Part 1

FUNDAMENTALS OF MEASUREMENTS
1.1

INTRODUCTION

The art of measurement is a wide discipline in both engineering

and science, encompassing the areas of detection, acquisition,
control and analysis of data. It involves the precise measurement
and recording of a physical, chemical, mechanical or an optical
parameter and plays a vital role in every branch of scientific
research and industrial processes interacting basically with control
systems, process instrumentation and data reduction. Recent
advances in electronics, physics, material sciences, and other
branches of science and technology have resulted in the
development of many sophisticated and high precision measuring
devices and systems, catering to varied measurement problems in
such disciplines as aeronautics, science and technology, space,
medicine, oceanography and industry in general.
Measurements help us describe the world and everything in it.
Measurements can describe length, volume, weight, time,
temperature, and countless other properties. People need
measurements whenever they make something. Without
measurement, the world would be a mess. Bridges would end in
the middle of rivers if engineers didnt take measurements before
building. You would be late for school constantly without a clock
to measure time. Your clothes wouldnt fit if they didnt match the
measurements of your body.
Without a speedometer, a driver couldnt stay at a safe speed.
Without their built-in thermometers, refrigerators couldnt keep
food cold enough to stop the growth of harmful bacteria. If doses
of prescription medicine werent carefully measured, a sick person
could take too much and become even sicker.
Fundamentally, measurement of a quantity is the act or the result
of a quantitative comparison between a predefined standard and an
unknown magnitude. If the result is to be meaningful, the act of
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measurement must satisfy the following requirements:

The standard must be
internationally accepted

accurately

known

and

The apparatus and the experimental procedure adopted

for comparison must be provable.
Definition:

The determination of amount of physical quantity is known

as measurement.
The process or the act of measurement consists of obtaining
a quantitative comparison between a predefined standard
and the physical quantity to be measured.

Fig.1.1 Process of measurement

In the field of engineering

sciences, the role of measurements
takes basic platform on which the
processes depends, can be
controlled and automated for a
desired outcome.

Fig. 1.2 Process pyramid.

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1.2 SIGNIFICANCE
The advancement of science and technology is dependent upon a
parallel progress in measurement techniques. It can be safely said
that the quickest way to assess a nations progress in science and
technology is to examine the type of measurements that are being
made and the way in which the data is acquired by measurements
and is processed.
As science and technology move ahead, new phenomena and
relationships are discovered and these advances make new types of
measurements imperative. New discoveries are not of any practical
utility unless they are backed by actual measurements. The
measurements, no doubt, confirm the validity of a hypothesis but
also add to its understanding. This results in an unending chain
which leads to new discoveries that require more, new and
sophisticated measurement techniques. Hence modern science and
technology are associated with sophisticated methods of
measurement while elementary science and technology require
only ordinary methods of measurement.

Fig.1.3 Closed loop controller system.

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The main objective of a measurement is to provide exactness in

presented data to the controller which can make a necessary
control on the process to get desired output. The placement of the
measurement system in the controller event is in feedback.
An instrument or measurement systems are set up for one or more
of the following functions:
1. To monitor processes and operations
2. To control Process and operations
3. To carry out some experimental engineering analysis.
Monitoring:
Monitoring means the regular observation and recording of
activity.
Thermometers, barometers, anemometers, water, gas, electricity
meters only indicate certain quantities. Their readings do not
perform any control functions in the ordinary sense. These
measurements are made for monitoring purposes only.

Fig. 1.4 Monitoring devices (Thermometer, Energy meter, Barometer)

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Control:
The thermostat in a refrigerator or
geyser determines the temperature of
the
relevant
environment
and
accordingly switches OFF or ON the
cooling or heating mechanism to keep
the temperature constant, i.e. to control
the temperature. A single system
sometimes may require many controls.
For example, an aircraft needs controls
from altimeters, gyroscopes, angle- attack
sensors,
thermocouples,
accelerometer, etc.
Fig. 1.5 Thermostat in refrigerator

Experimental engineering analysis:

In research and development work, measuring instruments are used
in carrying out experiments such as measurement of forces on
various machine parts and civil structures, voltage and current
measurement in design of electrical equipment etc. Here the
application of instruments is specifically intended for experimental
purpose only. The experimental results analyzed, compared with
the existing standards and derive the necessary correction.
In the complex areas like aeronautics and cockpit controls where
there is a pure physics principles involved the analysis of various
parameters is very mandatory to get control and measurement on
the application.

Fig.1.6.Aeroplane cockpit controls

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In general, there is no specific sequence of above said functions in

any measurement application. For example,
1. In the speed control of an automobile vehicle, the followed
sequence generally is: Monitoring Analysis Control.
2. In case of a physician, the followed sequence is:
Monitoring Control Analysis
In majority of measurement systems, Monitoring is first and very
much needed, later the other two stage sequence may differ in
different applications depending on the priority of actions.
1.3 MEASUREMENT CATEGORIES
1. Direct method: Refers to measuring exactly the thing that
you're looking to measure.
Ex: Distance, weight etc. using available standards and
devices.
2. Indirect method: Means that you're measuring something by
measuring something else.
Ex: Using conversions, transformations like temperature by
resistance, displacement by voltage etc.
3. Probe or intrusive method: Measurement of a physical
quantity characterized by intrusion or tending to intrude
something into the system for a change.
Ex: Use of thermometer
4. Non - intrusive: Measurement process does not involve
insertion of active or something into the system, like radiation
emitted by a body to measure a desired quantity.
1.4 GENERALIZED MEASUREMENT SYSTEM
There is a need of intermediate stage between the physical variable and
the observer to facilitate the actual information of physical variable
towards the outside world. Such an intermediate stage interprets
monitoring, controlling and analyzing functions needed in industry and
general process environment which is called as an instrument.
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These provide information that enables human beings to take some

prescribed action accordingly. The gardener uses a thermometer to
determine whether he should turn the heat on in his greenhouse or
open the windows if it is too hot. Regular study of a barometer
allows us to decide whether we should take our umbrellas if we are
planning to go out for a few hours. Whilst there are thus many uses
of instrumentation in our normal domestic lives, the majority of
monitoring functions exist to provide the information necessary to
allow a human being to control some industrial operation or
process.
In a chemical process for instance, the progress of chemical
reactions is indicated by the measurement of temperatures and
pressures at various points and such measurements allow the
operator to take correct decisions regarding the electrical supply to
heaters, cooling water flows, valve positions etc.
Basically two types of instrument mechanisms are developed
depending on the requirement. One is open loop instrument system
and the second is closed loop type.
An instrument is a tool or implement, especially one for delicate
or scientific work. Responds for an input and gives an output.

Fig. 1.7 Basic instrument

For a complex environment and automation examples an ordinary

instrument is not at satisfactory in performance at the reasonable
accuracy preferred. Hence the instrument is well designed by
incorporating the signal conditioning stages which will shape the
preferred outcome for an existing input by guaranteed accuracy.
The general block representation of an instrument (Open loop) is
given below.
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Fig. 1.8 Generalized measurement system (Instrument)-Open loop

Input sensor (Primary Sensing Element)

An element of an instrument which makes first, the contact with
the quantity to be measured is called input sensor (primary sensing
element). Thus first detection of the measurand is done by the
primary sensing element. In ammeter, coil carrying current to be
measured is a primary sensing element. In most of the cases, a
transducer follows primary sensing element which converts the
measurand into a corresponding electrical signal.
Variable Conversion Element
The output of the primary sensing element is in electrical form
such as voltage, frequency or any other electrical parameter. Such
an output may not be suitable for the actual measurement system.
For example, if the measurement system is digital then the analog
signal obtained from the primary sensing element is not suitable
for the digital system. Thus analog to digital converter is required
which is nothing but variable conversion element.
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Variable Manipulation Element

The leve1of the output from the previous stage may not be enough
to drive the next stage. Thus variable manipulation element
manipulates the signal, preserving the original nature of the signal.
Data Presentation Element
The transmitted data may be used by the system, finally for
monitoring, controlling or analyzing purposes. Thus the person
handling the instrument must get the information in the proper
form, according to the purpose for which it is intended. This
function is done by the data presentation clement. If the data is to
be monitored then visual display devices are used as data
presentation element. If the signal is to be recorded for analysis
purpose then magnetic tapes, recorders, high speed cameras are
used as data presentation elements. For control and analysis
purposes the microprocessors, computers and microcontrollers
may be used as data presentation elements. The data presentation
stage may be called terminating stage of an instrument.
For
the
complex
measurement applications, control purposes the simple open loop
instrument doesnt meet required satisfaction in measuring and
control functions. So that the need of feedback is coming into the
situation to get controlled output variable. The feedback used
generalized measurement system given below.

Fig. 1.9 Generalized measurement system (closed loop)

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Generalized measurement systems may be divided into three parts:

1. The detector-transducer stage: This detects the physical
variable and performs either a mechanical or an electrical
transformation to convert the signal into a more usable form. In the
general sense, a transducer is a device that transforms one physical
effect into another. In most cases, however, the physical variable is
transformed into an electric signal because this is the form of
signal that is most easily measured. The signal may be in digital or
analog form. Digital signals offer the advantage of easy storage in
memory devices, or manipulations with computers.
2. The intermediate stage: Which modifies the direct signal by
amplification, filtering, or other means so that a desirable output is
available.
3. A final or output stage: This acts to indicate, record, or control
the variable being measured. The output may also be digital or
analog.
Example: Bourdon tube pressure gauge

Fig. 1.10 Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge

A Bourdon tube pressure gauge is shown in Fig.1.10 along with a

block diagram (Fig. 1.11) showing its functional elements.
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Fig. 1.11 Elements of Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge

The pressure applied to the hollow oval-shaped bent tube, known

as the Bourdon tube, deforms the cross-section of the tube as well
as causes a relative motion, proportional to the applied pressure, of
the free end of the tube with respect to its fixed end. Thus, this tube
acts as a transducer element as it converts the desired input, i.e.
pressure into a displacement x at its free end. This displacement is
amplified by the combined lever and the gearing arrangement
which may be referred to as the signal conditioning elements.
Finally, the movement of the pointer attached to the gear on a scale
gives an indication of the pressure and thus the pointer and the
scale constitute the data presentation elements of the Bourdon tube
pressure gauge.
1.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS
The system characteristics are to be known, to choose an
instrument that most suited to a particular measurement
application. The performance characteristics may be broadly
divided into two groups, namely static and dynamic
characteristics. The overall performance of a measurement system
is based on its static and dynamic characteristics. It indicates how
well the instrument measures the desired input and rejects the
spurious (or undesired) inputs.
Static characteristics: The performance criteria for the
measurement of quantities that remain constant, or vary only quite
slowly. If the sensor is made to measure constant or slowly varying
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quantities, its performance can be evaluated with only the static

characteristics.
Dynamic characteristics: The relationship between the system
input and output when the measured quantity (measurand) is
varying rapidly w.r.t time. This involves the study of the
instrument input-output relations and the use of differential
equations.
For a single stage measurement system, the static characterization
can be done by input output relation given as,

In case of multi stage system, the overall cascaded system

characteristics given as,

Each stage has its own static and dynamic nature, hence it is
denoted as,

In case of multi stage measurement system, it is given as,

The overall response by static and dynamic states is written as,

The static performance of a measurement system is validated by

static characteristics mostly considered are discussed in detail here.
1. Accuracy
2. Precision
3. Resolution
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4. Threshold
5. Sensitivity
6. Hysteresis
7. Linearity
8. Readability
9. Repeatability
10. Reliability
11. Range & span
Accuracy:
It is defined as the closeness with which the reading approaches
an accepted standard value or the true value.
It is numerically equal to the referred error value. i.e. degree of
error in the final result.
The accuracy is determined by calibration under certain operating
conditions and is expressed as within plus or minus a certain
specified amount of a percentage. All measurement systems or
instruments are classified and designated into different grades or
classes based on their accuracy level.
The accuracy of a complete system is dependent upon the
individual accuracies of the internal parts like primary sensing
element, secondary element, and the manipulating devices. Each
unit contributes to the accuracy with separate limits specified.
If a1, a2, and a3 are the accuracy limits of a typical system,
and A is the overall accuracy, the lowest limit of accuracy can be
expressed as A (a1+a2+a3). Accuracy expressed as % error which
is exhibited by the system.
Error is the algebraic difference between actual value and expected
value

Absolute error (e) =

where

Am = measured valueAt = expected or true value

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Example
The expected value of a voltage across a resistor is 45V. However,
the measurement gives 42.5 V. Calculate
i. Absolute error ii. % error iii. Relative accuracy iv. % accuracy
Sol:
Measured Value, Am = 42.5V

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Precision:
The preciseness of a measurement is a quantitative or numerical
indication of the closeness with which a repeated set of
measurement of the same variable agree with the average set of
measurements.

It is the closeness with individual measurements are distributed

about their mean value. It refers to the degree of agreement of a
set or group of measurements among themselves. Precision can
also be expressed mathematically with an index value. It has no
guarantee of accuracy.

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The accuracy and precision of measurements depend not only on

the quality of the measuring instrument but also on the person
using it. However, whatever the quality of the instrument and the
case exercised by the user, there is always some error present in
the measurement of physical quantities.

Significant Figures

The precision of the measurement is obtained from the number of

significant figures, in which the reading is expressed. The
significant figures convey the actual Information about the
magnitude and the measurement precision of the quantity.
For example, a resistance of 110, specified by an instrument may
be closer to 109 or 111. Thus there are 3 significant figures.
While if it is specified as 110.0 then it may be closer to 110.1
or 109.9 . Thus there are now 4 significant figures.
Thus more the significant figures, the greater is the precision of
measurement.

