Design

Report #3

Team Members
Dung Pham
Greg Trevino
Ange Kayumba
Gary Clayton

University of Houston
College of Technology
MECT 4275 - 16421

Table of Contents
Abstract ..................................................................................................................................................... 3
Team Information ..................................................................................................................................... 4
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................... 5
Advantages and Disadvantages of Stirling Engine ................................................................................... 6
History of the Stirling Engine ................................................................................................................... 6
Theory behind Stirling Engine .................................................................................................................. 7
Stirling Engine Configuration ................................................................................................................... 9
Market Research ..................................................................................................................................... 11
Working Fluid ......................................................................................................................................... 14
Alternator Selection ................................................................................................................................ 16
Material ................................................................................................................................................... 19
Efficiency ................................................................................................................................................ 24
Engine Selection ..................................................................................................................................... 24
Design ..................................................................................................................................................... 28
Calculations............................................................................................................................................. 35
Project Schedule...................................................................................................................................... 43
Budget ..................................................................................................................................................... 43
Sponsorship Package .............................................................................................................................. 44
References ............................................................................................................................................... 46

Abstract
Judging the value of a proposed project highly depends upon the benefits that it offers
society. This is why the market research included during the first phase of Design of
Mechanisms is so crucial. Once we have established how Alpha Forces project, the Stirling
engine, can be of an advantage; an organized strategy must be implemented to begin elements of
design. The first and foremost task to complete is for Alpha Force to decide on an engine type.
The Alpha, Beta, and Gamma-type engines will be analyzed as each team member weighs the
pros and cons for each engine type. Similarly, a working fluid must be selected. Properties of
common working fluids such as hydrogen, nitrogen, and helium are documented and taken into
account for the selection process. In the same manner, materials will be accounted for by their
physical and mechanical properties. However, this data alone isnt Alpha Forces only concern.
In respects to the budget, cost also becomes a major factor in determining the best material to
use. Prices dont only affect material selection, but they become significant factors when picking
the correct alternator. Given our previously disclosed deliverable of 1kW of power; alternator
specifications are examined closely. By thoroughly accomplishing the tasks of initial design in
the second phase of this project, Alpha Force will also update our budget and scheduling
accordingly.

Team Information
Team Alpha Force

Dung Pham Project Coordinator

Greg Trevino Research and Development

AngeKayumba Scheduling, Budgeting, and Web Design

Gary Clayton Design and Sponsorship

Faculty Advisors

Medhat El Nahas Heat Exchanger Design

Industry Advisor

David Miklosi
Vice President, Sales and Service Stirling Biopower

Underclassmen

Adriana Giron

Claudia Garcia

Omar Diaz

Introduction
Alpha Force is a group composed of four members. Dung Pham delegates as project
supervisor. Greg Trevino will concentrate on research and development as Gary Clayton places
emphasis on manufacturing and design; and Ange Kayumba will keep close tabs on progress and
correspondence while maintaining scheduling and sponsorship. Our faculty advisor is Medhat El
Nahas who will be helping with heat exchanger research and design of our cool and hot heat
exchanger.
We chose the challenging task of successfully building a Stirling Engine capable of
producing at least one kilowatt per hour of usable energy. This project was attempted two
semesters prior by equally talented students. They were successful in many aspects of their
project but fell short in others. We intend on learning as much as possible from the mistakes
made in the past to prevent them from happening in our project. The main objective of this
project will be to design a Stirling Engine and successfully meet all requirements.
The Stirling Engine is basically an engine that runs off of heat. When air or other gases
are heated they expand, which is a force that can be harnessed using a closed cyclic adiabatic
system (external combustion engine). The working fluid expands and is transferred through the
system, followed by the fluid compression, to create a net conversion of heat energy to
mechanical work through the flywheel and alternator.
Our team is learning more and more everyday how much effort and energy this project is
going to take. For now our goal is to gather information on market research. We would like to
get an understanding of how the Stirling engine can benefit modern applications. Furthermore,
how those benefits can justify costs. This will help justify to our Senior Design class why
Stirling engine technology is a worthy decision of study.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Stirling Engine

Pros:

Installation and maintenance of the system is relatively inexpensive.

The Stirling engine uses a single phase working fluid.

Smooth and quiet operation when compared to that of combustible engines.

Cons:

Larger units can cost more than $100,000 to manufacture

The heat exchanger on the expansion side has to operate at very high temperatures.

Dissipation of heat waste.

History of the Stirling Engine

The first heat engine was the steam-piston engine built by Thomas Newcomen in 1712. A
heat engine, also known as an atmospheric engine, is arranged to provide a cyclic motion of
vacuum and atmospheric pressure called a power stroke. Utilizing the same concept Scottish
inventor Dr. Robert Stirling invented the Stirling Engine in 1816. Its initial use applied mainly to
low power domestic applications. The operation of the Stirling engine proved to be an efficient
and available alternative energy, as it can use almost any source of heat. Due to the dangers
incorporated by early steam engines, the Stirling engine was a viable alternative. However,
before advancements in material technology the hot chamber required to properly run the
machine proved to be rather expensive. This proved to make a difference in its transition into
industrial application.
By 1843, the Dundee iron foundry incorporated an improved engine type developed by
Robert and James Stirling. All the machinery in the foundry was able to drive off of the power
output. Maximum power and efficiency occur at very high temperatures. These temperatures
can often cause engines to fail. The Dundee foundry had a total of three hot cylinder failures in
four years. In 1860 smaller engine designs provided a reliable source for low to medium power
equipment. Until the twentieth century not many developments took place involving the Stirling
6

engine as a domestic motor. Philips, a multinational Dutch electronics corporation, decided to

develop a low powered portable generator powered by the Stirling engine in attempt to expand
sales. The first experiment produced an engine capable of 16W of shaft power. Advancements
and various production models would follow. It was not until 1951, when the Bungalow set
was introduced and produced an average of 190W by increasing the diameter of the bore and
stroke for the most efficient output. Despite the popularity of the Bungalow set it was not able to
compete with other alternative product pricing. The Philips Corporation did not have much
success either, until they unveiled Stirlingcryocoolers (aka - reversed Striling engine).

Theory behind Stirling Engine

THERMODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
It is essential to break down the concept of thermodynamics in order to gain the required
knowledge of the Stirling engine. It is defined as a science used to explain and predict how
much energy we may extract and how efficiently we may do it for a particular situation.
One of the most significant contributions to the development and maintenance of our
modern society is our ability to extract energy from natural resources. In turn, this allows the use
of work, power, and heat to meet societys demand.
Any region in space that occupies a volume or boundary can harness energy using
various methods of the thermodynamic cycle. The Stirling cycle consists of four thermodynamic
processes acting on a working fluid. The fluid starts the cycle by absorbing heat from the source
(isothermal expansion). Heat is then transferred under a constant volume through a regenerator
which will cool and extract the heat energy for use in the next cycle. Isothermal compression,
along with a constant pressure and heat addition, completes the cycle. The addition of heat
allows the gas through the regenerator collecting some of the transferred heat. The second phase
involves heating the fluid as it is on its way to be expanded again.
The heat engine was based on these four processes and is also referred to as the Carnot
engine. The main assumption is that the ratio of heat added to the heat rejected in a heat engine
is equal to the ratio of the temperatures of the heat reservoirs. Theoretically the thermal
efficiency equals the hypothetical Carnot cycle achieving the highest attainable efficiency
7

produced by any heat engine. However, it is only useful when understanding the general
principle of the system.
Carnot Cycle

Figure 1 (Reference 14)

THERMODYNAMIC LAWS
First Law of Thermodynamics
Energy can be changed from one form to another, but it cannot be created or destroyed.
The total amount of energy and matter in the universe remains constant, merely changing from
one form to another. The First Law of Thermodynamics (Conservation) states that energy is
always conserved; it cannot be created or destroyed. In essence, energy can be converted from
one form into another.
First law of thermodynamics equation:

Q = dU + W

OR EQUIVILENTLY,

dU = Q - W

Where:

Q = the amount of energy added to the system by a heating process

W = the amount of energy lost by the system due to work done by the system on
its surroundings

dU = the change in the internal energy of the system

Second Law of Thermodynamics

Two systems can be isolated, in separate regions of space, and in thermodynamic
equilibrium. However, in order for the two systems to be in equilibrium with each other, they

first must allow for interaction time. By allowing interaction between the two systems, a cyclic
exchange will eventually reach a thermodynamic equilibrium.
The entropy summation of the initial isolated systems is less than, or equal to, the
entropy of the final exchanging systems. Entropy has increased during the process of reaching a
new thermodynamic equilibrium; or theoretically has not decreased.
Third Law of Thermodynamics
Entropy demonstrates a minimal constant value as temperature approaches absolute zero.
For a pure element this minimal value is zero, but for all other substances it is possibly more.

