child used negative
reinforcement to motivate the adult to action, e.g. giving candy.
Unfortunately, the parent used positive reinforcement by giving in to the child
which will motivate the child will have more tantrums in the future!Steven
Reiss
Steven Reiss believed that motivation was dependant on an individual's
desires. Reiss identified 16 desires that he believed affected behavior, power,
independence, curiosity, acceptance, order, saving, honor, idealism, social
contact, family, status, vengeance, romance, eating, physical exercise, and
tranquility.Like Clayton Alderfer, Reiss stated these desires are very
individualized. People have these desires in different combinations and in
different amounts, i.e. people place a higher priority on some desires versus
other desires. Reiss believed that motivation problems resulted from not

taking these individualized desires into account. Michael Apter

Michael Apter developed the reversal theory of motivation. The reversal
theory is separated into 4 domains:
Means/Ends: a person may be either motivated because he or she wants to
achieve a goal or because he or she enjoys doing the activity.
Conforming/Rebellious: this domain concerns rules. Either a person is
motivated to follow the rules, or he or she wants to be free of any restrictions.
Mastery/Sympathy: In this domain, the person is motivated by power and
control or through compassion.
Autic/Alloic (Self/Other): This means a person is motivated in self-interests or
by the interest of others.
An interesting point of Apter's theory is that motivation changes and
fluctuates. A person may go through a "rebellious stage" and then switch to
being motivated to follow the rules. Another example is a person who is
sometimes compassionate towards a pan handler and sometimes very rude
towards a pan handler.Albert Bandura
Albert Bandura coined the term "self-efficacy" to describe motivation. Selfefficacy is a person's belief in his or her ability and capability to solve a
problem in any future situation. For example, if a person believes he is a
brilliant scientist and can complete any scientific experiment, he has a high
self-efficacy in science because he believes in his competency to perform a
future experiment. Whether it is true that he is brilliant in science or not
doesn't really matter, it only matters what he believes. Bandura stated that
self-efficacy influenced motivation of a person's goals, actions, and successes
(or failures) in life. For example, if your self-efficacy in an area is much lower
than your ability, you will not be motivated to challenge yourself or improve.
If your self-efficacy in an area is much higher than your ability, you may be
motivated at first but then will set goals that are too high and fail which also
leads to a decrease in motivation. The ideal self-efficacy is slightly above a
person's ability: high enough to be challenging while still being realistic.
Another important contribution from Bandura is his theory of social learning.
He stated that people will repeat behaviors that they see others do if they
also see a reward given. Thus, people are motivated to copy others actions
because they believe they will be rewarded also.Motivational-Interviewing
Motivational-Interviewing is a therapeutic technique developed by William
Miller and Steven Rollnick. Their theory of motivation is that people are
motivated to change when there is a discrepancy from where they are at the
present moment to where they want to be. Part of motivational-interviewing

is to emphasize this discrepancy without confrontation. In motivationalinterviewing, confrontation is viewed as counter-productive because it elicits
defensiveness or resistance to change. The idea is to get the person to
identify their own discrepancy and desire to change rather than the therapist
telling them what to do. Consider the following scenario.A man comes to
therapy involuntarily because he is court ordered from receiving a DUI. The
man does not want to be there so one goal of therapy is to get him to change
his attitude while another goal is for him to realize the effects of drinking
alcohol on his behavior. In regards to the man's DUI, the therapist may ask
him what he likes about drinking alcohol. Then the therapist would ask if
there are any things he doesn't like about drinking alcohol. This leads the
man to identify the pros and cons of his own behavior and hopefully the costs
(or discrepancy) will motivate him to want to decrease or quit drinking
alcohol.

Read more:
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Motivation: Meaning and Importance of Motivation (explained with diagram)

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The term motivation has been derived from the word motive. Motive may
be defined as an inner state of our mind that activates and directs our
behaviour. It makes us move to act. It is always internal to us and is
externalized via our behaviour. Motivation is ones willingness to exert efforts
towards the accomplishment of his/her goal. Let us consider a few important
definitions on motivation that will help us understand the meaning of
motivation more clearly.

Fred Luthans defined motivation as a process that starts with a physiological

or psychological deficiency or need that activates behaviour or a drive that is
aimed at a goal or incentive.

According to Stephen P. Robbins motivation is the willingness to exert high

levels of efforts toward organisational goals, conditioned by the effort ability

to satisfy some individual need.

In the opinion of Gray and Starke motivation is the result of processes,

internal or external to the individual, that arouse enthusiasm and persistence
to pursue a certain course of action.

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After going through the above definitions, motivation can be defined very
simply as the willingness to exert towards the accomplishment of goal or
need.

Motivation Cycle or Process:

As stated earlier, motivation is a process or cycle aimed at accomplishing

some goals. The basic elements included in the process are motives, goals
and behaviour. A brief mention of these follows:

Motives:

Almost all human behaviour is motivated. It requires no motivation to grow

hair, but getting a hair cut does. Motives prompt people to action. Hence,
these are at the very heart of motivational process. Motives provide an
activating thrust towards reaching a goal. The examples of the needs for food
and water are translated into the hunger and thrust drives or motives.
Similarly, the need for friends becomes a motive for affiliation.