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Accuracy Vs Precision:
It may be noted that accuracy represents the degree of correctness
of the measured value with respect to the true value. On the other
hand, precision represents degree of repeatability of several
independent measurements of the desired input at the same
reference conditions.
A precise measurement may not necessarily be accurate and vice
versa. To illustrate this statement the example of a person
performing a shooting practice on a target. He can hit the target
with the following possibilities as shown in Fig.1.12

Fig. 1.12 Accuracy Vs Precision

Resolution
Resolution is the ability of a measuring system, including the
observer, to discriminate between nearly equal values. It can be
defined as the difference between two input values of the
measured quantity corresponding to subsequent smallest changes
in the output information, input quantity being changed
uni-directionally. If the input to an instrument is slowly increased
from some arbitrary (non-zero) input value, it will be observed that
the output does not change until a certain definite input increment
is exceeded. This increment is termed as resolution.
Resolution can then be defined as the input increment that
produces a definite perceivable change in the output, means
resolution gives the smallest measurable input change.
Higher the resolution, means detects very smallest input change
also.
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Generally, the least count of any measuring system is taken as the

measure of resolution.

Fig. 1.13 Resolution changes

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Threshold
If the instrument input is very gradually increased from zero there
will be a minimum value required to give a detectable output
change. This minimum value defines the threshold of the
instrument.
The threshold is the minimum value of the input below which no
output is detected. It defines the smallest measurable input, starting
from rest.

Fig. 1.14 Threshold

It
defines
the
smallest
measurable input. If the input to an instrument is gradually
increased from zero, the input will have to reach a certain
minimum level before the change in the instrument output reading
is of a large enough magnitude to be detectable. This minimum
level of input is known as threshold of the instrument.
Manufacturers vary in the way that they specify threshold for
instruments. Some quote absolute values, whereas others quote
threshold as a percentage of full-scale readings. As an illustration,
a car speedometer typically has a threshold of about 15 km/h. This
means that, if the vehicle starts from rest and accelerates, no output
reading is observed on the speedometer until the speed reaches
15 km/h.
Dead space, Dead band and Dead zone are some of the other
terms used to express threshold in different instruments.
Because of various factors like friction between moving parts, play
or looseness in joints (more correctly termed as backlash), inertia
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of the moving parts, length of the scale, spacing of graduations,

size of the pointer, parallax effect, etc. it is not possible to have
threshold value zero for a measuring system.
Static Sensitivity
The static sensitivity of measurement is a measure of the change in
instrument output that occurs when the quantity being measured
changes by a given amount. Thus, sensitivity is the ratio:

It is the relationship between a change in the output reading for a

given change of the input. (This relationship may be linear or nonlinear.)
Sensitivity is often known as scale factor or instrument
magnification and an instrument with a large sensitivity (scale
factor) will indicate a large movement of the indicator for a small
input change.

Fig. 1.15 (a) Static sensitivity, (b) Dynamic sensitivity

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Hysteresis
When a device is used to measure any parameter, first for
increasing values of the measurand and then for decreasing values
of the measurand, the two output readings obtained usually differ
from each other, primarily because of a certain amount of internal
or external friction in the response of the sensing element.
The maximum difference in any part of output readings so
obtained during any one calibration cycle is the hysteresis of the
device.
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Usually, hysteresis may be expressed in percentage of full scale

output measured at 50% of full scale level.
Hysteresis effects show up in any physical, chemical or e1ectrical
phenomenon. Hysteresis is a phenomenon which depicts different
output effects when loading and unloading whether it is a
mechanical system or an electrical system and for that matter any
system.
Hysteresis is non-coincidence of loading and unloading curves.
Hysteresis, in a system, arises due to the fact that all the energy put
into the stressed parts when loading is not recoverable upon
unloading.
In mechanical parts of a system, there may be internal friction,
external sliding friction and coulomb friction. There may be a free
play or looseness in the mechanism. In a given instrument number
of causes combine to give an overall effect which may result in
output-input relationship such as shown in fig.

Fig. 1.16
Hysteresis loop

Linearity
Most of the instruments are designed to provide a linear output
versus measurand relationship. Linearity is defined as the ability

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to reproduce the input characteristics symmetrically and this can

be expressed by the equation.

Where y is the output, x is the input, m is the slope, and c is the

intercept. It is measured by the closeness of the calibration curve to
a specified best fit straight line. The non-linearity may be due to
non-linear elements in the device, the electronic amplifier,
mechanical hysteresis, viscous flow or creep, and elastic aftereffects in the mechanical system.
The linearity is expressed as a percentage of the departure from the
linear value. i.e. maximum deviation of the output curve from the
best-fit straight line during any calibration cycle.
Different types
i. Theoretical slope linearity is referred to a straight line
between the theoretical end points. The line is drawn without
referring to any measured values.
ii. Terminal linearity is a special case of theoretical slope
linearity for which the theoretical end points are exactly 0%
and 100% of the lull-scale output.
iii. End point linearity is referred as a straight line between
the experimental end points. Such end points can be specified
as those obtained during any one calibration cycle or as an
average of readings during two or more consecutive
calibration cycles.
iv. Independent linearity is referred to the best straight line, a
line midway between the closest possible two parallel
straight lines enclosing all the output values obtained during
one calibration cycle. This can be drawn only when curve is
drawn with all the output readings including the end point
readings.

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v. Least square linearity is referred to the straight line for

which the sum of the squares of the residuals is minimized.
The residuals refer to the deviations of output readings from
their corresponding points on the best-fit straight line.

Fig. 1.17 (a) Terminal

linearity
(b) Independent
linearity
(c) Least square
linearity
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The linearity is expressed as percentage, given by

Readability
This term indicates the closeness with which the scale of the
instrument may be read. Smallest difference that can still be read
on a display. For balances and scales with a scale indicating device
(analog), the readability is equal to the smallest fraction of a scale
interval that can still be estimated with reasonable reliability or
which can be determined by an auxiliary device.
For balances and scales with a numeric indicator (digital display),
the readability is equal to one digital step.
Ex: Instrument with a 40cm scale would have a higher readability
than an instrument with a 10cm scale for the same range.
Repeatability
Repeatability of a Measurement
The quantitative expression of the closeness of agreement between
successive measurements of the same value or quantity carried out
by the same method with the same measuring instrument at the
same location over appropriately short intervals of time.
Repeatability of a Measuring Instrument
The quality, which characterizes the ability of the measuring
instrument to give identical indications or responses for repeated
applications of the same value of the quantity measured under,
stated conditions of use.
An instrument that is repeatable is not necessarily accurate. An
instrument may always read 245Vac when the actual voltage is
240Vac. Although not a desirable situation, this may not have
serious repercussions if the instrument is solely used for control
purposes. In the case of the voltmeter above repeatability can be
affected by variations in the wave shape. Environmental

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parameters also affect repeatability such as the ambient

temperature or vibration at the instrument location.

Fig. 1.18 Accuracy Vs Repeatability

It is a measure of how well the output returns to a given value

when the same precise input is applied several times. Or the ability
of an instrument to reproduce a certain set of reading within a
given accuracy.

Reliability
Reliability can be thought of as consistency. Does the instrument
consistently measure what it is intended to measure? It is not
possible to calculate reliability; however, there are four general
estimators that you may encounter in reading research:
1. Inter-Rater/Observer Reliability: The degree to which
different raters/observers give consistent answers or estimates.
2. Test-Retest Reliability: The consistency of a measure
evaluated over time.
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3. Parallel-Forms Reliability: The reliability of two tests

constructed the same way, from the same content.
4. Internal Consistency Reliability: The consistency of results
across items, often measured with Cronbachs Alpha.
Reliability is directly related to the validity of the measure.
Range & Span
In an analog indicating instrument the value of measurand is
indicated on a scale by a pointer while in a recording instrument it
is indicated on a chart by a pen mechanism. The choice of proper
range instruments is important in instrumentation.
The Scale Range of an instrument is defined as the difference
between the largest and the smallest reading of the instrument,
Supposing the highest point of calibration is Xmax units while the
lowest is Xmin, units and that the calibration is continuous between
the two points. Then we can say that the instrument range is
between Xmin and Xmax (or many a times we say that the instrument
range is Xmax).
The instrument span given by: Span = Xmax Xmin
For a pyrometer calibrated between 0 to 1000C, the range is
1000 0C and span is 1000 0C.
For a thermometer calibrated between 200C to 500 0C, the range
is 200C to 500 0C (or 500C) but the span is 500 200 = 300 0C.
Dynamic characteristics
When the instrument is subjected to rapidly varying inputs, the
relation between input and output becomes totally different than
that in case of static or constant inputs. As the input varies from
instant to instant, output also varies from instant to instant. The
behavior of system under such conditions is called dynamic
response of the system.
All the systems include one or more energy storing elements like
electrical inductance, capacitance, mass, inertia, friction, thermal
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capacitance, etc. Due to such elements, measuring systems rarely

respond instantaneously to the changes in the measured variables.
The measuring system goes through the transient state before it
settles down to its steady state position. Hence, the dynamic and
transient behavior of the system becomes an important aspect. The
dynamic behavior of the measuring system is expressed
mathematically by the differential equations.
The dynamic behavior of the measuring system is determined by
applying some known and predetermined variations of input to the
sensing clement. The standard variations in the input, used
practically to obtain the dynamic behavior, are as follows:
1. Step Input:
This represents sudden, instantaneous and finite change in the
input. The examples are sudden application of force to a
mechanical system, instantaneous closing of switch in an
electrical circuit, etc.

2. Ramp Input:
This represents linear change in input. The input, i.e. a variable to
be measured varies linearly with time. It changes at a constant rate
with respect to the time.

3. Parabolic Input:
This represents an input signal which is proportional to the square
of the time and hence represents constant acceleration.

4. Impulse input: It exists only at t = 0, and doesnt exists at all

time than t = 0
i.e. t 0.
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5. Sinusoidal Input:
This represents an input which changes in accordance with a
sinusoidal function of constant amplitude. The frequency is the
independent variable in this case. For a linear system subjected to
sinusoidal input, the output is also sinusoidal in steady state, but it
differs from input in amplitude and phase. Analyzing the dynamic
behavior includes the study of variations in output amplitude and
phase as input is sinusoidal in nature.

Fig. 1.19 Standard dynamic inputs

From the study of dynamic behavior of the measuring system by

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giving the inputs as mentioned above, various dynamic

characteristics of the system can be obtained. They are,
i. Speed of response

ii. Fidelity iii. Lag

iv. Dynamic error

Speed of Response:
It is the rapidity with which the system responds to the changes in
the quantity to be measured. It gives the information about how
fast the system reacts to the changes in the input; it indicates
activeness of the system. The system should respond very quickly
to the changes in the input.
Fidelity:
It indicates how much faithfully the system reproduces the changes
in the input. It is the ability of an instrument to produce a wave
shape identical to wave shape of input with respect to time. It is
defined as the degree to which an instrument indicates the changes
in the measured variable without dynamic error.
Lag:
Every system takes some time, whatever small it may be, to
respond to the changes in the measured variable. This retardation
or delay in the response of a system is called lag. This is also
called measuring lag.
The lags are of two types:1. Retardation Lag: In this case, he response of the system begins
immediately after a change in the variable has occurred.
2. Time Delay: In this case, response begins after some time called
dead time, after the application of input. Such a delay shifts the
response along time axis and hence causes the dynamic error.

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Dynamic Error: It is the difference between the true value of the

variable to be measured, changing with time and the value
indicated by the measurement system.