Stirling Engine Configuration

There are two main versions of the Stirling engine, Alpha type and Beta/Gamma type.
The difference between the two engines is the way the air moves between the cylinders. The
Alpha Stirling engine has two separate independent cylinders, hot and cold. These cylinders
transfer air back and forth through a regenerator connecting the two cylinders.
Alpha Type

Figure 2 (Reference 5)

The two power pistons attach to the flywheel and they are situated in the high and low
temperature heat exchangers. The gas in the hot cylinder is heated and expands pushing the hot
piston forward while rotating the flywheel. The expansion continues in cold cylinder extracting
more work from the cyclic system. The connection at the flywheel for the cold piston allows
maximum volume to be achieved. The hot piston then forces the gas to the cold cylinder
decreasing pressure and temperature. Since the flywheel is creating momentum, the cold piston
9

compresses the remaining gas (minimum volume), thus using less energy. Gas in the hot
chamber expands and drives the piston, completing the cycle.
The high power to volume capacity of this system tends to create problems considering
the intense heat the system has to be capable of containing. Durability of the piston and seals in
the hot cylinder is the main concern when producing a usable amount of power.
Beta Stirling engines have the same cycle of air from hot to cold but contained in the
same cylinder. The system is arranged with a displacer and a power piston on the same shaft 90
from one another. The displacer piston is loose fitting and helps the working gas from the hot to
the cold heat exchanger. Relatively the same concept is used when analyzing the cycle. The gas
is heated and expands pushing the power piston after the displacer has moved the gas to the heat
exchanger. The pressure increases, and the displacer pushes the gas towards the cold region.
When the gas cools and the volume decreases, the power piston compresses the gas, again using
the momentum for the flywheel for energy. Consequently, the displacer moves the gas back to
the heated zone so it can expand again.
Beta Type

Figure 4 (Reference 5)

Gamma Type

Figure 5 (Reference 5)

The Gamma Stirling engine is very similar to the beta system except the displacer has its
own cylinder. The displacer is still connected to the flywheel 90 from the power piston shaft
connection. The closed system has two cylinders which allow the transfer of gas back and forth
between them.

10

Market Research
In the current market for alternative energy solutions, there are only a few companies that
are invested to the manufacturing of wasted heat recovery, which describes the Stirling engine
product. Stirling Biopower, Powergen, and Genoastirling are the different companies that make
the Stirling engine. Currently, these are the type of engines that these companies produce.
STIRLING BIOPOWER
A few questions answered by David Miklosi, Vice President of sales and service at
Stirling Biopower were greatly appreciated. Stirling engines being used in modern applications
can be done by using a wide range of difficult to use energy sources, and converting them into
electricity and hot water. The Stirling can benefit from readily solid fuels such as biomass;
gaseous fuels like methane, liquid fuels such as natural oils and/or chemicals. Wasted heat and
solar energy are also some of many other methods to fuel a Stirling engine. Larger units begin
around $70,000 - $100,000. Unfortunately, acceptance in the market is minimal to say the least.
If the market does accept new concepts and technology coming from the Stirling, prices could
possibly drop by half.
As a Stirling engine designer, Stirling Biopower manufactures a generator called the
Flexgen, which is capable of producing up to 43kW. The fuel versatility of this product is not
limited to just sources of gaseous fuels. It is able to operate on everything from liquid fuels to
inorganic compounds. Stirling Biopower is also interested in entering the market with another
design that accepts hot air streams. This kind of unit was developed by the same company in the
past. Ideal sources included waste heat and combusted biomass, just to name a few. It even
shared the same rated power as the FleXgen. The hot air unit produces a rated power off of a hot
stream of air as long as it maintains 950 C and at a flow rate of 1300 cubic feet per minute.
Efficiency is supreme when producing such a product. One aspect of the new design will be to
recapture the heat lost to the atmosphere. The exhausted heat of the system has a net electrical
efficiency as low as 6-9%. Using this exiting hot air, the product efficiency can easily be 2040%. In addition, engine coolants impact on thermal energy can generate an overall product
efficiency of 80-90%. Return on investment for a Stirling engine could range from 2-6 years
depending largely on the values of electricity produced. If the engine produces $0.05/kW it can
take up to 6 years but if $0.17 cents per kW can be generated, that time decreases to about 2-4
11

years. Stirling Biopower also has a Stirling generator unit that runs on biomass and can produce
55kW for about $70,000.
FleXgen

Figure 6 (Reference 6)

POWERGEN
The WhisperGen is a household unit used for boiler applications. Priced at 3000,
equivalently about $5000, the WhisperGen isnt currently available in the United States. It is a
brand new home heating technology by Powergen. It can produce hot water, central heating, and
generate electricity to power lights and appliances. When implemented, it can save energy,
money, and reduce environmental impact. It is connected to the central heating supply and
consists of a small engine that drives a generator wired into the electrical system. The
WhisperGen is most suitable to households that produce up to 8kW of heat loss. Before
installation a house must have a full energy efficiency survey to ensure suitability.
WhisperGen

Figure 7 (Reference 8)

12

GENOASTIRLING
On a midrange scale a company called Genoastirling, based out of Corso Buenos Aires,
aims to design and manufacture Stirling engines to be fitted on boilers in dwelling units and
small commercial use such as farms and resorts. It also includes custom applications in industrial
or public facilities, solar concentrators, and thermal power from wood ovens or stoves. The
Genoa01 is a gamma type Stirling engine with a permanent magnet generator. Genoastirling
have these units on the market for about $13,673. This engine is fabricated with a stainless steel
AISI 310 heat exchanger, with likewise material for the cylinders and regenerator. Meanwhile,
aluminum makes up the engine block, rods, power piston, and crankcase. The swept volume of
the unit is 188 cubic centimeter (cc). It runs off of a working gas of air, nitrogen or helium, and
the overpressure is up to 50 bars. The Genoa01 operating temperature on the hot side is 750C
and the starting temperature is 500C. This particular unit can produce up to 1kW on a DC
current once it reaches 600 rpm.
Genoa01

Figure 8 (Reference 7)

13

Working Fluid
A working fluid is a gas or a liquid used to operate a mechanical system. In this
thermodynamic system the working fluid will be transmitting energy into power. Three gases
that possess the properties needed for an efficient Stirling engine application are nitrogen,
helium, and hydrogen. Most early models used air at a pressure of one atmosphere.
Working
Fluid

Thermal
Conductivity
(W/mC)

Absolute Viscosity
(centipoises)

Specific Heat
(J/kgK)

Gas Constant
(J/kgK)

Nitrogen

0.026 W/mC

0.018 centipoises

1040 J/kgK

297 J/kgK

Helium

0.149 W/mC

0.02 centipoises

5188 J/kgK

2077 J/kgK

Hydrogen

0.182 W/mC

0.009 centipoises

14310 J/kgK

4126 J/kgK

Hydrogen and helium are the most feasible gases with the required properties. At first glance of
table 1, hydrogen seems to be a perfect candidate for the Stirling engine. It has the highest
thermal conductivity and specific heat capacity, as well as the lowest viscosity. However,
hydrogen can permeate through metals and is also very flammable. Complications can occur
when dealing with materials that are brattled by hydrogen. When considering the safety factor of
these two materials, helium takes the advantage. Helium, on the other hand, is an inert gas
capable of being permanently contained in a metal cylinder safely. The specific heat capacity is
lower than hydrogen and thermal conductivity is almost equivalent, but viscosity is doubled. The
design of the Stirling engine does vary depending on which working fluid is selected. The design
of the hot and cold heat exchanger and the regenerator would be the components that would
vary. Examples of engines that use nitrogen or air only produce 20% 30% of the power
hydrogen or helium can produce, despite using an engine with the same displacement.
Hydrogen is also a disadvantage in the area of cost. Hydrogen is not normally sold in
pressurized cylinders as other gases. One would have to produce hydrogen with a generator and
risk the implications in storing it. An acceptably standard hydrogen generator begins around
$200.00.