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Goals:

Motives are generally directed towards goals. Motives generally create a

state of physiological or psychological imbalance. Attaining goals restores
balance. For example, a goal exists when the body of the man is deprived of
food or water or ones personality is deprived of friends or companions.

Behaviour:

Behaviour is a series of activities to be undertaken. Behaviour is directed to

achieve a goal. For example, the man goes to saloon to cut his hair.
Diagrammed simply, the cycle or process of motivation is presented in Figure
17.1 as follows:

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Motivation Process

Importance of motivation:

The need for and importance of motivation can be imbued with multiplicity of
justifications as follows:

1. Organisations are run by people. Hence, mangers cannot afford to avoid a

concern with human behaviour at work. This is because the motivated
employees are more productive and quality- conscious than apathetic ones.

2. Motivation as a pervasive concept affects and is also affected by a host of

factors in the organisational milieu. It enables managers to understand why
people behave as they behave.

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3. Organisational effectiveness becomes, to some extent, the question of

managements ability to motivate its employees. Hence, an appreciation of
motivation helps the managers how to motivate their employees.

4. Machines become necessary in case of complex technology. However,

these remain inefficient vehicles of effective and efficient operations without
man to operate them. Therefore, organisations need to have employees with
required capability and willingness to use the advanced complex technology
to achieve the organisational goal.

5. With the realisation that organisations will run in more complex milieu in
future, an increasing attention has been given to develop employees as
future resources (a talent bank). This facilitates the managers to draw upon
them as and when organisations grow and develop.

In sum and substance, the need for and significance of motivation for an
organisation can be put as follows:

If we compare management with driving, while the organisation is the

vehicle, then motivation is the power or fuel that makes the vehicle moving.
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Need for Social Control

Social solidarity is essential for the existence of society.No two persons is

alike in their na-ture, ideas, attitudes and interests. Every individual is a
separate personality. There are cul-tural differences among the individuals. As
a matter of fact society is a heterogeneous or-ganization. If every individual is
allowed unrestricted freedom to act and behave, it may cre-ate social
disorder. For an orderly social life social control is necessary. The aims of
social control are to bring out conformity, solidarity and continuity of a
particular group or society.

Social control is necessary for maintaining order in the society. It is necessary

for every soci-ety or group to maintain its social order and this is possible
only when its members behave in accordance with that social order. An
important objective of social control is to maintain the old order. Although
enforcement of the old order in a changing society may hinder so-cial
progress, yet it is necessary to maintain continuity and uniformity in society.

Without social control social unity would be a mere dream. Social control
regulates behavior in accordance with established norms which brings
uniformity of behavior and leads to unity among the individuals. The family
maintains its unity because its members behave in a simi-lar manner in
accordance with family norms.

No two men are alike in their attitudes, ideas, interests and habits. Even the
children of same parents do not have the same attitudes, habits or interests.
Men believe in different religions, dress, eat differently and have different
ideologies. There are so many differences in the ways of living of the people
that at every moment there is the possibility of clash be-tween them. In
modern times this possibility has all the more increased because man has
become too self-centred.Social control is necessary to protect social interests
and satisfy common needs. If social control is removed and every individual is
left to behave freely so-ciety would be reduced to a state of lawlessness.
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Sometimes, we want to make others happy to get what we think we need

to feel happy. Making other people happy starts with the assumed feelings,
needs and desires we assert on behalf of another.
When we seek to make others happy, its usually because we want their
happiness to make us happy, to validate us, or to get attention. While these
are basic human needs for children, as adults, we need to rely on ourselves
to be our compass to happiness.
Making others happy so that we can feel happy means we are, perhaps
unknowingly, making our feelings of happiness someone elses responsibility.
Often times, they can feel we are trying to make them responsible for
something that isnt their responsibility, even when we dont realize it
ourselves.
In a worst case, yet common scenario, this pressure and unwelcome need
doesnt feel good and can result in resentment and the other person taking
advantage of us, since we handed them control over our self-worth. As the
cycle continues, if we dont get the reaction we were hoping for, we can get
angry, sad or feel worse about ourselves. What a lose-lose situation!
Lets cleanse our palate of trying to make others happy. Lets let go of all that
heavy energy of putting our self worth on the line, allowing someone else to
determine our value. Seeking this method of being happy keeps us from
getting inspired. Inspiration is not a tool to manipulate or get attention
because we are so fulfilled doing what inspires us that we dont need anyone
else to approve.
We accept inspiration as it is for what it is in the exact moment we
experience it. We are free and letting life flow, and we dont even think about
controlling the experience because it is so natural and enjoyable. We dont
need to try to prolong it for fear of losing the feeling. We dont need to control
other people to make our inspired moment more enjoyable.
Happiness Example: I would be happier if my partner gave me more
appreciation. I dont really like cooking, but I think Ill go through a big ordeal
and cook a big dinner! And if my partner doesnt appreciate it, Ill be so hurt
and angry that Ill never do it again.
Inspired Example: Its okay if my partner doesnt like fixing up old cars. Ill
work on my car on my own for a couple hours and then well get together
after. Ill be in a great mood and in a better space to be a good partner after I
spend some time doing what inspires me!