Fig. 1.20 Dynamic characteristics

1.6 ERRORS
An ideal or theoretical output versus the measurand relationship
exists for every transducer. If the transducer was ideally designed
and made from appropriate materials with ideal workmanship, the
output of this ideal transducer would continuously indicate the
true value of the measurand. It would follow exactly the
prescribed or known theoretical curve which specifics the
relationship of the output to the applied measurand over the
transducers range. Such a relationship can be expressed in the
form of a mathematical equation, graph or table of values. The
ideal output would be obtained regardless of the ambient
environmental conditions and the operating conditions to which
the device is subjected to.
In actual practice, however, the output of transducer is affected by
the non-ideal behavior of the device which causes the indicated
measurand value to deviate from the true value. The algebraic
difference between the indicated value and the true value of the
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measurand is termed the error of the device. This error is usually

expressed in percent of the full scale output (F.S.). The ratio of
this error to the full scale output is a measure of the accuracy of
the device.
The above mentioned error is contributed by the existence of a
large number of individual errors. In actual measurement the
effect of these errors on the transducer behavior should be known
clearly. The knowledge of these individual errors, can he often
used to correct the final data and thereby increase the overall
accuracy of the measurement.
The static error of a measuring instrument is the numerical
difference between the true value of a quantity and its value as
obtained by measurement.
Static errors are categorized as follows:
(a) Intrinsic, Absolute and Relative Errors: The error observed
when the instrument is under the reference condition is termed as
the intrinsic error.
The absolute error is the difference obtained by subtracting the true
value of a quantity from the observed value.
The relative error is the ratio of the absolute error to the true value.
(b) Uncertainty and Random Error: Uncertainty and random
errors are indicated when repeated measurements of the same
quantity result in differing values. They are caused by such effects
as friction, spring hysteresis, noise, and other phenomena. The
contributing factors are any random changes in input signal,
combined with noise and drift in the signal conditioner. Such
errors occur more in dynamic data analysis.
(c) Systematic and Instrumental Error: The errors resulting
from the characteristics of materials used in fabricating the
measuring device or system are systematic and instrumental errors.
Systematic errors are relatively constant errors occurring due to
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such effects as sensitivity drift, zero effect, known non-linearity,

etc. The phenomenon is frequently hidden and not evident in direct
observations. The value is obtained by a statistical procedure based
on repetitive measurements, carried out under different conditions
or with different equipment or by new methods. They are
eliminated by suitable corrections.
The instrumental error is a measure of precision at which the
readings are taken with the instrument. It is a part of the total
measurement error, expressing the accuracy of measurement. The
error is reduced by applying corrections to the readings taken by
the observer. The above mentioned errors are compensated by
algebraic corrections.
Following are some of the reasons of errors in results of the
indicating instruments:
(a) Construction of the Scale: There is a possibility of error due to
the division of the scale not being uniform and clear.
(b) Fitness and Straightness of the Pointer: If the pointer is not
fineand straight, then it always gives the error in the reading.
(c) Parallax: Without a mirror under the pointer there may be
parallax error in reading.
(d) Efficiency or Skillness of the Observer: Error in the reading is
largely dependent upon the skillness of the observer by which
reading is noted accurately.
(d) Interference
Errors:
The
unwanted
disturbances
superimposed on low level input signals due to noise, hum, line
pickup, ripple, switching transients and line transients are termed
as interference errors. They are created by noise from electrical
machines, magnetic fields, thermal sources, atmospheric
interferences, arcing contacts in switches and relays, electrostatic
noise, and cable noise. The error is reduced by isolation or
frequency discrimination. The isolation (shielding) may be
electrical, electromagnetic, or electrostatic.
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(e) Installation Errors (Application Errors): These errors are

created due to incorrect or improper application and faulty
installation. Such errors are predominant if the device is used
beyond the range or at excess temperature and vibration, or if the
impedance matching of the signal conditioner is poor. All the
devices and instruments must be used in accordance with design
specifications and manufacturers recommendations.
(f) Operational Errors (Human Errors): This type of error is
introduced as part of the total error, if the operational techniques
employed are poor, even though the system is accurate and
carefully selected and applied. The error occurs due to improper
adjustment, use of defective standards, incorrect scale marking or
reading, parallax error, and poor instrument operator training. A
typical case is the failure to adjust the set zero, and balance the
position and full-scale gain before starting the experiments in a
multichannel strain measuring bridge.
(g) Environmental Errors: Environmental errors are due to
conditions external to the measuring device, including conditions
in the area surrounding the instrument, such as the effects of
change in temperature, humidity, barometric pressure or of
magnetic or electrostatic fields. These errors can also be avoided
by air conditioning, hermetically sealing certain components in the
instruments, using magnetic shields.
(h) Observational Errors: Observational errors are errors

introduced by the observer. The most common error is the parallax

error introduced in reading a meter scale, and the error of
estimation when obtaining a reading from a meter scale. These
errors are caused by the habits of individual observers. For
example, an observer may always introduce an error by
consistently holding his head too far to the left while reading a
needle and scale reading.
In general, systematic errors can also be subdivided into static and
dynamic errors. Static errors are caused by limitations of the
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measuring device or the physical laws governing its behavior.

Dynamic errors are caused by the instrument not responding fast
enough to follow the changes in a measured variable.

Fig. 1.21 Observational Error

Main Sources of errors:

The sources of error, other than the inability of a piece of hardware
to provide a true measurement, are as follows:
1. Insufficient knowledge of process parameters, design conditions
2. Poor design
3. Change in process parameters, irregularities, upsets, etc.
4. Poor maintenance.
5. Errors caused by person operating the instrument or equipment.
Error due to Other Factors Errors in Measurement:
Temperature Variation: Variation in temperature not only changes
the values of the parameters but also brings changes in the reading
of the instrument. For a consistent error, the temperature must be
constant.
Effect of the Time on Instruments: There is a possibility of change
in calibration error in the instrument with time. This may be called
ageing of the instrument.

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Effect of External Electrostatic and Magnetic Fields: These

electrostatic and magnetic fields influence the readings of
instruments. These effects can be minimized by proper shielding.
Mechanical Error: Friction between stationary and rotating parts
and residual torsion in suspension wire cause errors in instruments.
So, checking should be applied. Generally, these errors may be
checked from time to time.
Limiting Errors
The choice of an instrument for a particular application depends
upon the accuracy desired. If only a fair degree of accuracy is
desired, it is not economical to use expensive materials and skill
into the manufacture of the instrument. But an instrument used for
an application requiring high degree of accuracy has to use
expensive material and a highly skilled workmanship. The
economical production of any instrument requires the proper
choice of material, design and skill. In order to assure the quality
of the instrument the manufacturer guarantees certain accuracy. In
most instruments the accuracy is guaranteed to be within a certain
percentage of full scale reading. Thus the manufacturer has to
specify the deviations from the nominal value of a particular
quantity. The limits of these deviations from the specified value
are defined as Limiting Errors or Guarantee Errors.
The magnitude of a quantity having a nominal value A and a
maximum error or limiting error of A must have a magnitude Aa
between the limits A A and A + A or the actual value as,
Aa = A A.
For example, the nominal magnitude of a resistor is 100 with a
limiting error of 10. The magnitude of the resistor will be
between the limits A = l00 10 or A 90 and A 110 . In
other words, the manufacturer guarantees that the value of
resistance of the resistor lies between 90 and 110 .
Relative Limiting error:
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The relative (fractional) error is defined as the ratio of the error to

the specified (nominal) magnitude of a quantity. Therefore,
=
Then the limiting values are, Aa = A A = A

= A (1

Example: The value of capacitance of a capacitor is specified as

1F 5% by the manufacturer. Find the limits between which the
value of the capacitance is guaranteed.
Sol: The guaranteed value of the capacitance lies within the limits:
a

= A (1

1.7 STATISTICAL TREATMENT OF DATA

The experimental data is obtained in two forms of tests:
(i) Multisampling test, and (ii) Single sample test.
Multisampling Test: In this test, repeated measurement of a given
quantity are done using different test conditions such as employing
different instruments, different ways of measurement and by
employing different observers. Simply making measurements with
the same equipment, procedure, technique and same observer do
not provide multi-sample results.
Single Sample Test: A single measurement (or succession of
measurements) done under identical conditions excepting for time
is known as single-sample test.
In order to get the exact value of the quantity under measurement,
tests should be done using as many different procedures techniques
and experimenters as practicable.

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Histogram When a number of multisampling observations are

taken experimentally there is a scatter of the data about some
central value. One method presenting test results in the form of a
Histogram. A histogram is a type of graph that has wide
applications in statistics. Histograms allow a visual interpretation
of numerical data by indicating the number of data points that lie
within a range of values,
called a class or a bin.
The frequency of the data
that falls in each class is
depicted by the use of a
bar. The technique is
shown in Fig.1.22.
Fig 1.22
Arithmetic Mean
When a set of readings of an instrument is taken, the individual
readings will vary somewhat from each other, and the
experimenter is usually concerned with the mean of all the
readings. If each reading is denoted by xi and there are n readings,
the arithmetic mean is given by

Deviation
Deviation is departure of the observed reading from the arithmetic
mean of the group of readings. Let the deviation of reading x1 be d1
and that of reading x2 be d2 etc. then,
..
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and
Average deviation
The average deviation is an indication of the precision of the
instruments used in making the measurements. Highly precise
instruments yield a low average deviation between readings.
Average deviation is defined as the sum of the absolute values of
deviations divided by the number of readings. It is represented as,

Standard Deviation (S.D)

Another important term in the analysis of random errors is the

standard deviation or the root mean square deviation. The Standard
Deviation of an infinite number of data is defined as the square
root of the sum of the individual deviations squared, divided by the
number of readings.
The Standard Deviation is a measure of how spreads out numbers
are. Its symbol is (the greek letter sigma)

In practice, however, the number of observations is infinite. When

the number of observations is greater than 20, S.D. is denoted by
symbol while it is less than 20, the symbol used iss. The Standard
Deviation of a finite number of data is given by,

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Variance
The square of standard deviation is called variance. This is
sometimes called the population or biased standard deviation
because it strictly applies only when a large number of samples is
taken to describe the population.

= 2 =
If number of observations is less than 20,

= s2 =
Example:
A set of independent current measurements were taken by six
observers and were recorded as 12.8 A, 12.2 A, 12.5 A, 13.1 A,
12.9 A, and 12.4 A. Calculate (a) the arithmetic mean, (b) the
deviations from the mean, (c) the average deviation (d) the
standard deviation, and (e) variance.
Sol: (a) Arithmetic mean,

(b) Deviations from the mean,

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(c) Average deviation,

(d) Since we have observations less than 20, the equation useful
for standard deviation is,

= 0.399A
(e) Variance, V = S2 = (0.399)2 = 0.115A2
1.8 REGRESSION ANALYSIS OF DATA
Regression is a generic term for all methods attempting to fit a
model to observed data in order to quantify the
relationship between two groups of variables. The fitted model
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may then be used either to merely describe the relationship

between the two groups of variables, or to predict new values.
The two data matrices involved in regression are usually denoted X
and Y, and the purpose of regression is to build a model Y = f(X).
Such a model tries to explain, or predict, the variations in the Yvariable(s) from the variations in the X-variable(s). The link
between X and Y is achieved through a common set of samples for
which both X- and Y-values have been collected. It includes many
techniques for modeling and analyzing several variables, when the
focus is on the relationship between a dependent variable and one
or more independent variables.
Suitable plot of data will indicate the nature of the trend in data
and hence will indicate the nature of the relation between the
independent and the dependent variables. A few examples are
shown in following figures.

Fig. 1.23 Linear relation between y and x

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Fig. 1.24 Linear relation between log x and log y

Fig. 1.25 Non-linear relation between y and x

The linear graph shown in Fig. 1.23 follows a relationship of the
form y = ax+b. The linear relationship on the log-log plot shown in
Fig. 1.24 follows the form y = axb. The non-linear relationship
shown in Fig. 1.25 follows a polynomial relationship of the form
y = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d. The parameters a, b, c, d are known as the
fit parameters and need to be determined as a part of the regression
analysis.

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Linear fit is possible in all the cases shown in Table

y = ax + b

Linear fit

y = axb

Power law fit

y = a ebx

Exponential fit

Plots as a straight line on a

linear graph sheet
Plots as a straight line on a loglog graph
Plots as a straight line on a
semi-log graph

Using Microsoft EXCEL

EXCEL is a Microsoft product that comes along with the Office
suite of programs. It is essentially a spread sheet program that
provides a computing environment with graphic capabilities. The
student is encouraged to learn the basics of EXCEL programming
so that data analysis, regression analysis and suitable plots may all
be done within the EXCEL environment.
EXCEL work sheet provides a grid with cells in it. The cells form
columns and rows as in a matrix. The columns are identified by
alphanumeric symbols and the rows by numerals. For example, A1
refers to the cell in the first column and first row. Cell C5 will
represent the cell in the 3rd column (column number C) and the 5th
row (row number 5). Column identifiers will go from A Z and
then from AA AZ and so on.. The cell can hold a number, a
statement or a formula. A number or a statement is simply written
by putting the cursor in the appropriate cell and keying in the
number or the statement, as the case may be. A formula, however,
is written by preceding the formula by = sign. The formula can
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contain a reference to many built in functions in EXCEL as well as

the usual arithmetic operations. The formula can refer to the
content of any other cell or cells. The formulas can be calculated
repeatedly over a set of rows by simply copying down the formula
vertically.
Fig. 1.26
Data may be keyed into the cells in the form of columns as shown
in the work sheet given as Fig.1. 27 below. The plotting is menu
driven and the plot may be displayed as a separate plot or within

the work sheet. The latter is shown in the case given here. The data
range for the plot is specified by simply blocking the Data cells
shown by the background.
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F. 1.27
Another extract of an EXCEL work sheet, showing data and the
corresponding plot along with the automatically generated fit. The
inset in the plot gives the linear relation between y and x. The
square of the correlation coefficient is also shown in the inset.
Fig. 1.28 shows how a trend line can be added to the plot.
The inset in the plot shows the relationship that exists between the
y and x data values.
Correlation coefficient is very high indicating the fit to represent
the data extremely well.

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Fig. 1.28

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Example
The following data is expected to follow a relation of the form
y = ax + b. Determine the fit parameters by linear regression.
x
y

0.9 2.3 3.3 4.5 5.7 6.7

1.1 1.6 2.6 3.2 4
5

1. Open an Excel file.

2. Enter the coefficient values for x and y given in the first

two columns as shown.

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3. Click on Data Data Analysis, and select Regression then

OK.

4. Define the range of parameters

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5. Modify the settings by selecting Labels, Residuals

6. Click OK to generate the regression coefficients, residuals

of the best fit line.

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7. It displays a spread sheet with the all coefficients and

residuals of best fit line.

8. To display the graphical plot of line,

select the variables Insert scatter click dot plot
click anywhere on the plot and select Layout Trend line
Linear.