14

Hydrogen Generator Kit

(Figure 11 Reference 19)

Helium on the other hand can be purchased by the tank. Local gas suppliers have estimated a
cost as low as $34.00. The largest available sizes, 110 lb tank, are less expensive than the most
affordable generator Alpha Force could find.
110 lb Helium Tank

,
(Figure 12 Reference 22)

15

Working Fluid Comparison

Material

Thermo

Specific

Conductivity

Heat

Viscosity

Permeability

Cost

Safety Total
Factor

Capacity
Nitrogen

Helium

15

Hydrogen

11

When comparing the alternatives, helium is the best working gas for our application. Therefore,
Alpha Force will select to design a Stirling engine off of this working gas.

Alternator Selection
There are many ways to produce energy using a heat engine. Attaching an alternator is an
effective and efficient way to extract energy. An alternator is an electromechanical device
capable of converting mechanical energy into electric current. Two common versions of
alternators are brush-type and brushless-type. The components include a rotor mounted on a
rotating shaft concentrically relative to a stationary stator or a fixed rotor with a rotating stator.
When the component rotates a magnetic field intercepts the coil generating electrical current.
Permanent magnet alternators are used mainly in marine outbound motors, motorcycles, and
other small engine applications. The more costly units usually have an internal regulator equip
which helps produce a higher output at lower rpm. In marine environments, conditions call for a
much more efficient and effective alternator. Alternators are designed with high amperage
diodes, high quality bearings, and a durable frame in order to ensure reliability. As much as our
team would like to have one of these high output more expensive alternators a generic unit will
provide adequate power. For our particular application two alternator voltage ratings are of
interest 12V and 24V alternators. Quality in an alternator is very critical to every application that
they are involved in. It is crucial to pick wisely, especially when the market is flooded with
several variations.
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Configurations
TYPE I

TYPE II

TYPE III

Single Phase

Rotating Armature

Salient Pole Machine

Tree Phase

Rotating Field

Non-salient Pole Machine

Poly Phase

In order to find the necessary revolutions per minute Ohms Law tells us that Voltage =
Current x Resistance and Power = Voltage x Current. Resistance is a factor when selecting
conductors and wire size. The larger the wire the more electricity is allowed to flow through the
unit. This is taken into consideration when evaluating for our deliverable objective of 1kW
output. For instance, a 12 volt alternator running at 85 amps can create the output power
necessary. The 24 volt alternator only needs about 45 amps to achieve similar values of power
output. Using this graph for reference a 24V/70A alternator needs to reach 2300 RPM to
generate 1kW per hour.

(Figure 13 Reference 17)

17

For this project Alpha Force will need at least 2300 rpm to achieve our goal of 1kW. We
decided to compare a 12V/150A with a 24V/70A alternator in means of cost, pulley diameter,
and efficiency. Most alternators vary in price depending on how efficient they are. Alternators
typically demonstrate 50% - 60% efficiency depending on the speed they will be operating,
working temperatures, and overall size. When producing a high current some voltage drop is
inevitable. The result will be a lower voltage at the terminals, and therefore a lower current. The
voltage drop can be compensated for by increasing the output voltage of the alternator
(Reference 3). The use of a large permanent magnet is recommended to carefully control the
speed necessary for producing the most power. However, the more efficient units come with a
price tag ranging from $800 to $2000. For more common units, 12V and 24V are pretty close in
price comparison. The 12V/150A alternator ranges from $129.99 to $675.00, and 24V/70A units
cost anywhere between $122.00 and $740.00.
Since both 12V and 24V alternators are candidates, the determination of which unit to
use will be based off of belt configuration. Typically when selecting an alternator the kind of belt
and belt size can help determine which one to select. Since our heat engine will be using a single
belt wrapped around the flywheel and attached to a inch alternator pulley suggested alternators
are the 12V/75A which will not produce the amount of power we intend on achieving. The
24V/70A on the other hand will produce the amount of power we need, provided we can get the
alternator to 2300 RPM. Figure 14 shows a Delco 24V/70A alternator which should be sufficient
to reach 1 kW.

(Figure 14 Reference 26)

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Material
ALLOY 6061 ALUMINUM
6061 Aluminum is primarily aluminum, mixed with different alloying elements. These
elements are designed to maximize a particular characteristic such as strength, ductility,
formability, machinability, or electrical conductivity. Alloy 6061 is the most commonly available
aluminum alloy. It is generally used for manufacturing heavy duty structures that require good
corrosion resistance. Other examples include truck and marine components, railroad cars,
furniture, tank fittings, general structural and high pressure applications, wire products, and in
pipelines.
Alloy 6061 can be easily machined, cold worked, and annealed. Stamping, bending,
spinning, and deep drawing are all readily accomplished using standard methods. The alloy is
capable of being hot forged at temperatures in the range of 900 F to 750 F.
Alloy 6061 has very good welding characteristics. It may be welded by all of the
common welding techniques. Gas tungsten arc welding is generally used for thin sections (less
than 0.032") and gas metal arc welding is used for heavier sections. 4043 is common filler used
in practice.
Solution heat treatment at 990 F for an adequate amount of time allows for thorough
heating followed by a water quench. Precipitation hardening begins at 320 F for 18 hours,
followed by an air cool. This procedure is repeated at 350 F for 8 hours.
Hot working may be done in the temperature range of 700 F to 500 F. Cold working in
the O temper condition is readily performed. The alloy is notably less easy to cold form in the T
4 and T 6 tempers.
Alloy 6061 aluminum is commonly subject to internal stresses and strains when it is
overheated; the tendency of a metal to creep under these stresses tends to exhibit delayed
distortions. The warping or cracking from overheating is typical for aluminum automobile
cylinder heads over a period of time. The use of 6061 to produce bicycle frames have shown
gradual twists out of alignment from the stresses of the welding process. Consequently, the

19

aerospace industry avoids heat altogether. Adhesives or mechanical fasteners are used to join
parts. However, adhesive bonding can create unfortunate results. When the aluminum tubing
corrodes, ever-so-slightly, the adhesive will loosen. Stresses in overheated aluminum can be
relieved by heat-treating the parts in an oven and gradually cooling it.
Typical physical properties for Alloy 6061 Aluminum
Alloy

Chemical

Ultimate

Electrical

Electrical

Density Specific Melting

Composition

Tensile

Conductivity

Resistance

Gravity

Point

Strength

( 20C )

(ohms/cmf)

(20-

( 0C)

(PSI)
6061

.6Si.28Cu,1Mg

17,000

100C)
47

22

2.7

23.6

617

316L STAINLESS STEEL

Grade 316L stainless steel is the standard molybdenum-bearing grade, second in rank to
Grade 304 amongst the austenitic stainless steels. The molybdenum gives Grade 316 better
corrosion resistance than Grade 304. Molybdenum also offers particular high resistance to pitting
and crevice corrosion in chloride environments. Grade 316L, the low carbon version of 316, is
immune to sensitization (grain boundary carbide precipitation). Therefore, it is extensively used
in heavy gauge welded components; approximately 6mm or more. There is commonly no
appreciable price difference between 316 and 316L stainless steel. The austenitic structure also
gives these grades excellent toughness, even down to cryogenic temperatures. Compared to
chromium-nickel austenitic stainless steels, 316L stainless steel offers higher creep, stress to
rupture and tensile strength at elevated temperatures.
Stainless steel 316L displays excellent resistance to a wide range of atmospheric
environments and many corrosive media; generally more so than stainless steel 304. Stainless
steel is subject to pitting and crevice corrosion in warm chloride environments. Stress corrosion,
and cracking can occur above 60C. Grade 316L is even considered resistant to potable water
with up to about 1000mg/L chlorides at ambient temperatures, reducing to about 500mg/L at
60C. 316 have been regarded as the marine grade stainless steel, although it is not resistant to

20

warm sea water. In many marine environments, 316 do exhibit surface corrosion in the form of
brown staining. This is particularly associated with crevices and rough surface finish.
316L has good oxidation resistance in intermittent service to 870C and in continuous
service to 925C. Consistent use of 316 in the 425C - 860C range is not recommended if
subsequent aqueous corrosion resistance is important. Grade 316L is more resistant to carbide
precipitation and can be used in high temperature ranges. Grade 316H has higher strength at
elevated temperatures and is sometimes used for structural and pressure-containing applications
at temperatures above 500C.
Solution Treatment (Annealing) - Heat to 1010-1120C and cool rapidly. These grades
cannot be hardened by thermal treatment.
316L has excellent weldability by all standard fusion and resistance methods, with or
without filler metals. Heavy welded sections in Grade 316 require post-weld annealing for
maximum corrosion resistance. 316L stainless steel is not generally weldable using oxyacetylene
welding methods.
316L stainless steel tends to work harden if machined too quickly. For this reason low
speeds and constant feed rates are recommended. 316L stainless steel is also easier to machine
compared to 316 stainless steel due to its lower carbon content.
316L stainless steel can be hot worked using most common hot working techniques.
Optimal hot working temperatures should be in the range 1150-1260C, and certainly should not
be less than 930C. Post work annealing should be carried out to induce maximum corrosion
resistance. Most common cold working operations such as shearing, drawing and stamping can
be performed on 316L stainless steel. Post work annealing should be carried out to remove
internal stresses. 316L stainless steel does not harden in response to heat treatments. It can be
hardened by cold working, which can also result in increased strength.

21

Typical physical properties for 316 grade stainless steels

Grade

Density

Elastic

Mean Co-eff of Thermal

Thermal

Specific

Elec

(kg/m3)

Modulus

Expansion

Conductivity

Heat

Resistivity

(GPa)

(m/m/C)

(W/m.K)

0-100C

(n.m)

(J/kg.K)

0-

0-

100C 315C
316/L/H

8000

193

15.9

16.2

0-

At

At

538C

100C

500C

17.5

16.3

21.5

500

740

PYREX GLASS
Pyrex glass is made from borosilicate glass. In the 1940s the composition was changed to
form tempered soda-lime glass. Soda lime glass is the most common form of glass used for glass
bakeware sold in the US and it has higher mechanical strength so it is less vulnerable to breakage
when dropped. Pyrex classic is composed of 14% boron, 51% oxygen, 0.3% sodium, 1.0%
aluminum, 38% silicon, and less than 1.0% potassium, which is a weight percentage. Potassium
is a very durable material which conducts heat evenly in order to ensure that everything is baked
uniformly. Given low thermal expansion coefficients, the material is useful in high temperature
applications, and is also heat shock resistant. Pyrex is also resistant to acid and has high optical
transmission over a wide wavelength range. The low alkali content of Pyrex makes this glass
ideal for high-purity laboratory applications. Pyrex glass is often used as a coating substrate, and
can also be polished to standard and custom thicknesses. Valley is a well-known company that
provides thin polished Pyrex classic wafers.
The mechanical properties of Pyrex differ from those of metals. The lack of ductility of
Pyrex prevents the equalization of stresses at local irregularities or flaws making an event of
fracture unpredictable. This latter is commonly found to occur at a tensile strength of about 70
kg/cm2 (1000 psi). The Pyrex should be adequately supported and appropriate allowance should
be made for special conditions such as high temperatures and dense liquids. Pyrex glass strength
refers to impact resistance. Pyrex glass is four to six times stronger than regular annealed glass.
Most bake ware is heat resistant up to 425 F, making it suitable for normal kitchen use. Most
other glass types are not recommended for oven use.
22

Pyrex glass retains its mechanical strength and will deform only at temperatures which
approach its strain point. The practical upper limit for operating temperatures is much lower and
is controlled by the temperature differentials in the glass. Temperature difference depends on the
relative temperatures of the internal and external surroundings. Provided Pyrex glass is not
subjected to a rapid change in temperature which creates thermal shock; it can be operated safely
at temperatures up to 450F. The normal limiting factor is actually the gasket material. The
degree of thermal shock (usually defined as sudden chilling) which it can withstand depends on
many factors. Examples include stresses due to operating conditions; stresses imposed in
supporting the equipment; the wall thickness of the Pyrex. It is therefore undesirable to give an
overall figure but, as a general guide, sudden temperature changes of up to about 216F (120C)
can be accommodated. At sub-zero temperatures, the tensile strength of Pyrex glass tends to
increase and equipment made of Pyrex can be used safely at cryogenic temperatures.
Typical physical properties for Pyrex glass
Thermal Conductivity

Specific Heat

Dielectric Constant

Density

0.73 Btu/hr-ft2-F/ft

0.20 Btu/lb-F

At 23C and 1M Hz per

Approximately

0.0035 cal/sec-cm2-

0.20 cal/gm-C

ASTM Method D 150:

139lb/ft3

4.6 -0.2

(2.23 gm/cm3)

C/cm

Material Properties and Cost

Material

Thermo
Conductivity
(W/mK)

Melting
Point
(C)

Density
(g/m^3)

Tensile
Strength
(MPa)

Modulus of
Elasticity
(GPa)

Cost

Aluminum
6061

180

1090

2.7

115

70-80

$130 for 6
in Dia. Per
Foot

316L Stainless
Steel

21.4

2550

7.9

485

193

$600 for 6
in Dia. Per
Foot

Pyrex Glass

1.143

1500

2.4

27 - 62

67

$200 for 4
1/2" O.D.
Case - 2
pcs

23

Efficiency
When selecting an engine type, it is in Alpha Forces best interest to take into account the
deliverables of the project. Establishing an objective of creating 1kW of power is
predominantly dependent upon the performance and specifications of the accompanying
alternator. While Alpha Force still accepts this challenge, it is also important that an objective,
or deliverable, be assigned to the engine itself. The best method that Alpha Force can rely on to
truly judge the design of the actual engine is by measuring the efficiency.
Since the different engine types are unique by configuration, the travel of the working
fluid is also distinct. Therefore, there should be a recognizable way to determine which type of
Stirling engine produces a greater range of efficiencies. Market research made into particular
products powered by Stirling engines are not the best sources for determining this effectiveness.
These values relate the work put into the product versus the work received from the product, not
the engine itself. For many reasons a product may be extremely low in efficiency considering
that the Stirling engines advantage is to produce energy from a readily available heat source,
rather than using a highly effective fuel similar to that of combustion engines.
Like all heat engines, the Stirling engine can be graded on thermal efficiency. The
assessment used to evaluate thermal efficiency is to compare it to that of the Carnot cycle. While
maximum efficiency will ultimately be present at a specific rpm and torque, the highest
expectation can be simply calculated using what we know about the maximum temperature
difference. Further characteristics of performance can be illustrated on a pressure-volume chart.

Engine Selection
The charts featured in the following figures represent the different engine types. The PV
(pressure-volume) curves featured are measured to finite specifications. However, the actual PV
values of the engines are irrelevant since they are all specified to similar power densities; the
ratio of size to power output. Each PV chart consists of two curves and the four main points of a
thermodynamic cycle as discussed previously in this report. The area between these two curves
represents the work achieved from the cycle. Likewise, the more work achieved by a

24

comparable engine type, the greater ability that engine type may have in demonstrating a better
thermal efficiency.

(Figure 9 Reference 15)

It is typical for a real gas in a contained environment to experience a rise in pressure with
a rise in temperature, and vice-versa. While the ratio of the maximum and minimum pressure is
not equivalent to that of temperature, the two are proportional. Given that, we can obtain a pretty
good idea of which engine type exhibits a higher temperature range, and therefore pressure
range. Judging from the PV charts in the figures above, it appears that the Gamma-type Stirling
engine has a much smaller area between the two PV curves when compared to that of the Alphatype and Beta-type Stirling engines. Based on this finding, Alpha Force will lean towards the
Alpha-type and Beta-type Stirling engine in hopes to fabricate a Stirling engine with sufficient
thermal efficiency.
When designing around efficiency one must also take into account practiced methods to
improve efficiency. Philips introduced a swash plate into one of their designs to more effectively
time four pistons to work in unison. Although there are continuous additions to the Stirling
engine by means of mechanical improvements, ideally a designer must focus on the temperature
difference which has the most significant effect. Considering different working fluids by
comparing their thermal properties will affect thermal efficiency. An even closer correlation to
a temperature difference would be the rate in which the engine can transfer the excess heat in the
working fluid to the less desired ambient area. This can be accomplished through regenerators
and heat sinks.