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1.9 SYSTEM RESPONSE

Quite simply, response is a measure of a systems fidelity to
purpose. It may be defined as an evaluation of the systems ability
to faithfully sense, transmit, and present all the information
included in the measurand and to exclude all else. If the input
information is in the form of a sine wave, a square wave, or a saw
tooth wave, does the output appear as a sine wave, a square wave,
or a saw tooth wave, as the case may be? These questions are
answered by the response characteristics of the particular system,
they are,
i. Amplitude response ii. Frequency response iii. Phase response
Amplitude Response:
Amplitude response is governed by the systems ability to treat all
input amplitudes uniformly. If an input of 5 units is fed into a
system and an output of 25 indicator divisions is obtained, we can
generally expect that an input of 10 units will result in an output of
50 divisions. Although this is the most common case, other special
nonlinear responses are also occasionally required. Whatever the
arrangement, whether it is linear, exponential, or some other
amplitude function, discrepancy between design expectations in
this respect and actual performance results in poor amplitude
response.

Fig. 1.29
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Frequency Response:
Good frequency response is obtained when a system reacts to all
frequency components in the same way. If a 100-Hz sine wave
with input amplitude of 5 units is fed into a system and a peak-topeak output of 21/2 cm results on an oscilloscope screen, we can
expect that a 500-Hz sine-wave input of the same amplitude would
also result in a 21/2 cm peak-to-peak output. Changing the
frequency of the input signal should not alter the systems output
magnitude so long as the input amplitude remains unchanged.
Yet here again there
must be a limit to the
range over which good
frequency response may
be expected. This is true
for any dynamic system
regardless of its quality.
Fig. 1.30

Phase Response:
Amplitude and frequency responses are important for all types of
input waveforms, whether simple or complex. Phase response,
however, is of primary importance for the complex wave only.
Time is required for the transmission of a signal through any
measuring system. Often, when a simple sine-wave voltage is
amplified by a single stage of amplification, the output trails the
input by approximately 1800, or one-half cycle (see Fig. 5.20). For
two stages, the phase shift may be about 360, and so on. The
actual shift will not be an exact multiple of half-wavelengths but
will depend on the equipment and the frequency. It is the
frequency dependence that defines phase response.
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For a single-sine-wave input, any phase shift would normally be

unimportant. The output produced on the oscilloscope screen
would show the true waveform, and its proper parameters could be
determined. The fact that the shape being shown was actually
formed on the screen a few microseconds or a few milliseconds
after being generated is of no consequence.

Fig. 1.31
Let us consider, a complex wave made up of numerous harmonics.
If the phase lag is different for each frequency, then each
component of the complex wave is delayed by a different amount.
The harmonic components then emerge from the system in phase
relations different from when they entered. The whole waveform
and its amplitudes are changed, a result of poor phase response.
Dynamic response:
In most of the cases in practice the parameters to be measured are
time varying i.e. dynamic in nature. Thus output of an instrument
is also time varying. The behaviour of an instrument under such
time varying input-output conditions is called dynamic response of
an instrument. The analysis of dynamic response is called dynamic
analysis of the measurement system.
The output of the measuring system varies with time for certain
period arid then attains an equilibrium position to show the final
reading. The time for which output varies with time is called
transient period and the corresponding response is called
transient response, Once the transients die out, the output settles
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to a constant value called steady state output. Thus any time

varying output response denoted as c(t) can be divided into two
parts,
i. Transient response, Ct (t)

ii. Steady state response, Css (t)

Fig. 1.32

1.10 DISTORTION
A distortion is the alteration of the original shape (or other
characteristic) of a waveform or other form of information or
representation. Distortion is usually unwanted.
Distortion is a very general term that may be used to
describe the variation of a signal from its true form. Depending on
the system, the distortion may result from either poor frequency
response or poor phase-shift response.
It is identified as many types,
i. Amplitude distortion
It is the distortion occurring in a measurement system or device
when the output amplitude is not a linear function of the input
amplitude under specified measuring conditions.

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Fig. 1.33

ii. Harmonic distortion

Nonlinear distortion in which undesired harmonics of a sinusoidal
input signal are generated because of circuit nonlinearity.

Fig. 1.34
iii. Frequency distortion
Distortion in which the relative magnitudes of the different
frequency components of a wave are changed during transmission
or amplification.
iv. Phase distortion
The distortion which occurs in an instrument when the relative
phases of the input signal differ from those of the output signal.

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Fig. 1.35
v. Crossover distortion
A type of distortion pertaining to anomalies that occur when a
system output crosses over" from the positive portion of its
waveform to the negative portion.

Fig. 1.36

1.11 CALIBRATION
Calibration is a comparison between measurements one of
known magnitude or correctness made or set with one device and
another measurement made in as similar a way as possible with a
second device.
The device with the known or assigned correctness is called
the standard. The second device is the unit under test, test

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instrument, or any of several other names for the device being

calibrated.
Calibration is a set of operations that under certain conditions
establish relations between values indicated by a measuring
instrument or system, or values represented by a materialized
measure or reference material, and values realized by measurement
standards.
It is clear that a car has to be regularly maintained and brought in
for roadworthiness test at least once a year. It is the law. We are
also aware that this ensures our safety and that the car will serve us
throughout its lifecycle. It is, however, less clear to everyone that a
measuring instrument, too, needs maintenance, servicing, technical
examination, etc., even if it is not broken.
As is the case with the usual wear and tear of the car's brakes,
spark plugs and other parts, components of measuring instruments
also age. With time and use, especially incorrect use or misuse, the
capabilities of instruments deteriorate.
These time-induced changes (drift) diminish the reliability of
measurement results. This applies especially to complex electronic
measuring instruments where individual measurement parameters
can be interrelated (mutually dependent) in a completely
unpredictable manner.
This means that the expected accuracy of a measuring instrument
is limited to a certain time period. This is why almost all
manufacturers of electronic measuring instruments limit the
validity of specified limit values (accuracy of measurements for
individual parameters) to a period of one year, and only
exceptionally to two years, and often even to only a few months.
Although these time-induced changes (drift) cannot be avoided,
they can be detected in time, corrected mathematically, or adjusted
by calibration.

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Correctly performed calibration increases productivity, optimizes

resources, and assures consistency, comparability and
compatibility of products and services, as well as their
acceptability anywhere in the world.
Purpose of calibration
There are three main reasons for having instruments calibrated:
1. To ensure readings from an instrument are consistent with
other measurements.
2. To determine the accuracy of the instrument readings.
3. To establish the reliability of the instrument i.e. that it can be
trusted.
The process of testing calibration can be performed on a number of
instruments and types of equipment, across multiple sectors.
Following are some of the most common types of calibrations
service used today;
Pressure calibration
This is a widely used calibration process in which gas and
hydraulic pressure are measured across a broad spectrum. A
number of pressure balances and calibrators are generally used,
along with a variety of pressure gages. The ISO 17025 UKAS
accreditation is often taken into consideration when calibrating
pressure and national standards must also generally be adhered to.
Examples of pressure equipment that can be tested for calibration
include;
Barometers
Analogue Pressure Gauges
Digital Pressure Gauges
Digital Indicators
Transmitters
Test Gauges
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Electrical calibration
This calibration service is used to measure voltage, current
frequency and resistance. The process also monitors resistance and
thermocouple simulation covering process instrumentation.
Examples of electrical equipment that can be tested for calibration
include;
Multi-meters
Counter timers
Insulation Testers
Loop Testers
Clamp Meters
RCD
Data Loggers
Mechanical calibration
Generally speaking, mechanical calibration housing facilities will
be temperature controlled. A number of dimensional, mass, force,
torque and vibration elements will be calibrated during the testing
process. Examples of mechanical equipment that can be tested for
calibration include;
Weight & Mass Sets
Torque Wrenches & Screwdrivers
Scales/Balances
Micrometers, Verniers, Height Gauges
Accelerometers
Load Cells & Force Gauges
Temperature and humidity calibration
Temperature calibration usually takes place in a controlled
environment. A number of different types of equipment can be
tested using temperature calibration, including the following;
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Thermometers/Thermocouples
Dial Thermometers
PRTs and Thermistors
Thermal Cameras
Infrared Meters
Chambers/Furnaces
Weather Stations
Data Acquisition Systems
1.12 TRANSDUCERS
A transducer is defined as a device capable of being actuated by an
energizing input from one or more transmission media, and in turn,
generating a related signal to one or more transmission systems or
media.
It provides a usable output in response to a specific input
measurand which may be a physical or mechanical quantity,
property or condition, actually, the energy in one form of
information, transmission system or physical state is transferred to
that of another system or state. The responding device may be
mechanical, electrical, magnetic, optical, chemical, acoustic,
thermal, nuclear, or a combination of any two or more of these.
An example of the mechanical transducer is the dial gauge.
Mechanical transducers possess high accuracy, ruggedness,
relatively low cost, and operate without any external power
supplies. But such types are not advantageous for many of the
modem scientific experiments and process control instrumentation
because of their poor frequency response, requirement of large
forces to overcome mechanical friction, incompatibility when
remote control or indication is required, and a host of other
limitations. All these drawbacks have been overcome with the
introduction of electrical transducers.
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Electrical Transducer
An electrical transducer is a sensing device by which a physical,
mechanical or optical quantity to be measured is transformed
directly, with a suitable mechanism, into an electrical voltage or
current proportional to the input measurand. The output to input
and the output to time behaviour is predictable to a known degree
of accuracy, sensitivity and response, within the specified
environmental conditions.
The main advantages of an electrical transducer may be
summarized as follows:
(a) The electrical output can be amplified to any desired level.
(b) The output can be indicated and recorded remotely at a distance
from the sensing medium. Further, more than one indicator can
be actuated simultaneously.
(c) The output can be modified to meet the requirements of the
indicating or controlling equipment. The signal magnitude can
be related in terms of the voltage or current. The analog signal
information can be converted into frequency or pulse
information. The same output can be converted into a digital
format for display.
In spite of the merits described above, some disadvantages do exist
in electrical sensors, creating problems in certain precision
measurements. The device is sometimes less reliable than
mechanical types because of the ageing and drift of the active
components. Further, the sensing elements and associated signal
conditioners are comparatively expensive. In some cases the
accuracy and resolution attainable are not as high as in mechanical
devices.
Sensor Vs Transducer
The words 'sensor' and 'transducer' are both widely used in the
description of measurement systems. The word 'sensor' is derived
from entire meaning 'to perceive' and 'transducer' is from
transducer meaning 'to lead across'.
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A definition of 'sensor' is `a device that detects a change in a

physical stimulus and turns it into a signal which can be measured
or recorded; a corresponding definition of 'transducer' is 'a device
that transfers power from one system to another in the same or in
the different form'.
A sensible distinction is to use 'sensor' for the sensing element
itself and 'transducer' for the sensing element plus any associated
circuitry. All transducers would thus contain a sensor.

Fig. 1.37 Transducer

A primary sensing element is a device that produces a signal for

purpose of detecting or measuring a property, such as position,
force, torque, pressure, temperature, humidity, speed and vibration.
This part always in connection with the sample quantity selected.
Transduction element is a part of transducer which provides a
suitable output form. It interprets the conversion e.g. change in
Capacitance to voltage required for display.
A transducer is normally designed to sense a specific measurand or
to respond only to that particular measurand. A complete
knowledge of the electrical and mechanical characteristics of the
transducer is of great importance while choosing a transducer for a
particular application.
In the selection of a transducer, basic requirements are:
(a) Ruggedness: Ability to withstand overloads, with safety stops
for overload protection.
(b) Linearity: Ability to reproduce input
characteristics symmetrically and linearly.
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(c) Repeatability: Ability to reproduce the output signal exactly

when the same measurand is applied repeatedly under same
environmental conditions.
(d) Convenient instrumentation: Sufficiently high analog output
signal with high signal to noise ratio; digital output preferred in
many cases.
(e) High stability and reliability: Minimum error in measurement
unaffected by temperature, vibration, and other environmental
variations.
(f) Good dynamic response: Output is faithful to input when
taken as a function of time. The effect is analyzed as the
frequency response. Excellent mechanical characteristics that
can affect the performance in static, quasi-static, and dynamic
states.
Classification of transducers:
Transducers can be classified based on the fallowing ways:
1. Physical phenomenon
i. Primary transducer

ii. Secondary transducer

It is sometimes necessary to use two or more transducers in an

application to meet the requirement of multiple conversions. The
transducers which placed at first stage for the basic conversion and
takes the role of sensing element called primary transducer. Except
the first all remain transducers may termed as secondary.
Primary transducers work on the principle of an input sensor
detecting or sensing immeasurable data, such as mass, heat, depth
and density. It then converts the received energy signal into
readable information. Examples of primary transducers include
thermistors and thermocouples.
Secondary transducers are best exemplified by reluctive and
piezoelectric transducers. These types of transducers define how
mechanical displacement produces electric signals.
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In the diagram shown, bourdon gauge acts like primary to convert

the pressure signal into displacement. LVDT acts as secondary to
convert displacement into an equivalent differential voltage.

Fig. 1.38 Pressure transducer using LVDT

2. Based on power type
i. Active

ii. Passive

Electrical transducers are broadly classified under two categories.

viz. active and passive transducer.

Active transducers are self-generating devices operating

under energy conversion principles. They generate an
equivalent electrical output signal. e.g. from pressure to
charge or from temperature to electrical potential, without
any external energizing source.

Passive transducers operate under energy controlling

principles. They depend upon the change in the electrical
parameter (resistance, inductance, capacitance etc.) whose
excitation or operation requires secondary electrical energy
from an external source. A typical example is the case of the
strain gauge excited by a dc voltage source.