25

Regenerators are common in Stirling engine design. An ideal way to manipulate your
current thermodynamic cycle and improve the thermal efficiency is to incorporate a regenerator.
When the hot working fluid is forced from the hot cylinder towards the cold cylinder it travels
through a controlled dead volume. This stagnant volume helps assure the cold cylinders
temperature stays constant. A perfect regenerator will be capable of separating high temperature
difference with limited volume and low fluid friction coefficients. With the intention to have the
ability to improve the efficiency throughout the design process, it would be in Alpha Forces best
interest to include a regenerator in the project.
As previously discussed in the reading, the Beta-type engine operates of the principle of a
single cylinder. Within this cylinder is two pistons moving in a rhombic manner forcing the
working fluid around the in the same space. When a regenerator is applied it must run parallel,
having little effect on the heat convection of the single cylinder wall.

BETA TYPE

ALPHA TYPE
(Figure 10 Reference 16)

On the contrary, the heat collected from the heat source on the hot cylinder is completely
separated from the cold cylinder. Hence, the regenerator is the only connection between the two
extreme temperatures. Alpha Force strongly feels that the application that limits heat convection
between the heat source and the cold chamber is the best engine type. Given that inclination,
Alpha Force will select the Alpha-type configuration to pursue the Stirling engine design.

26

Dr. Israel Urieli, a professor and author of Stirling engines, claims that Stirling engines in
practice have a thermal efficiency of up to 40%. The Carnot cycle is very efficient in theory,
however actual applications must overcome obstacles like viscosity and heat transfer.
During the energy crisis of the 1970s many companies endeavored into alternative
engines for transportation purposes. NASA performed market research on such companies in
efforts to incorporate a Stirling design in their designs. United Stirling was one of these
companies as they sought out the design of three different engines applicable to motor vehicles.
These engines included the P40, P75, and P150; their maximum efficiencies measured to be
35%, 35%, and 37% respectively. These values are perfect examples to illustrate Dr. Urielis
expectations. United Stirling
The calculation used to determine this is simply the work delivered divided by the work
provided. However from a thermal standpoint, the ratio of work provided and delivered is
proportional to the temperature differential.

Where:

= Stirling engine efficiency

= Product efficiency

Wi= Work indicated

We = Expansion work

Tc = Compression temperature

Th = Expansion temperature

Given the medium of the working fluid and the relationship between pressure, volume,
and temperature; the thermal efficiency can be represented by:

27

Where:

R = Real Gas Constant

T = Temperature

V = Volume

Establishing a thermal efficiency goal to meet takes identifying obtainable benchmarks. Alpha
Force must take into account Dr. Urielis 40% estimate as well as the examples of the engines
designed by United Stirling. At the same time, Alpha Force must be able to stay on track with a
set goal. The previous examples were designed to be produced for a large manufacturer, whom
likely has better processes, resources, and tools. After weighing in on all sides, Alpha Force
feels confident that a Stirling engine can be designed and fabricated to calculate a thermal
efficiency of at least 35%.

Design
EXTERNAL ASSEMBLIES
Moving forward into the final stages of design it is vital to divide all the Stirling engine
components into individual parts and assemblies. The assemblies that are used to support the
conversion of mechanical power into electrical power will be referred to as the external
assemblies. These assemblies consist of the drivetrain, the generator, the heating element, and
the frame. Consequently, the assemblies that make up the internal volumes of our Stirling
engine will be referred to as our internal engine assemblies. These five assemblies will consist
of the cold chamber, cooling tubes, regenerator, heating tubes, and hot chamber.
FRAME ASSEMBLY
Fortunately the requirements of a frame for Alpha Forces engine will not entail too many
obstacles. The estimated weight of the engine should not exceed two hundred pounds, therefore
an angle iron frame may be excessive towards our schedule and budget when a tube frame is
28

suffice. Since there are facilities that would need the engines presence during the various stages
of fabrication; an easily transportable frame would be an advantage. Handles, wheels, and
possibly some type of fixture for the alternator and battery would benefit the transportation of the
device. Now the focus is comparing the costs of customizing an existing frame or building a
new frame from scratch.
The other important part that makes up the frame assembly would be a base plate. The base
plate will be the level faced surface in which the Stirling engine would mount. The outside
dimensions of this plate should be cut to the outside perimeter of the engine; and an opening in
the center of the base plate is needed for flywheel clearance. Grooves and slots shall be cut so
that engine mounts can be fastened to their designated positions. Furthermore, risers for the
drivetrain must be welded into place so that the lobes of the crankshaft will avoid contact with
the baseplate.
DRIVETRAIN ASSEMBLY
Each riser supporting the crankshaft will have a pillow block attached to the top. A pillow block
is a bearing loaded support for rotating shafts. While the pillow blocks are crucial components
to the external drive train assembly, they are some of the least expensive of our components.
Taking that into consideration, it might be in Alpha Forces best interest to invest a few dollars
more into some more expensive load rated models. This will add confidence to avoiding failure
from the cyclic forces exerted by the crankshaft.
On the contrary, the crankshaft will be one of the more expensive of the drivetrain assembly
parts. Alpha Force wants to develop an engine with minimal losses, and the drivetrain makes up
the majority of the Striling engines moving parts. Therefore, it has been Alpha Forces initial
intention to purchase this component given the resources of the manufacturer in comparison to
that of Alpha Force in the fabrication of a crankshaft. Extensive searching went into locating an
applicable crankshaft, this posed to be more difficult than expected. The market for crankshafts
concentrates mainly on replacement applications. Given the design complexity of pre-existing
engines, finding one with applicable specifications is near impossible. In efforts to find the best
solution, Team Alpha Force sought out the advice of Rich Schlader at Precision Engine in
Houston, TX. In his expert opinion, it would be in the best interest of the project to either
29

fabricate the shaft, journals, and lobes in accordance to the centers, stroke, and connecting rod
required, or seek an existing engine with comparable dimensions. Seeking another opinion on
the matter, Rick referred me to Scroggins Machine Company also in Houston, TX. The advice
was conclusive. Unlike Precision Engine, an engine rebuilder without machining capabilities;
Scroggins, whom machines engine components, stated that the best solution would be to either
fabricate the crankshaft from scratch or search for an entire drivetrain assembly. Considering the
level of difficulty with finding an entire assembly comparable to our specifications, Alpha Force
should place some focus on crankshaft fabrication designs. However, the hunt for existing
applications will continue.
A connecting rod connects the piston head to the crankshaft. Typically, connecting rods are
acquired in a set consisting of a crankpin, bearing, and thrust washers for each rod. The ID of
the bearing on the crank end of the connecting rod would have to correspond to the OD of the
shaft; likewise with the piston head. The length of the connecting rod isnt as much of a concern
considering that the dimensions of the hot and cold chambers can be designed with the drivetrain
specifications in mind. The crank radius will be taken into account in order to avoid contact
between the connecting rod and the inside of the cylinder; as experienced in a previous project.
However, the material of the connecting rod gives us flexibility because unlike the piston it will
not come into direct contact with excessive operating temperature.
The piston head will come into contact with the internal temperatures necessary for adiabatic
expansion. Since our initial design points towards 316L Stainless Steel for the hot chamber, it
just makes since to make the piston head out of the same material. Although the weight of the
piston would be heavier than traditional piston heads made from forged aluminum, the melting
temperature of 316L is much higher.
Alpha Force would soon find that stainless steel pistons are nearly impossible to locate, and the
costs for machining one from scratch seems to exceed rational limitations in the budget. This
issue has also been raised to the professional consultation of Precision Engine and Scroggins
Machine Company. As 99% of applicable pistons are designed for combustible engines, our
stainless steel piston inquiry apparently fell out of the realm of their expertise.

30

Recalling back to market research, Genoastirling included a stainless steel piston in their
Genoa01 engine. Alpha Force initiated correspondence with Genoastirling in Milano, Italy.
After several email attempts, Alpha Force allotted the seven hour time difference and reached
Nicola Liotta, Genoastirlings president, via telephone. After requesting a quote on said parts,
alternatives to a 316L stainless steel piston head have become more attractive. It has been
determined that while the costs of the 316L would be drastically less than having one machined,
the shipping costs from Italy would not be justifiable for Alpha Forces budget. Alpha Force
needs to work on minimizing the heat source in hopes to accommodate a forged aluminum piston
as common in combustible engines.
This high implied temperature does not only affect piston selection, but it also governs Alpha
Forces most prominent obstacle, the seals. Again, most available piston accessories are designed
for that of combustible engines. These engines do not experience the high temperatures that the
Stirling engine does. Therefore, common polyurethane piston steels would melt under the
expected temperature required for adiabatic expansion. However a proper seal is absolutely
essential for the dependency for a Stirling engine, otherwise the pressure of the working fluid
would require constant attention.
This hurdle involves a lot of creativity and thinking outside of the box. At this stage in design,
Alpha Force is considering creating a customized seal to the specifications of the selected piston
and cylinder. A malleable material resistant to high temperature would have to be used to fill the
low tolerant gap between the two parts. Examples of such a material include ceramic
compounds.
Resbond is a line of adhesive sealants that include high temperature ceramic compounds. Such
products like Resbond 907 GF are specially designed for making gaskets for different exhaust
systems. It is formulated to bond to any metallic surface and withstand temperatures above and
beyond any expected operating temperatures. The tolerances associated with seals are intricate
and vulnerable; Alpha Force believes implementing more design into the seal process will be
beneficial to the overall expectations of the engine.

31

GENERATOR ASSEMBLY
The generator assembly consists of the flywheel, belt, and alternator. Desired specifications for
the intended alternator have been covered during the initial design process. Requirements for the
flywheel will be finalized once the actual performance of the engine is evaluated. The amount of
revolutions per minute, RPM, produced by the crankshaft will be dependent to the net power
output of the engine. Once that actual value is recorded, Alpha Force can design a flywheel of
the correct diameter to accommodate the alternator accordingly. This being said, the applicable
belt size will also be determined once the net power output of the engine can be recorded.
HEATING ELEMENT ASSEMBLY
In essence the heating element assembly will be the parts that support the Stirling Engines heat
source. Alpha Forces initial idea for the heat source was to incorporate a gaseous fuel. Options
include that of propane and acetylene among others. Moreover, by fabricating a custom burner
assembly, the concentration of heat can be manipulated to best suit the needs of efficiency.
However, working with an open flame should be avoided if all possible; so other alternatives
have become more appealing. Industrial heat blankets and heat guns can be utilized to perform a
similar function. Although most heat blankets and heat guns do not distribute as much heat as a
gaseous burner assembly; the advantages to the alternatives in respect to safety are far more
32

beneficial. Again, as many of the components selected for the Stirling engine design, the
flexibility of alternatives becomes increases when designing around a lower operating
temperature.
INTERNAL ASSEMBLIES
The most significant characteristic that sets Alpha Forces design apart from other Stirling
designs on the market is to incorporate different materials for the hot and cold side of the engine.
The implications associated in doing so would complicate hot joining methods such as welding
and brazing. It is typical practice to weld like materials because the properties are common
throughout. Considering the probability of failure by joining welding two different metals
together, Alpha Force has decided to look into other joining methods such as internal rings
and/or flanges. By applying effective gaskets and bolt circles to industry standards, Alpha Force
can successfully join parts of various materials and thermal conductivities. Based on this model,
Alpha Force can further itemize the internal assemblies per components of similar material.
COLD CHAMBER ASSEMBLY
Beginning from the power (cold) cylinder, the first internal assembly is the cold chamber
assembly. The first part in this assembly is a 6061 aluminum pipe turned, bored, and cut to
length. The second component of this assembly is called the cold chamber ring. It will be a ring
with an outside diameter equivalent to that of the cylinder, and an inside diameter large enough
to achieve flow throughout all of the cooling tubes. The thickness of the cold chamber ring will
be determined by the minimum threaded length of the applied bolts according to industry
standards. Likewise, a bolt hole circle will be drilled and tapped to meet the specifications of the
standardized bolt.
COOLING TUBE ASSEMBLY
The next internal assembly is referred to as the cooling tube assembly. Again, using 6061
aluminum, the cooling tube assembly consists of numerous capillary tubes joining two aluminum
caps. Both caps in the assembly are identical. Beginning with a slice of raw aluminum stock
turned to the OD of the hot cylinder, drill thru holes counter-bores will be machined around the
outside of the top face in compliance to the bolt circle assigned to the cold chamber ring. In
33

addition, numerous holes will be drilled in a circular array so that the necessary capillary tubes
can be forced through. Since the material of the entire cooling tube assembly is consistent, using
welding and brazing methods to join the capillary tubes to the cap is acceptable. Besides the two
aluminum caps and the cooling tubes, gaskets and bolts are itemized as parts that make up the
cooling tube assembly.
REGENERATOR
Moving from the cold end of the Stirling engine to the hot end; the first assembly intended for
316L stainless steel is met. The three main parts that make up the regenerator are the regenerator
chamber, the regenerator matrix, and the Schrader valve. Ideally, the regenerator chamber will
share the same ID and OD of the hot cylinder, therefore simplifying our needs for material by
cutting from the same stock as intended for the hot cylinder. The regenerator chamber will be
packed with multiple stainless steel mesh screens cut to fit the inside area of the 316L pipe. This
assortment of screens, called the regenerator matrix, should contain screens as thin as possible in
order to ensure an effective stagnant volume. This volume is responsible for achieving the
desired temperature difference in order to reach optimal efficiency. Finally the regenerator
chamber will be drilled and tapped for the Schrader valve. A Schrader valve is necessary to
charge and observe the working fluid in the system. Finding an accessible point at the top of the
chamber should be satisfactory enough for proper operation.

34

HEATING TUBE ASSEMBLY

Similar to that of the cooling tube assembly, the heating tube assembly will consist of two caps
joined by several tubes assigned with the task of reducing flow and dissipating heat. Rather than
the cooling tube assembly, the caps and tubing on the hot side will be made from stainless steel.
Also, the tubing will be slightly larger, longer, and of a lesser quantity. Given that the three
different components made from the same material, 316L; the standard approved welding
process can be administered. Again, this assembly also consists of the applicable bolts and
gaskets.
HOT CHAMBER ASSEMBLY
Ideally, the dimensions of the hot chamber are identical to that of the cold cylinder; the only
difference would be the material. Alpha Force may have to manipulate the thickness of the wall
in order to meet thermodynamic requirements and/or change the inner diameter in case a
different size piston is used. Although the probabilities of these scenarios are unlikely, these are
the things Alpha Force is not afraid to take into consideration. For instance, opposed to using the
hot chamber ring to join to the hot chamber cap, another ring with a large enough ID could be
slipped around the hot cylinder to form a flange type joint. Rather than a hot chamber cap with
an OD synonymous with the OD of the pipe, it would match the same specifications as the
flange. All of which are excellent ideas to further analyze during the final stages of design.

Calculations
Alpha Forces construction of the Stirling engine heavily depends upon the accuracy of
the calculations. As previously stated, a pressure-volume chart of the carnot cycle will give us
an illustration of the engines behavior. The curves associated with the maximum and minimum
pressures and volumes should properly illustrate the engines behavior as it goes through
adiabatic and isothermal expansion and compression respectively. While pressure and volume
are the main factors in the carnot cycle, it is the difference of temperature between Th, effective
temperature in the hot space, and Tc, the effective temperature in the cold space, that will
determine the efficiency of our engine.