Active transducers are subdivided into 4 major principles, they are:

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Fig. 1.39 Types of active transducers

Photoelectric transducers:
Electrical properties of the material change when light fall upon it.
The change effect is seen prominent in some material such us
metals, cadmium sulphide, cadmium sulphoscienide, lead telluride
and semiconductors. The effect is exploited to measure the wide
range of radiation including the intensity of light.
The principle is based on the fact that when light strikes on
such substances, the entire photonic energy is converted to kinetic
energy of the electron. This phenomenon is defined as
photoelectric effect. The phenomenon is observed in terms of three
effects, known as
1. Photo emissive

2. Photoconductive

3. Photovoltaic effect

Among these three types the photovoltaic is self-generative

transducer.
Photo-Voltaic Transducer:
Photovoltaic transducer (PV cell) provides direct conversion of
light into electricity at the atomic level. Some materials exhibit a
property known as the photoelectric effect that causes them to
absorb photons of light and release electrons. When these free
electrons are captured, electric current results that can be used as
electricity.
A photovoltaic transducer comprises P-type and N-type
semiconductors with different electrical properties, joined together.
The joint between these two semiconductors is called the "P-N
junction."
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Sunlight striking the photovoltaic cell is absorbed by the cell. The

energy of the absorbed light generates particles with positive or
negative charge (holes and electrons), which move about or shift
freely in all directions within the cell.
The electrons (-) tend to collect in the N-type semiconductor, and
the holes (+) in the P-type semiconductor. Therefore, when an
external load, such as an electric bulb or an electric motor, is
connected between the front and back electrodes, electricity flows
in the cell.

Fig. 1.39 Photo-voltaic transducer

Applications of photoelectric principles:
Photoelectric principles are very widely applied in industrial
quality measurements, quality check etc. the vehicle tracking and
speed measurements are most applicable areas where the reliable
output is must and the time for action is very less. Major
advantages of Photo principles are they are self generated, higher
sensitivity and good reliability.
Thermoelectric transducers:
There are several kinds of thermal-to-electrical transducers. The
most common of these is the thermocouple. A thermocouple is a
thermoelectric device that converts thermal energy into electrical
energy. The thermocouple is used as a primary transducer for
measurement of temperature, converting temperature changes
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directly into emf. Three phenomena which govern the behaviour of

a thermocouple are the Seebeck effect, the Peltier effect, and the
Thompson effect.

Fig. 1.40 Applications of Photo-electric transducers

If two wires of different metals A and B are joined together to form two
junctions and if the two junctions are at different temperatures, an
electric current will flow round the circuit. This is called the Seebeck
effect.

Fig. 1.41 Thermocouple

If metal A is of copper and metal B of iron, then the current flows
from copper to iron at the hot junction and from iron to copper at
the cold (reference) junction as shown in above figure. If copper
wire is cut, an emf will appear across the open circuit. The Seebeck
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emf depends on the difference in the temperatures of the two

junctions.
The reverse phenomenon is the Peltier effect. An external source
of emf is connected, as shown in below, and a current is forced
through the junctions. It is observed that heat is absorbed when the
current flows across the iron-copper junction from copper to iron
and liberated if the flow of current is reversed. The amount of heat
liberated or absorbed is proportional to the quantity of electricity
that crosses the junction, and the amount of heat liberated or
absorbed when one ampere passes for a second is called the Peltier
coefficient.
Another reversible heat-flow effect called the Thompson effect;
involves the contribution of emf to Seebeck emf in the wire of the
same metal, if a temperature difference existed within that
particular conductor. When a current flows through a copper
conductor having a thermal gradient (and hence a heat flow) along
its length, heat is liberated at any point where the current is in the
same direction as the heat flow while heat is absorbed at any point
where these are opposite. In iron, on the other hand, heat is
absorbed at any point when the current flows in the direction of
heat flow while heat is liberated when the current flows in the
direction opposite to the flow of heat.
It will be seen, therefore, that the Seebeck effect is a combination
of both the Peltier and Thompson effects and will vary according
to the difference of temperature between the two junctions and
with the metals chosen for the couple.
To measure the thermo-emf in a thermoelectric circuit,
introduction of a milli-voltmeter or some voltage measuring
system is necessary, which amounts to addition of conductors and
formation of junctions. The following laws are established to help
understand the effects of additional materials and junctions.

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1. Law of Homogeneous metals:

Fig. (a): The thermal emf of a thermocouple with junctions at T1
and T2 is totally unaffected by temperature elsewhere in the loop if
the two metals used are each homogeneous.
Fig. (b): If a third homogeneous metal, C is inserted into the circuit
in either leg, the net emf is unchanged if the junctions to link C are
held at the same temperature. This is true regardless of the
temperature environment of link C.
Fig. (c): If a metal, C is inserted at one of the junctions between A
and B, the net effect on the emf unchanged, if the junctions AB
and AC are held at the same temperature. This is true regardless of
the temperature environment along link C.

Fig. 1.42 Law of homogeneous metals - thermocouple

2. Law of intermediate metals:
If A third homogeneous metal C is introduced into one of the
conductors as shown in fig.(d) the net emf of the circuit remains
the same as long as the new junctions formed are at the same
temperature.
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Fig. 1.43 Law of intermediate metals thermocouple

3. Law of intermediate temperatures:
In fig (e), If a thermocouple produces emf E1 when its junctions
are at T1 and T2, and produces E2 with junctions at T2 and T3, then
it will produce E1 + E2 when the junctions are at T1 and T3.

Fig. 1.44 Law of intermediate temperatures thermocouple

As a transducer:
Thermocouple as a transducer is explained along with a figure
shown below. It shows a thermocouple circuit with a temperature
T2 0C. This temperature is maintained with the help of an ice-bath
as a reference junction. T1 is the unknown temperature to be
measured, which will be detected by measuring junction. The
thermocouple circuit ends in the ice-bath, the generated emf
across the copper wires can be measured by a milli-volt meter type
instrument.

Fig. 1.45 Thermocouple as a transducer

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It does not use any external source or excitation to generate emf

hence it is termed as active transducer.
The governing equation for a thermocouple is given as,

where SA and SB are the Seebeck coefficients of materials A and B

as a function of temperature, and Tc and Th are the temperatures of
the two junctions. If the Seebeck coefficients are effectively
constant for the measured temperature range, the above formula
can be approximated as:

Piezoelectric transducers:
A piezoelectric transducer is a device which transforms one type of
energy to another by taking advantage of the piezoelectric
properties of certain crystals or other materials.
When a piezoelectric material is subjected to stress or force, it
generates an electrical potential or voltage proportional to the
magnitude of the force called piezoelectric effect. This makes the
piezoelectric transducer ideal as a converter of mechanical energy
or force into electric potential.
The high sensitivity of the piezoelectric transducer makes it useful
in microphones, where it converts sound pressure into electric
voltage; in precision balances; in accelerometers and motion
detectors; Piezo-electric transducers are also used in nondestructive testing, in the generation of high voltages, and in many
other applications requiring the precise sensing of motion or force.
The piezoelectric effect also works in reverse, in that a voltage
applied to a piezoelectric material will cause that material to bend,
stretch, or otherwise deform. This deformation is usually very
slight and proportional to the voltage applied, and so the reverse
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piezoelectric effect offers a method of precision movement on the

micro scale. A piezoelectric transducer may thus be used as an
actuator for the exact adjustment of fine optical instruments, lasers,
and atomic force microscopes.
The most common piezoelectric material currently in use is the
man-made ceramic lead zirconate titanate, known as PZT. This
material has the ability to provide twice the voltage of quartz under
a given force.
Piezoelectric transducers are simple, reliable, and very robust, and
so find wide use in industry, medicine, and aero-space. They're
unaffected by external electromagnetic fields, and so can be used
in applications
where electronic sensors would fail. They are stable over a broad
range of temperatures, but may be affected by long use as high
temperatures.

Fig. 1.46 Piezoelectric effect

Output voltage of the crystal due to applied pressure is given by
the fallowing equation:

Where

t - is the crystal thickness in meters,

P - is the impressed pressure in N/m2
g - is voltage sensitivity of crystal

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Application:
The piezoelectric transducer that measures force is shown below.

Fig. 1.47 Application of piezoelectric transducer

Electromagnetic transducers:
It is a bilateral double-function type transducer, that has
mechanical inputelectrical output and electrical input
mechanical output construction. A general name of such systems is
electromechanical energy converters which are governed by
(i) Faradays law of electrodynamics and (ii) piezoelectric effect.
Such transducers can be used both as generators and sensors
often termed as senders and receivers respectively.
Electromagnetic transducer system consists of an inductance coil
wound on a ferromagnetic core and a variable gap provides the
variation in the output. For producing unidirectional flux, a
magnetizing coil with a bias current may be provided or the core
can itself be a permanent magnet. Generally, a permanent magnet
is used as a core.
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If a coil of n turns wound on the core has a coil flux and coil
inductance L, then for an applied force f the emf induced is
given by,

Fig. 1.48 Electromagnetic transducer

The Fig.1.48 shows an electromagnetic transducer, in which a
voltage is induced in the coil when the magnetic flux about it is
varied due to the motion of the object, which has to be for a
ferromagnetic material. This is a proximity (nearness) type
velocity transducer and is linear for small motions, as the flux
intensity changes due to the change in air gap.
Applications

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Fig. 1.49 Applications of Electromagnetic transducer

Resistive transducers:
The variable resistance transducers are one of the most commonly
used types of transducers. The variable resistance transducers are
also called as resistive transducers or resistive sensors.
They can be used for measuring various physical quantities like
temperature, pressure, displacement, force, vibrations etc. These
transducers are usually used as the secondary transducers, where
the output from the primary mechanical transducer acts as the input
for the variable resistance transducer. The output obtained from it
is calibrated against the input quantity and it directly gives the
value of the input.
Principle of Working of Variable Resistance Transducer
The variable resistance transducer elements work on the principle
that the resistance of the conductor is directly proportional to the
length of the conductor and inversely proportional to the area of
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the conductor. Thus if L is the length of the conductor (in m) and

A is its area (in m2), its resistance (in ohms) is given by:
Where

resistivity of the material (Ohm-metre)

l - Length of the conductor/material

a area of the resistive material.
Some of the popular variable resistive transducers are discussed
below:
i. Sliding contact type:
In the sliding contact type of variable resistance transducers there
is a long conductor whose effective length is variable. One end of
the conductor is fixed, while the position of the other end is
decided by the slider or the brush that can move along the whole
length of the conductor. The slider is connected to the body whose
displacement is to be measured. When the body moves the slider
also moves along the conductor so its effective length changes, due
to which it resistance also changes. The effective resistance is
measured as the resistance between the fixed position of the
conductor and the position of the sliding contact. The value of the
resistance is calibrated against the input quantity, whose value can
be measured directly. One of most popular sliding contact type of
variable resistance transducer is the potentiometer. These devices
can be used to measure linear as well as angular displacement.

Fig. 1.50 Application

of resistive transducer

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The moving contact of the sensor is connected in some way to the

moving object. The resistive element in the potentiometer is
excited either by a dc or ac voltage source. The relation between
the output voltage and the translational displacement for a
translational potentiometer is obtained in the following way:
Let Vex be the excitation voltage, V0 be the output voltage and i'
be the current through the potentiometer.
Let L be the total length and R be the total resistance of the
potentiometer.
Let r be the resistance of the potentiometer for the displacement
1 of the contact from its zero position.
If the distribution of the resistance over the length of the sensor is
uniform, the r is given as,

the output voltage V0 is given as,

the sensitivity S of the device is given as,

Similarly, the relation between output voltage and angular

displacement for an angular potentiometer is given as,

Where
- angular displacement
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- total angle that the contact can move

ii. Resistance strain gauge:
If a strip of conductive metal is stretched, it will become skinnier
and longer, both changes resulting in an increase of electrical
resistance end-to-end. Conversely, if a strip of conductive metal is
placed under compressive force (without buckling), it will broaden
and shorten. If these stresses are kept within the elastic limit of the
metal strip (so that the strip does not permanently deform), the
strip can be used as a measuring element for physical force, the
amount of applied force inferred from measuring its resistance.
Such a device is called a resistance strain gauge. Resistance strain
gauges are frequently used in mechanical engineering research and
development to measure the stresses generated by machinery.

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Fig. 1.51 Resistance strain gauge

If the resistance strain gauge is used as one arm (measuring) of a
Wheatstone bridge, the physical deformation of strain gauge due to
applied force or strain, changes its resistance and leads to bridge
unbalanced voltage across the output terminals indicated by a
detector or voltmeter. A proportional relation between the applied
force and resistance of the strain gauge exists and the input
quantity is measured in terms of change in voltage due to change in
resistance.
Inductive transducers
Inductive transducer is a simple and most popular type of
displacement transducer in which variation of inductance as a
function of displacement is achieved by variation in selfinductance or mutual inductance.
Self-inductance type:
Consider a coil connected to a battery through a rheostat as shown
in figure. The current through the coil produces a magnetic flux
which links with the coil itself. If the resistance in the circuit is
varied, the current through the coil changes and the magnetic flux
through the coil also change. This change in flux indicates an emf
in the coil itself. Such an emf is called self-induced emf and the
phenomenon is called self-induction.

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Self induced emf =

Fig. 1.52

The self-inductance-type transducer consists of three parts: a coil, a

movable magnetic core, and a pressure sensing element
(diaphragm). The element is attached to the core, and, as pressure
varies, the element causes the core to move inside the coil. An AC
voltage is applied to the coil, and, as the core moves, the
inductance of the coil changes. The current through the coil will
increase as the inductance decreases, resulting change in magnetic
flux hence the emf. The change in emf is the indicative of applied
input pressure.

Fig. 1.53

Mutual inductance type: Linear Variable Differential Transformer

The linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) (also called
just a differential transformer) is a type of electrical transformer
used for measuring linear displacement (position), by producing an
electrical voltage proportional to the movable Magnetic core.
A counterpart to this device that is used for measuring rotary
displacement is called a rotary variable differential transformer
(RVDT).
The device consists of a primary winding (P) and two secondary
windings named S1 and S2. Both of them are wound on one
cylindrical former, side by side, and they have equal number of
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turns. Their arrangement is such that they maintain symmetry with

either side of the primary winding (P). A movable soft iron core is
placed parallel to the axis of the cylindrical former. An arm is
connected to the other end of the soft iron core and it moves
according to the displacement produced.

Fig. 1.54 LVDT

Working
As shown in the figure above, an ac voltage with a frequency
between (50-400) Hz is supplied to the primary winding. Thus, two
voltages VS1 and VS2 are obtained at the two secondary windings
S1 and S2 respectively. The output voltage will be the difference
between the two voltages (VS1-VS2) as they are combined in
series. Let us consider three different positions of the soft iron core
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inside the former.

Null Position This is also called the central position as the

soft iron core will remain in the exact center of the former.
Thus the linking magnetic flux produced in the two secondary
windings will be equal. The voltage induced because of them
will also be equal. Thus the resulting voltage VS1 VS2 = 0.

Right of Null Position In this position, the linking flux at the

winding S2 has a value more than the linking flux at the
winding S1. Thus, the resulting voltage VS1 VS2 will be in
phase with VS2.

Left of Null Position In this position, the linking flux at the

winding S2 has a value less than the linking flux at the winding
S1. Thus, the resulting voltage VS1 VS2 will be in phase with
VS1.

From the working it is clear that the difference in voltage, VS1

VS2 will depend on the right or left shift of the core from the null
position. Also, the resulting voltage is in phase with the primary
winding voltage for the change of the arm in one direction, and is
180 degrees out of phase for the change of the arm position in the
other direction.
The magnitude and displacement can be easily calculated or
plotted by calculating the magnitude and phase of the resulting
voltage.

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Fig. 1.55 Characteristics LVDT

Capacitive transducers:
Capacitive transducers are nothing but the capacitors with the
variable capacitance. These are mainly used for the measurement
of displacement, pressure etc. It is a Passive type of Transducer
The capacitance C between the two plates of capacitive transducer
is given by:

Where C capacitance
,
A overlap area of plates,

d distance between plates

It is clear from the above formula that capacitance of the capacitive

transducer depends on the area of the plates and the distance
between the plates. The capacitance of the capacitive transducer
also changes with the dielectric constant of the dielectric material
used in it.
Thus the capacitance of the variable capacitance transducer can
change with the change of the dielectric material, change in the
area of the plates and the distance between the plates. Depending
on the parameter that changes for the capacitive transducers, they
are of three types as mentioned below.
1) Change in Dielectric Constant
In this capacitive transducer the dielectric material between the
two plates changes, due to which the capacitance of the transducer
also changes. When the input quantity to be measured changes the
value of the dielectric constant also changes so the capacitance of
the instrument changes. This capacitance, calibrated against the
input quantity, directly gives the value of the quantity to be
measured. This principle is used for measurement of level in the
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hydrogen container, where the change in level of hydrogen

between the two plates results in change of the dielectric constant
of the capacitance transducer. Apart from level, this principle can
also be used for measurement of humidity and moisture content of
the air.

2) Change in overlap Area of the Plates

The capacitance of the variable capacitance transducer also
changes with the area of the two plates. This principle is used in
the measurement of displacement which is given to one plate
movable across the other which will kept at constant. The change
in displacement causes the change in overlap area, hence
capacitance.

3) Change in Distance between the Plates

In these capacitive transducers the distance between the plates is
variable, while the area of the plates and the dielectric constant
remain constant. This is the most commonly used type of variable
capacitance transducer. For measurement of the displacement of
the object, one plate of the capacitance transducer is kept fixed,
while the other is connected to the object. When the object moves,
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the plate of the capacitance transducer also moves, this results in

change in distance between the two plates and the change in the
capacitance. The changed capacitance is measured easily and it
calibrated against the input quantity, which is displacement. This
principle can also be used to measure pressure, velocity,
acceleration etc.

Applications:

Capacitive pressure sensors use a thin diaphragm, usually metal or

metal-coated quartz, as one plate of a capacitor. The diaphragm is
exposed to the process pressure on one side and to a reference
pressure on the other. Changes in pressure cause it to deflect and
change the capacitance. The change may or may not be linear with
pressure and is typically a few percent of the total capacitance. The
capacitance can be monitored by using it to control the frequency
of an oscillator or to vary the coupling of an AC signal.
Photoconductive transducers
Photoconductive cell is a semiconductor device whose electrical
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conductivity or resistance changes upon exposure to optical

radiation. It is a device for detecting electromagnetic radiation
(photons) by variation of the electrical conductivity of a substance
(a photoconductor) upon absorption of the radiation by this
substance. During operation the cell is connected in series with an
electrical source and current-sensitive meter. Current in the cell, as
indicated by the meter, is a measure of the photon intensity.

Photoconductive cells are made from a variety of semiconducting

materials in the single-crystal or polycrystalline form.
These are also called as photo resistors. Photo resistors come in
many different types. Inexpensive cadmium sulphide cells can be
found in many consumer items such as camera light meters, street
lights, clock radios, alarm devices, outdoor clocks, solar street
lamps and solar road studs, etc.
Application:

The circuit shown here make use of light sensitive device

(photoconductive cell) to trip a relay whenever the light intensity
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changes. In the light-activated circuit, when light come in contact

with the photoresistor, the photoresistors resistance decreases,
causing an increase in the control voltage. This control voltage
then triggers the relay which may connect or disconnect the
appliance. Here the conductivity of the cell depends on light
intensity incident on the cell.
Photoemissive transducers
In some materials, when light radiation strucks the surface,
elections are emitted. When the photons of the incident light with
sufficient energy incident on the surface, the electrons break their
atomic bonds as well as the forces of the entire material lattice.
This effect is called photoemissive effect The materials in which
this phenomenon is observed are called photoemissive materials.
The common photoemissive material is cesium-antimony.
Generally the photoemissive material is housed in a glass tube; the
photoemissive devices are also called phototubes. One of the best
used photoemissive sensor is photomultiplier tube, which converts
the light intensity into multiplied secondary emitted electrons
hence the current in the circuit. These are passive transducers used
for most optical operations and applications.
Photomultiplier Tube
It is the most widely used photoemissive device having the better
characteristics to detect the very low intensity light. The
photomultiplier tube is actually amplifying device. The basic
principle of photomultiplier tube is as shown in the Fig.

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The beam of incident light is first made to strike a photoemissive

material coated photocathode. As a result, the electrons are
emitted. But the emitted electrons are not immediately drawn to
the anode. Instead, they are further attracted to another electrode
called dynode. When the electron beam strikes dynode, it emits
secondary electrons. Thus each individual photoelectron is
accelerated by an electric field externally applied and strikes
several secondary electrons out of the dynode. The dynode is
designed such that it forms electric field lines which direct the
emitted secondary electrons of previous dynode to itself.
Thus at each dynode, the electrons are multiplied in numbers and
finally all are collected by anode. Thus a multiplication factor over
106 can be achieved in some of the commercial tubes.
3. Based on output type
i. Analog

ii. Digital

Analog transducers:
Analog transducers convert the input quantity into an analog
output which is a continuous function of time. They can produce a
continuous output signal or voltage which is generally proportional
to the quantity being measured. Physical quantities such as
Temperature, Speed, Pressure, Displacement, Strain etc are all
analogue quantities as they tend to be continuous in nature. For
example, the temperature of a liquid can be measured using a
thermometer or thermocouple which continuously responds to
temperature changes as the liquid is heated up or cooled down.

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Digital transducers
Digital transducers convert the input quantity into an electrical
output which is in the form of pulses. They can produce a discrete
output signal or voltage that is a digital representation of the
quantity being measured.
Their output signal is in the form of logic "1" or logic "0", ("ON"
or "OFF"). This means then that a digital signal only produces
discrete (non-continuous) values which may be outputted as a
single "bit", or by combining the bits to produce a single "byte"
output.
By suitable electro-optical arrangement, without any intermediate
analog to digital conversion operation, the physical variable is
represented direct in digital form.
Example: optical encoder is a best illustration for digital
transduction.
A photo sensor (light detector) and a light source (light emitter) is
placed on the two sides of the sector. The angular displacement of
the shaft is applied to the sector and therefore changes the amount
of light falling on the photo electric sensor. The pattern of the
illuminated sensor then carries the information to the location of
the sector. Fig shows the possible pattern on sector or opaque and
translucent areas. The number of levels in the encoder determines
the accuracy with which the device operates.
Digital sensors are accurate in measurement and reliable output.

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4. Based on transduction
i. Transducer
ii. Inverse transducer
Transducers that functions in reverse manner are known as inverse
transducers. All those transducers used for measurement of
nonelectrical quantities which exhibit excellent characteristics of
operation when the input and output quantities are reversed, can be
used as inverse transducers. They are known as output transducers.
Inverse transducers take the electric quantity input and responds
with a non-electric quantity output.
Examples:
1. Voice coil:
The simplest construction idea is represented below. It is
essentially a permanent magnet with a voice coil centered on the
'pole'. On the voice coil end is glued a flexible cone material
(usually paper) which in turn is glued to a 'surround'. The actual
sound you are hearing is the air displacement of the cone itself.
The air displacement is the result of the piston-like action of the
cone when an AC signal is applied to the voice coil. During one
half cycle it moves forward and immediate after backward during
next reverse half cycle of ac signal. This forth and back motion
creates air displacement hence sound.

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Measurements

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Review Questions
1. What do you understand by static characteristics?
2. List different static characteristics.
3. Define the terms: instrument, accuracy, precision and error.
4. Define the terms: resolution, sensitivity and true value.
5. Discuss the difference between accuracy and precision of a
measurement.
6. List different types of errors.
7. Explain gross error in details. How can it be minimized?
8. Explain systematic error in detail. How can it be minimized?
9. Explain random error in detail.
10. A person using an ohmmeter reads the measured value as 470 Ohms,
when the actual value is 472 Ohms. What kind of error does this
represent?
11. Indicate the basic stages that constitute a measuring system and
define their functions.
12. Distinguish between analog indicated and digital readout transducers
and discuss the merit of each.
13. Distinguish a meter from an instrument.
14. What are sensors and transducers? Give their role in a measurement.
15. Define absolute error.
16. How is accuracy expressed?
17. What are the different types of errors that occur during measurement?
Explain the steps to eliminate them.

18. What do you understand by dynamic characteristics of an

instrument? How they are important in analysis?
19. Define speed of response and fidelity.
20. Differentiate between lag and dynamic error.

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Problems
1. A meter reads 127.50V and the true value of the voltage is
127.43V. Determine i) error ii) %error iii) Relative accuracy
iv) Accuracy
2. A meter reads 109.5V. The error taken from the curve is 0.37V. Determine the true value of the meter.
3. The true value of voltage across a resistor is 50V. The measurement
gives a value of 49V. Calculate %error, accuracy of instrument.

4. The output of a circuit was measured at eight different intervals

using a voltmeter with following results.
20.00, 19.80, 19.85, 20.05, 20.10, 19.90, 20.25, 19.95
th
5. A 70cm scale has 70 uniform divisions. 1/50 of a scale division
can be estimated with a fair degree of certainty. Determine the
resolution of the scale in mm.
6. A 700V voltmeter is specified to be accurate within 2% at full
scale. Calculate the limit error when the instrument is used to
measure a voltage of 450V.

7. In a survey of 15 owners of a certain model of car, the

following figures are for average petrol consumption was
reported. 25.5, 30.3, 31.1, 29.6, 32.4, 39.4, 28.9, 30.0, 33.3,
31.4, 29.5,
30.5, 31.7, 33.0, 29.2. Calculate mean value,
median value, standard deviation and the variance.
Useful links
http://lorien.ncl.ac.uk/ming/procmeas/measintr.htm
http://reference.wolfram.com/applications/eda/ExperimentalErro
rsAndErrorAnalysis.html

http://teacher.nsrl.rochester.edu/phy_labs/AppendixB/Appe
ndixB.html
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Part 2
ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS
INTRODUCTION
Electricity is an amazing thing. Despite being invisible, it is very
versatile. It gives us 1. Light 2. Heat 3. Mechanical work (electric
motors).
Light -

We have learned to control electricity and can make

it flow through a very fine wire (filament) in a light
bulb, illuminating our rooms. Electricity can heat
the water.

Heat -

We wash with (a domestic water heater) and the

water we use to make coffee (kettles) and cook our
food (electric elements on stoves and ovens).

Mechanical - Electric motors drive pumps, saws, drills, blenders,

lawn mowers, toys, etc. This marvelous invention
has been in houses for less than 100 years and has
dramatically changed the way we live. The
downsides are that it costs money and is Dangerous.
If we arent careful with it, it can hurt or kill us, or
it can burn down our houses.
Definition of Electricity
Electricity can be defined in several ways.
The layman defines electricity as a form of energy that can be
converted to light, heat, sound, and motion.
Electrical engineers define electricity as the flow of electrons from
one atom to another. This flow of electrons is controlled in an
electric circuit. The amount of energy produced depends on the
number of electrons in motion.