35

Alpha Forces research includes an extremely thorough calculation schedule provided by

NASA that covers all three Stirling engine types (Alpha-type, Beta-type, and Gamma-type).
Over 119 definitions are defined through initial given dimensions and over sixty formulas.
Alpha Force will incorporate the definitions and formulas pertaining to the Alpha-type engine
into software produced by PTC called MathCAD. Once all calculations are complete, this
software gives Alpha Force the ability to manipulate the initial given dimensions and operating
conditions in order to seek the best results.
The first of these given dimensions to take into consideration pertain to the drivetrain; the
piston specifically. As volumes are represented on the carnot cycle, they can also be represented
by the piston. Volume is a third dimensional factor, for our purposes, represented by [cm]. This
volume can be found with the product of the area of the piston head [cm] and the stroke of the
piston [cm]. Therefore the type of piston arrangement is essential.
Similarly, the given dimensions of the displacer (hot) cylinder, compression (cold)
cylinder, and the regenerator are recorded. Keep in mind, neglecting the tolerance for lubrication
and seal, the piston diameter takes account for the ID of the cylinders. It is not the volume of the
cylinders that is as prudent as the thickness of the cylinder walls. The thickness and material of
the cylinders and regenerator gives an idea of the components in respect towards thermal
conductivity. The heating (hot) tubing and cooling (tubing) share an equal importance. Unlike
the cylinders and regenerator; the inside diameter, outside diameter, and wall thickness are
insignificant without knowing the number of tubes that can efficiently displace the proper
amount of heat. This is a good example of how values can be manipulated at the end of the
calculation stage to ensure the best results prior to construction.
With all the given factors in place for the main components of the system, the live
volumes and dead volumes in both cylinders and the regenerator can be calculated. The
following formulas are used to determine the hot dead volume, VHD, and hot live volume, VHL,
of the displacer cylinder.

VHL

DE ( SE)
4

VHD VHDX

( DIH) ( LH) ( NT H)

36

VHL = Maximum hot live volume

DE = Diameter of expansion, hot space
SE = Stroke of expansion, hot piston
VHD = Hot dead volume
VHDX = Extra hot dead volume (besides that in gas heater)
DIH = Inside diameter of displacer
NTH = Number of heater tubes per power unit
LH = Total length of each heater tube

After all of the engines basic components are accounted for, accessories should be added
in. These accessories include, but are not limited to the cylinder caps, flanges, and rings; or any
components that can be used to better assemble Alpha Forces engine. The next given variable
will be the counterpart to all the thermal conductivity values pulled from the components
material properties. A variable defined by the term THM, heat source metal temperature, will
define the temperature of our heat source. Ideally, Alpha Force wants this temperature to be as
low as possible to allow more flexibility for operation.
The ratio of Tc to Th is referred to as TAU. This definition can be used along with the
phase angle of the crankshaft to define another term, DEL. DEL can be defined by the following
equation.

DEL

TAU2 2(TAU)(KAP) cos (ALPH) KAP2

( TAU KAP 2S)

TAU = Tc/Th
KAP = VCL/VHL
ALPH = Phase angle
S = Reduced dead volume

Reduced dead volume, S, can be calculated with the following equation.

S

TC
VCD VRD VHD
VHL

TR
TH
TC

37

TC = Effective temperature in cold, compression space

TR = Effective regenerator temperature
TH = Effective temperature in hot, expansion, space
VCD = Cold dead volume
VRD = Regenerator dead volume

The effective temperature in the expansion and compression space can be taken from
Alpha Forces expected thermal efficiency and initial heat source temperature. The effective
temperature of the regenerator, TR, is not as easy. Note the following.

TR

( THM TCM)
ln

THM

TCM

THM = Heat source metal temperature

TCM = Heat sink metal temperature (If applicable)

Before more in depth calculations can take place, we must finish the remainder of the
given factors. The first of the final givens refers back to the drive train. Characteristics of the
crankshaft come into play oppose to the piston head. Noting the phase angle, ALPH, of the
crank journals and the crank radius, RC, will allow us to determine the volumes at different
intervals more closely.
The maximum engine pressure, PMAX, and engine efficiency, NU, will be entered into
the calculations as a given factor. The value used for PMAX can be derived with a temperature
pressure chart given the maximum volume of the cylinder. Meanwhile, NU will be the set
deliverable that we plan on achieving, 35% thermal efficiency.
Given the PMAX, maximum engine pressure, and calculating DEL; the minimum
pressure of the cycle can be obtained.

PMIN

PMAX( 1 DEL)
( 1 DEL)

38

PMIN = Minimum pressure of the cycle

PMAX = Maximum engine pressure

The most significant calculation that Alpha Force came across while researching the
Stirling engine, is the Schmidt Equation. The Schmidt Equation analyzes the sinusoidal volume
variation between the two cylinders according to their fluctuation controlled by the phase angle,
ALPH, of the crankshaft. By factoring in the time averaged mean pressure, PAVG, the basic
power of the Stirling Engine can be determined.
NU( PAVG) ( VT L) ( 1 TAU) ( DEL) sin( THET)

( KAP 1) 1 1 ( DEL)

BP

BP = Basic output from Stirling Engine

VTL = Total live volume in both cylinders

THET tan

( 1)

sin( ALPH)

KAP TAU (KAP cos (ALPH))

The same portion of the calculation schedule analyzes the total dead volumes of both the
displacer (hot) cylinder, VH, and the compression (cold) cylinder. By noting the fluctuation of
volumes at different crank angles, PHI, (normally intervals of 30), a carnot cycle can be
illustrated on a pressure-volume chart. VH is the sum of VHLX, hot live volume at a particular
angle PHI, and VHD. Correspondingly, VC is the sum of VCLX, cold live volume at a
particular angle PHI, and VCD. These volumes at a particular angle PHI are represented with
the following equations.

VH

( DC Y) 2( RC) ( LCR) 2 ( RC sin ( PHI) ) 2 ( RC cos ( PHI) ) LCR VHD

4

39

VC

DC Y2 DDR2 LCR2 ( RC sin ( PHI ALPH) ) 2 RC cos ( PHI ALPH) LCR RC VC D

4

VH = Total hot volume at angle PHI

VC = Total cold volume at angle PHI
DCY = Diameter of engine cylinder
RC = Crank radius
LCR = Connecting rod length for Rhombic drive (0)
DDR = Diameter of displacer drive rod
VHD = Hot dead volume
VCD = Cold dead volume

The total gas volume at angle PHI, VT, can be represented similarly.
VT VH VC VRD

VRD = Dead Regenerator Volume

All power calculations must consider losses. Minimizing these losses is desired for all
engines in general. Alpha Forces engine uses a working fluid as a media to transfer power. The
fluid friction loss experienced as the working fluid flows through the engines components is a
significant concern. Properties of the gas being used, such as gas viscosity, MU, must be
recorded.
6

MU 196.1410

.46410

(THM 293) 0.09310

THM = Heat source metal temperature

PAVG = Maximum engine pressure

(PAVG)

The intricate tubes that are common for Alpha-type engines brake the working fluid to a
nearly static volume between each cycle, allowing the regenerator to provide an appropriate
difference of temperature between cylinders. This intended force against the flow of the fluid is
40

considered windage power. The windage power of the heating tubes, WPH, cooling tubes,
WPC, and regenerator, WRC, can be calculated with the following equations.

WPH

4FF G2 ( LH) ( VHL) ( NU)

7

10 ( DIH) ( RHOM)

WPH = Heating tubes windage power

WPR = Regenerator windage power
WPC = Cooling tubes windage power
F = Friction factor
G = Mass velocity, based upon flow area
LH = Total length of each heater tube
VHL = Hot live volume
NU = Engine efficiency
DIH = Diameter of displacer
RHOM = Mean gas density

The total windage power can be represented by the sum of the three.

WP = WPH + WPR + WPC

Further energy losses to be taken into account include mechanical friction loss, MFL, and
reheat loss, QRH. Reheat loss is dependent upon the heat source metal temperature, THM, and
heat sink metal temperature, TCM. Meanwhile, MFL is based on simple safety factor; normally
20% of the basic power output. Although this loss is not very complex to calculate, it is the most
noteworthy loss to overcome.
QRH ( FCT) ( WRS) ( CV) ( THM TCM)

NT UV 2

QRH = Reheat loss

FCT = Fraction of cycle time for gas flow into hot space
WRS = Effective flow rate of gas through regenerator
CV = Specific heat of working fluid
NTUV = Number of transfer units for regenerator using constant volume heat

41

Performance loss from heat is not always necessarily due to heat losses. Conduction heat
between the hot and cold effective temperature also decreases the efficiency considerably.
Shuttle conduction, QSH, varies between high and low pressure applications. Low pressure
engines typically have thinner walls than that of high pressure engines which effects the
conduction of heat. On the other hand Static conduction, QS, figures in the radiation factor on
all components of the engine.