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In order to understand how electricity works, it is necessary to

understand the basics of an atom. The center of an atom, or
nucleus, contains positively charged protons. In an electrically
neutral or balanced state, each atom has an equal number of
electrons and protons. The electrons are arranged in orbital layers
around the nucleus with a negative charge. A hydrogen atom, for
example, contains one proton and one electron. Electrons can be
forced to leave their outer orbital layer and attach to the outer ring
of an adjacent atom. When extra electrons are attached to an atom
they become negatively charged, while the atom that gives up the
electron has become positively charged.
The path through which an electrical current flows is called a
circuit.
A current is the movement of electrons through an electrical
conductor. Generators produce and release current the moment it is
needed. The complete electrical pathway from the power source
through the load and back to the source is known as a closed
circuit. As long as electrical equipment is turned on and the circuit
is completed or closed, there is a continuous flow of current. If the
electrical pathway is not complete the circuit is said to be an open
circuit. For example, when electrical equipment is turned off, the
circuit is opened and electron flow stops.
Voltage
The pressure that pushes electrons in a circuit is called voltage.
Voltage (V) is a measure of the pressure applied to electrons to
make them move. It is a measure of the strength of the current in a
circuit and is measured in volts (V).
Just as the 10-meter tank applies greater pressure than the 1-meter
tank, a 10-volt power supply (such as a battery) would apply
greater pressure than a 1-volt power supply. AA batteries are 1.5volts; they apply a small amount of voltage for lighting small
flashlight bulbs. A car usually has a 12-volt batteryit applies
more voltage to push current through circuits to operate the radio
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or defroster. The standard voltage of wall outlets is 220 voltsa

dangerous voltage. An electric clothes dryer is usually wired at 240
voltsa very dangerous voltage.
Voltage Drop
Some voltage may be used trying to overcome the resistance in the
conductors. This can happen when an appliance that requires a lot
of current is started. This reduction in voltage is referred to as
voltage drop. Factors that influence voltage drop are size of wire,
length of wire, and the number of amps flowing. A drop in voltage
may cause a loss of heat, light, or power output of a motor.
Electrical current (I) is defined as electrons flowing between two
points having a difference in voltage. Current is measured in
amperes or amps (A). One ampere is 6.25 X 1018 electrons per
second passing through a circuit.
With water, as the diameter of the pipe increases, so does the
amount of water that can flow through it.
With electricity, conducting wires take the place of the pipe. As the
cross-sectional area of the wire increases, so does the amount of
electric current (number of electrons) that can flow through it.
Resistance:
Resistance (R) is a property that slows (opposes) the flow of
electrons. Using the water analogy, resistance is anything that
slows water flow, such as a smaller pipe or fins on the inside of a
pipe.
In electrical terms, the resistance of a conducting wire depends on
the properties of the metal used to make the wire and the wires
diameter. Copper, aluminum, and silver metals used in conducting
wireshave different resistance.
Resistance is measured in units called ohms (). There are devices
called resistors, with set resistances, that can be placed in circuits
to reduce or control the current flow. Any device placed in a circuit
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to do work is called a load. The light bulb in a flashlight is a load.

A television plugged into a wall outlet is also a load. Every load
has resistance.
This relationship is called Ohms Law and can be described using
a simple formula. If you know any two of the measurements, you
can calculate the third using the following formula:
Voltage = current x resistance
V = I x R or V = A x
Capacitance
In mechanical systems, if an elastic body such as a rubber band is
stretched, there is little or no opposition during the first moment of
movement. The opposition increases as the rubber band is
extended. If the rubber band is stretched and then fixed in position,
the work done in stretching it is stored in the band and is returned
when the rubber band is released. This mechanical property of
elastic bodies illustrates the electrical property called capacitance.
A capacitor is any two conductors separated by an insulating
material. When a DC voltage is first applied across a capacitor,
considering no losses, the current flow is maximum the first instant
and then rapidly decreases to zero when the voltage developed
across the capacitor equals the applied voltage.
Energy was consumed in building up the voltage. Removal of the
applied voltage leaves the capacitor in charged condition, and
energy is stored in the capacitor. The conductors mentioned above
are called the plates of the capacitor, and the insulating material is
called the dielectric. In fig 2.1, when the switch(s) is closed, the
battery voltage will cause current to flow. The current flow will be
maximum the first instant and will decrease as the voltage across
the capacitor builds up. The number of electrons flowing to plate A
is equal to the number flowing away from plate B.

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Fig. 2.1
The capacitor is fully charged when the difference of potential
existing across the plates of the capacitor equals the battery
voltage. At this time, the current through the capacitor is zero.
After the capacitor is fully charged, the switch may be opened and
the capacitor will remain charged since there is no path for the
electrons on plate A to reach plate B. The electrostatic field exists
between the plates because they are two charged bodies. The
electrical energy is stored between the plates. The direction of an
electrostatic field has been arbitrarily stated as the direction a unit
positive charge would move if placed in that field. The
electrostatic field of the charged capacitor of is shown in fig 2.2.

Fig. 2.2
Measure of Capacitance
The ability of a capacitor (C) to store electrical energy is called
capacitance. The unit of capacitance is the farad (f), named for
Michael Faraday. One farad is the amount of capacitance that will
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store 1 coulomb of charge (6.28x1018 electrons) when 1 V is

applied. The farad is a very large unit, so the microfarad (fd) and
picofarad (pfd) are commonly used. One microfarad equals10-6 f
and one pico farad equals 10-12 farad. Capacitors in common use
range from 1 pico farad to several thousand farad.
Capacitance:
Capacitance is the ability of a capacitor to store energy in
an electric field. Capacitance is also a measure of the amount
of electric potential energy stored (or separated) for a given electric
potential.
It
is
measured
in
unit
of
Farads.
Capacitance C, defined as the ratio of charge Q on each
conductor to the voltage V between them.
C = 0 r A /d

Q = electric charge,

V= potential difference between plates

C = capacitance,
d = distance between plates
A = area of the plates
0 = absolute permittivity
r = relative permittivity

Fig.2.3
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Inductance
One of the most fascinating things about electricity is how it can be
used to create a magnetic field. Electromagnets were used in
telegraph relays for years before the advent of radio. Coils are still
used today in relays, solenoids, transformers, and inductors.
Basically, current flows through a coil of wires and the energy
from the current flow produces a magnetic field. This ability to
store electrical energy in a magnetic field is called inductance.

Fig. 2.4

The inductance of a coil would change depending on the number

of turns of wire, the length of the coil, and the diameter of the coil.
There is a basic unit for inductance is Henry (abbreviated "H").
Inductance results from the fact that a flow of current produces a
magnetic field, according to the "right hand rule". However, a
changing magnetic field also tends to induce a voltage (or current)
in a wire according to Faraday's Law: V=-d/dt, where is the
magnetic flux. (This is the basic principle of magnetic induction).
The net result is that whenever we try to create a flow of current in
a wire, the resultant magnetic field will couple back and will tend
to oppose the change in current that we're trying to make. Note
that the effect depends on the rate of change of current.

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Fig 2.5
X Indicates current going inward; Indicates Current coming
outward of conductor
The operational definition of inductance is:
The unit of inductance, Volts-seconds/Amp, is called a "Henry".
Typical inductances are in the micro Henry to milli Henry range.
Every wire in an electric circuit has some associated inductance.
The electric device that we call an "Inductor" is usually a coil of
wire, often wrapped around some ferromagnetic material such as
iron. Note that for a circuit with a large inductance, it is difficult to
change the current rapidly (i.e., dI/dt will be small).
Electrical Power
Power (P) is a measure of the rate of doing work or the rate at
which energy is converted. Electrical power is the rate at which
electricity is produced or consumed. Using the water analogy,
electric power is the combination of the water pressure (voltage)
and the rate of flow (current) that results in the ability to do work.
The formula is:
Power = voltage x current
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P = V x I or W = V x A
Power Factor
The power factor of an AC electrical power system is defined as
the ratio of the real power flowing to the load, to the apparent
power in the circuit, and is a dimensionless number between 1
and 1.
Real power is the capacity of the circuit for performing work in a
particular time.
Apparent power is the product of the current and voltage of the
circuit.
Due to energy stored in the load and returned to the source, or due
to a non-linear load that distorts the wave shape of the current
drawn from the source, the apparent power will be greater than the
real power. A negative power factor occurs when the device which
is normally the load generates power which then flows back
towards the device which is normally considered the generator.
In an electric power system, a load with a low power factor draws
more current than a load with a high power factor for the same
amount of useful power transferred. The higher currents increase
the energy lost in the distribution system, and require larger wires
and other equipment. Because of the costs of larger equipment and
wasted energy, electrical utilities will usually charge a higher cost
to industrial or commercial customers where there is a low power
factor.
AC power flow has the three components: real power (also known
as active power) (P), measured in watts (W); apparent power (S),
measured in volt-amperes (VA); and reactive power (Q), measured
in reactive volt-amperes (VAR).
for powering some devices such as lamps and heaters but almost
all electronic circuits require a steady DC supply

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Properties of electrical signals

An electrical signal is a voltage or current which conveys
information, usually it means a voltage. The term can be used for
any voltage or current in a circuit.
The voltage-time graph on the right shows various properties of an
electrical signal. In addition to the properties labeled on the graph,
there is frequency which is the number of cycles per second.
The diagram shows a sine wave but these properties apply to any
signal with a constant shape.

Amplitude is the maximum voltage reached by the signal.

It is measured in volts, V.

Peak voltage is another name for amplitude.

Peak-peak voltage is twice the peak voltage (amplitude).

When reading an oscilloscope trace it is usual to measure
peak-peak voltage.

Time period is the time taken for the signal to complete

one cycle.
It is measured in seconds (s), but time periods tend to be
short so milliseconds (ms) and microseconds (s) are
often used. 1ms = 0.001s and 1s = 0.000001s.

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Frequency is the number of cycles per second.

It is measured in hertz (Hz), but frequencies tend to be
high so kilohertz (kHz) and megahertz (MHz) are often
used. 1kHz = 1000Hz and 1MHz = 1000000Hz.

Root Mean Square (RMS) Values

The value of an AC voltage is continually changing from zero up
to the positive peak, through zero to the negative peak and back to
zero again. Clearly for most of the time it is less than the peak
voltage, so this is not a good measure of its real effect.
Instead we use the root mean square voltage (VRMS) which is
0.7 of the peak voltage (Vpeak):
VRMS = 0.7 Vpeak and Vpeak = 1.4 VRMS
These equations also apply
to current. They are only
true for sine waves (the
most common type of AC)
because the 0.7 and 1.4 are
different values for other
shapes.
Fig. 2.11

The RMS value is the

effective value of a varying voltage or
current. It is the equivalent steady DC (constant) value which gives
the same effect.
For example a lamp connected to a 6V RMS AC supply will light
with the same brightness when connected to a steady 6V
DC supply. However, the lamp will be dimmer if connected to
a 6V peak AC supply because the RMS value of this is only 4.2V
(it is equivalent to a steady 4.2V DC).
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What do AC meters show, is it the RMS or peak voltage?

AC voltmeters and ammeters show the RMS value of the voltage
or current.
What does '6V AC' really mean, is it the RMS or peak voltage?
If the peak value is meant it should be clearly stated, otherwise
assume it is the RMS value. In everyday use AC voltages (and
currents) are always given as RMS values because this allows a
sensible comparison to be made with steady DC voltages (and
currents), such as from a battery.
For example a '6V AC supply' means 6V RMS, the peak voltage is
8.6V. The Indias mains supply is 230V AC, this means 230V
RMS so the peak voltage of the mains is about 320V!
ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENTS
Introduction
Measurements are the basic means of acquiring knowledge about
the parameters and variables involved in the operation of a
physical system. Measurement generally involves using an
instrument as a physical means of determining a quantity or
variable. An instrument or a measuring instrument is, therefore,
defined as a device for determining the value or magnitude of a
quantity or variable.
Need of Electrical measurements
We need to be able to measure electrical currents, because this will
give us the capacity to control it. As soon as we can measure it, we
will be able to predict the behavior and the effects of electrical
current on our electric equipment, and on the wires that carry it and
so, we will be able to design proper electrical circuits and devices.
Also we will be able to calculate the cost of operating any
electrical appliance. Plasma TV, Bulb etc.

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Electricity is invisible, and we cannot control what we don't

see. But if we have measurement equipment we will be able to
sense it, and then we will control it.
The electrical measuring instrument, as its name implies, is based
on electrical principles for its measurement function. These days a
number of measuring instruments, both analog as well as digital
ones, are available for the measurement of electrical quantities like
voltage, current, power energy, frequency, power factor, etc. The
instruments considered in this chapter are analog devices in which
the output or display is a continuous-time signal and bears a fixed
relationship to the input.
Analog instruments may be divided into three groups:
(a) Electromechanical instruments;
(b) Electronic instruments which are often constructed by the
addition of electronic circuits to electromechanical indicators
thus increasing their sensitivity and input impedances; and
(c) Graphical instruments which are electromechanical and
electronic instruments having a modified display arrangement so
that a graphical trace, that is, a display of instantaneous values
against time is obtained.
This chapter presents general concepts related to the working
principles and construction and certain features common to many
electrical indicating instruments particularly of electromechanical
types. Important definitions relevant to instruments will be
discussed first.
Classification of Electrical Measuring Instruments
Electrical measuring instruments may be classified into two
groups:
(a) Absolute (or primary) instruments.
(b) Secondary instruments.
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Absolute Instruments

These instruments give the value of the electrical quantity in

terms of absolute quantities (or some constants) of the
instruments and their deflections.
In this type of instruments no calibration or comparison with
other instruments is necessary.
They are generally not used in laboratories and are seldom
used in practice by electricians and engineers. They are
mostly used as means of standard measurements and are
maintained lay national laboratories and similar institutions.