Additional losses include that of pumping loss, QPH, temperature swing loss QTS, and
internal temperature swing loss, QITS. The temperature swing loss is dependent upon the makeup of the stainless steel mesh matrix Alpha Force will incorporate into the regenerator. The
magnitude of these losses do not appear to be as significant as the examples previously stated,
however they are just as vital to the overall performance summary as the more significant
mechanical and heat losses.

Given the deliverable of 1kW of power and the efficiency of the alternator, Alpha Force
can establish a minimum power required from the Stirling engine. The net power, NP, should be
equivalent to this minimum requirement in order for the construction of the engine to be a
success. The net power is equivalent to the basic power out of the Stirling engine minus the total
sum of all recorded losses.
NP = BP MFL QRH QSH QS QPU QTS QITS WPH (WPR/2)
After thorough research of successful engine designs, Alpha Force will comprise the
most impressive features reviewed into one optimal design. These dimensions will be used as a
basis in hopes to make the diverse improvements coexist into a design that will produce the
required net power, NP. On condition that that is not the case, dimensions are revised and the
procedure is repeated. The calculations provided are designed to establish the optimal
construction for Alpha Forces Stirling engine.

42

Project Schedule

Budget
Description
Frame
Table Frame

Qty.

Min.

Max.

$120.00

$180.00

Power Train
Crankshaft
Connecting Rod
Piston
Pillow Block

2
2
2
2

$330.00
$190.00
$140.00
$40.00

$700.00
$390.00
$360.00
$70.00

Cold Chamber (Aluminum)

Cold Cylinder
Cold Cylinder Cap
Cold Chamber Ring
Gasket
Cooler Tube

1
2
2
2
70

$150.00
$420.00
$240.00
$80.00
$150.00

$220.00
$650.00
$350.00
$120.00
$220.00

Regenerator (Stainless Steel)

Regenerator Chamber

$190.00

$260.00

Notes

43

Stainless Steel Mesh

Schrader Valve
Regenerator Gasket

100
1
2

$110.00
$50.00
$80.00

$160.00
$120.00
$120.00

Hot Chamber (Stainless Steel)

Hot Cylinder
Hot Cylinder Cap
Hot Chamber Ring
Gasket
Hot Tube

1
2
2
2
15

$280.00
$350.00
$260.00
$80.00
$90.00

$390.00
$460.00
$350.00
$120.00
$150.00

Working Fluid
Helium Tank

$50.00

$140.00

Electrical Equipment
12v/150Amp Alternator
12v battery

1
1

$90.00
$60.00

$150.00
$120.00

2
1

$230.00
$120.00
$600.00
$500.00

$320.00
$320.00
$900.00
$800.00

$5,000.00

$8,140.00

Other
Flywheel
Heating element
Welding
Misc.
Budget
Total

Donated

Donation
Greene Tweed & Co.
Generator Supercenter
Elliott Services

$1,000.00
$1,000.00
$100.00

Donation Total

$2,100.00

Sponsorship Package

Alpha Force Sponsorship Package

The solutions of tomorrow depend on the improvements of technology today. This is an addition
to the reasons that Alpha Force is devoted to improving technology for a better tomorrow. With
great passion for the mechanical discipline, the members of Alpha Force have invested in a
curriculum to implement principles into. In addition to vast study, Alpha Force is committed to
implement these principles into something more substantial; a senior project.
Alpha Force is focused on exploring readily available alternative energies, specifically the heat
engine. Along with an absence of contained combustible fuels, a heat engine is designed to
operate around the thermodynamic cycle of compression and expansion of a working fluid. The
global economy is in constant search for alternative energy and cost justifiable resources. This is
the type of consideration that validates this engine as an ideal project. Alpha Forces objective is
to produce such an engine capable of delivering a minimum of 1kW of electric power.
44

Alpha Force believes that the work set in front of us will be significant to a forever changing
world. Unfortunately, fundamental mechanical knowledge and diligent hard work still requires
proper funding in order to be successful. This is why pursuing sponsors is a vital part to
improving tomorrows technology.
We would like to cordially invite your company to be a part of Alpha Force and our efforts to
accomplish such significance. As a sponsor, Alpha Force will provide you with progress reports
throughout the months to come to illustrate the progress that of your investment. Depending on
contribution Alpha Force would also like to promote your company on our website, posters
displayed on the University of Houston campus, our official website, organized mechanical
engineering technology presentations, and even wear your company logo on team apparel. Below
is a list of packages that accommodate sponsorship accordingly, as well as the appropriate
guidelines for payment of funds.

GAMMA PACKAGE
($100+)
TEAM WEBSITE

BETA PACKAGE
($500+)
TEAM WEBSITE
TEAM PRESENTATIONS
TEAM POSTER

ALPHA PACKAGE
($1000+)
TEAM WEBSITE
TEAM PRESENTATIONS
TEAM POSTER
TEAM APPAREL

DONATION OPTIONS
Provided your company would like to become a sponsor and a part of Alpha Force, there are
options available for donating your charitable contributions. The first method is by check. If
paying by check, please follow the guidelines below.

Please make checks payable to:

UNIVERSITY OF HOUSTON
304A Technology Building
Houston, TX 77204-4020
Attn: Raresh Pascali
Memo: Alpha Force Sponsor

45

If payment by check is not in your companys best interest, secure online contributions can be
made on the University of Houston website. By going to the link https://giving.uh.edu/gift/ , you
can confidentially make a gift by credit card. Along with the easy to follow fields for your gift
information, be certain to include the fields indicated below.

*Please designate my gift to:

College of Technology

*Please let us know if you would like to take

any further actions with your gift or give us
any special instructions about your gift:

Alpha Force Senior Design Project

Alpha Force greatly appreciates your company taking the time to consider the opportunity at
hand. We strongly agree that your companys financial support, regardless the amount, is
capable of providing the solutions for tomorrow. Feel free to contact us if you have any further
comments and/or questions.

Feel free to contact us via email and/or visit our website:

Uhtech.alphaforce@gmail.com
http://cot-linux.tech.uh.edu/~alkayumb/Index.htm
DUNG PHAM

GARY CLAYTON

GREG TREVINO

ANGE KAYUMB

References
1. http://www.ohio.edu/people/urieli/stirling/me422.html
2. http://www.bekkoame.ne.jp/~khirata/academic/kiriki/begin/index.html
3. http://electron9.phys.utk.edu/phys136d/modules/m3/m3ex1.htm
4. http://sycomoreen.free.fr/syco_english/concept_SPRATL_artactuel_eng.html
5. http://magicalmachines.weebly.com/the-stirling-cycle-engine.html
6. http://www.stirlingbiopower.com/STIRLING/BASSE.swf
7. http://www.genoastirling.com/
8. http://www.greenconsumerguide.com/powergenminisite/index.htm
9. http://newenergydirection.com/blog/2008/11/reducing-greenhouse-heating-costs-and
Generating-income/
10. Thermodynamics and Heat Power, 6th edition, Kurt C. Rolle, Prentice Hall Upper
46

Saddle, New Jersey (2005).

11. http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/thermo/imgheat/carnot.gif
12. http://www.dearmondtool.com/alumrect6061.htm
13. http://www.pyrexware.com/
14. http://www.lenntech.com/stainless-steel-316l.htm
15. www.robertstirlingengine.com
16. www.wood-pellet-ireland.blogspot.com
17. http://www.balmar.net/PDF/alternator%20info/6-series-sheet-web.pdf
18. http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/material-properties-t_24.html
19. http://hydrogen-water-cars.amazonwebstore.com
20. http://www.cclcomponents.com/product.asp?ID=1753
21. http://aramaxinc.reachlocal.com
22. http://www.alpineparty.com/products/products.php?page=16
23. http://www.balmar.net/2011-Balmar-Product-Guide.pdf
24. http://www.balmar.net/PDF/alternator%20info/6-series-sheet-web.pdf
25. http://www.electronics-manufacturers.com/products/electrical-electronicComponents/electrical-alternator/
26. http://cgi.ebay.com/ebaymotors/ws/eBayISAPI.dll?ViewItem&item=250718906310
27. http://www.waleapparatus.com/index.asp?category=18740
28. http://solarcellcentral.com/stirling_page.html

47