Some of the examples of absolute instruments are:

* Tangent galvanometer
* Raleigh current balance
* Absolute electrometer.
Secondary Instruments

They are direct reading instruments. The quantity to be

measured by these instruments can be determined from the
deflection of the instruments.
They are often calibrated by comparing them with either
some absolute instruments or with those which have already
been calibrated.
The deflections obtained with secondary instruments will be
meaningless until it is not calibrated.
These instruments are used in general for all laboratory
purposes.

Some of the very widely used secondary instruments are:

ammeters, voltmeter, wattmeter, energy meter (watt-hour meter),
ampere-hour meters etc.

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Classification of Secondary Instruments

(a) Classification based on the various effects (Principles) of
electric current (or voltage) upon which their operation depend.
They are:
Magnetic effect: Used in ammeters, voltmeters, watt-meters,
integrating meters etc.
Heating effect: Used in ammeters and voltmeters.
Chemical effect: Used in dc ampere hour meters.
Electrostatic effect: Used in voltmeters.
Electromagnetic induction effect: Used in ac ammeters,
voltmeters, watt meters and integrating meters.
Electric measuring instruments and meters are used to indicate
directly the value of current, voltage, power or energy. Consider an
electromechanical meter (input is as an electrical signal results
mechanical force or torque as an output) that can be connected
with additional suitable components in order to act as an ammeters
and a voltmeter. The most common analogue instrument or meter
is the permanent magnet moving coil instrument and it is used for
measuring a dc current or voltage of an electric circuit. On the
other hand, the indications of alternating current ammeters and
voltmeters must represent the RMS values of the current, or
voltage, respectively, applied to the instrument.
Illustration
Input
1.
2.
When current is passed 3.
through a conductor the 4.
effects we observe are

Measurements

Principles
Magnetic effect
Thermal effect
Electrostatic effect
Induction effect
(these are the mechanisms
used to convert current to
force/torque

Output

Force or
Torque

109

Block diagram of a analog meter

(b) Classification based on the Nature of their Operations (Output)

We have the following instruments.
Indicating instruments: Indicating instruments indicate,
generally the quantity to be measured by means of a pointer which
moves on a scale. Examples are ammeter, voltmeter, wattmeter etc.
Recording instruments: These instruments record continuously
the variation of any electrical quantity with respect to time. In
principle, these are indicating instruments but so arranged that a
permanent continuous record of the indication is made on a chart
or dial. The recording is generally made by a pen on a graph paper
which is rotated on a dice or drum at a uniform speed. The amount
of the quantity at any time (instant) may be read from the traced
chart. Any variation in the quantity with time is recorded by these
instruments.
Any electrical quantity like current, voltage, power etc., (which
may be measured lay the indicating instruments) may be arranged
to be recorded by a suitable recording mechanism.
Integrating instruments: These instruments record the
consumption of the total quantity of electricity, energy etc., during
a particular period of time. That is, these instruments totalize
events over a specified period of time. No indication of the rate or
variation or the amount at a particular instant are available from
them. Some widely used integrating instruments are: Ampere-hour
meter: kilowatthour (kWh) meter, kilovolt-ampere-hour (kVARh)
meter.
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(c) Classification based on the Kind of Current that can be

Measurand.
Direct current (dc) instruments
Alternating current (ac) instruments
Both direct current and alternating current instruments (dc/ac
instruments) called as universal instruments.
(d) Classification based on the method used.
Direct measuring instruments: These instruments convert the
energy of the measured quantity directly into energy that actuates
the instrument and the value of the unknown quantity is measured
or displayed or recorded directly. These instruments are most
widely used in engineering practice because they are simple and
inexpensive. Also, time involved in the measurement is shortest.
Examples are Ammeter, Voltmeter, Watt meter etc.
Comparison instruments: These instruments measure the
unknown quantity by comparison with a standard. Examples are dc
and ac bridges and potentiometers. They are used when a higher
accuracy of measurements is desired.
Electrical Measuring Instruments
The measuring instrument is the most important part of the
measurement process and the selection of the instrument therefore
has to be done carefully. If the selection is not correct, the result of
the measurement may give a wrong indication, thereby leading to
an incorrect decision.
Selection criteria
The selection of measuring instruments depends on the
measurement to be performed.
Generally, three characteristics are considered; these are:

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The range and magnitude of the parameter to be measured

and the accuracy of the measurement (the instrument
should have the range to cover effectively the range of the
parameter).
The resolution of the measuring instrument should be
smaller than the minimum unit of measurement of the
parameter.
Lastly, and most importantly, the accuracy or uncertainty of
the measuring instrument should comply with the accuracy
requirement of the parameter to be measured.

The need for calibration

Accuracy and reliability of all such measurements would be
doubtful if the instruments used were not calibrated. Calibration
ensures that a measuring instrument displays an accurate and
reliable value of the quantity being measured. Thus, calibration is
an essential activity in any measurement process.
Calibration is the set of operations that establish, under specified
conditions, the relationship between values indicated by a
measuring instrument, a measuring system or values represented
by a material measure, and the corresponding known values of a
measurand (the parameter that is being measured.

Functions of Electrical/ Electronic

Instruments There is another way in which
instruments or measurement systems may be
classified. This classification is based upon
the functions they perform. The three main
functions employs in electrical and
electronic instruments are explained below:
Function of Electrical Instruments
Indicating Instruments These are the instruments which indicate
the instantaneous value of quantity being measured at the time it is
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being measured. The indication is in the form of pointer deflection

(analogue instrument) or digital readout (digital instrument). In
analogue instruments, a pointer moving over a graduated scale
directly gives the value of the electrical quantity being measured.
Ammeters, voltmeters and wattmeters are example of such
instruments. For example when an ammeter is connected in the
circuit, the pointer of the meter directly indicates the value of
current flowing in the circuit at that time. In most indicating
instruments, three distinct forces are essential for the satisfactory
indicating of the pointer on a dial. These forces are:

A deflecting (or operating) torque

A controlling (or restoring) torque

A damping torque

Features Common to All Indicating Instruments

We will discuss certain features which are common to all electrical
measuring instruments.
We will first consider various torques acting on its moving system.
In an indicating instrument, it is essential that the moving system is
acted upon by three distinct torque (or forces) for satisfactory
working. There torques are:
1. A deflecting or operating torque, Td
2. A controlling torque, Tc
3. A damping torque, Tv.
Deflecting (Or the Operating) Torque
The deflecting torque causes the moving system of the instrument
to move from its zero position. It may be produced by utilizing any
one of the effects of current or voltage in the instrument such as
magnetic effect, electromagnetic induction effect, heating effect,

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electrostatic effect etc. The actual method of producing a

deflecting torque depends upon the type of the instruments.
The deflecting torque has to supply the following torquecomponents presents in an instrument.
(a) The torque required to overcome the torque due to the inertia of
the moving system.
(b) The torque required to overcome the controlling torque,
Tc kc
(c) The torque required to overcome the damping torque, where kv
is damping torque constant.
(d) The torque required to overcome the frictional (coulomb)
torque. This component is minimized by appropriate design
considerations.
This torque/force causes the instrument movement to rotate from
its zero position.
Controlling Torque
The controlling torque developed in an instrument has two
functions:
(a) It limits the movement of the moving system and ensures that
the magnitude of the deflections always remains the same for a
given value of the quantity to be measured.
(b) It brings back the moving system to its zero position where the
quantity being measured is removed or made zero.
The controlling torque is dependent on the magnitude of deflection
produced. The moving system is deflected from zero to such a
position that the controlling torque at that deflected position is
equal to the deflecting torque. The controlling torque increases in
magnitude with the deflection till it balances the deflecting torque.
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That is, for a steady deflection,

Controlling torque, Tc = Deflection or operating torque, Td.
The controlling torque is entered in all commercial instruments by
any one of the following three ways.
By means of one or two coiled springs. The corresponding
instrument is termed spring controlled instruments (mostly used
system).
By the action of gravity due to suitably placed weights on the
moving system. Such instruments are known as gravity controlled
instruments.
By means of a permanent magnet (magnetic control system).
Spring control is now almost universal in indicating instruments.
Gravity control is employed in a few cases, notably in special
laboratory types, and magnetic control is applied to some
galvanometers and certain moving iron instruments (the polarized
form).
Spring Control
Figure shows a spindle free to turn between two pivots. The
moving system is attached to the spindle. Two phosphor-bronze
hair springs A and B wound in opposite directions are also shown
whose inner ends are attached to the spindle. The outer end of
spring A is connected to a leaver which is pivoted the adjustment
of which gives zero setting. However, the outer end of B is fixed.
When the pointer is deflected one spring unwinds itself while the
other is twisted. This twist in the spring produces restoring
(controlling) torque, which is proportional to the angle of
deflection of the moving systems.

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Gravity Control
In gravity controlled instruments, as shown in Fig. a small
adjustable weight is attached to the spindle of the moving system
such that the deflecting torque produced by the instrument has to
act against the action of gravity. Thus a controlling torque is
obtained. This weight is called the control weight. Another
adjustable weight is also attached is the moving system for zero
adjustment and balancing purpose. This weight is called Balance
weight.
When the control
weight
is
in
vertical position
as shown in Fig.
the
controlling
torque is zero and
hence the pointer
must read zero.
However, if the
deflecting torque
lifts the controlling weight from position A to B as shown in Fig.
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such that the spindle rotates by an angle , then due to gravity a

restoring (or controlling) torque is exerted on the moving system.
Damping Torque:
We have already seen that the moving system of the instrument
will tend to move under the action of the deflecting torque. But on
account of the control torque, it will try to occupy a position of rest
when the two torques are equal and opposite.
However, due to inertia of the moving system, the pointer will not
come to rest immediately but oscillate about its final deflected
position as shown in Fig. and takes appreciable time to come to
steady state.
To overcome this difficulty a damping
torque is to be developed by using a
damping device attached to the moving
system. The damping torque is
proportional to the speed of rotation of
the moving system.

Dynamic response
of the measuring
instrument

Depending upon the degree of damping introduced in the moving

system, the instrument may have any one of the following
conditions as depicted in Fig.
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117

1. Under damped condition: The response is oscillatory

2. Over damped condition: The response is sluggish and it rises
very slowly from its zero position to final position.
3. Critically damped condition: When the response settles
quickly without any oscillation, the system is said to be critically
damped.
In practice, the best response is slightly obtained when the
damping is below the critical value i.e., the instrument is slightly
under damped.
The damping torque is produced by the following methods:
Air Friction Damping
In this type of damping a light vane or vanes having considerable
area is attached to the moving system to develop a frictional force
opposing the motion by reason of the air they displace. Two
methods of damping by air friction are depicted in Fig.

Air friction Damping

The arrangement shown in Fig (a) consists of a light aluminum
vane which moves in a quadrant (sector) shaped air chamber. The
chamber also carries a cover plate at the top. The vane is mounted
on the spindle of the moving system. The aluminum vane should
not touch the air-chamber walls otherwise a serious error in the
deflection of the instrument will be introduced. Now, with the
motion, the vane displaces air and thereby a damping force is
created on the vane that produces a torque (damping) on the
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118

spindle. When the movement is quicker the damping force is

greater; when the spindle is at rest, the damping force is zero.
The arrangement of Fig (b) consists of a light aluminum piston
which is attached to the moving system. This piston moves in a
fixed chamber which is closed at one end. Either circular or
rectangular chamber may be used. The clearance (or gap) between
the piston and chamber walls should be uniform throughout and as
small as possible. When the piston moves rapidly into the chamber
the air in the closed space is compressed and the pressure of air
thus developed opposes the motion of the piston and thereby the
whole moving system. If the piston is moving out of the chamber,
rapidly, the pressure in the closed space falls and the pressure on
the open side of the piston is greater than that on the opposite side.
Motion is thus again opposed. With this damping system care must
be taken to ensure that the arm carrying the piston should not touch
the sides of the chamber during its movement. The friction which
otherwise would occur may introduce a serious error in the
deflection.
The air friction damping is very simple and cheap. But care must
be taken to ensure that the piston is not bent or twisted. This
method is used in moving iron and hot wire instruments.
Eddy Current Damping
Eddy current damping is
the most efficient form of
damping. The essential
components in this type of
damping are a permanent
magnet; and a light
conducting disc usually of
aluminum. When a sheet of
conducting material moves
in a magnetic field so as to
cut through lines of force, eddy currents are set up in it and a force
exists between these currents and the magnetic field, which is
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119

always in the direction opposing the motion. This force is

proportional to the magnitude of the current, and to the strength of
field. The former is proportional to the velocity of movement of
the conductor, and thus, if the magnetic field is constant, the
damping force is proportional to the velocity of the moving system
and is zero when there is no movement of the system. Fig shows
two methods of applying this method of damping. In Fig a thin
disc of conducting, but non-magnetic material-usually copper of
aluminum is mounted on the spindle which carries the pointer of
the instrument. When the spindle rotates, the edge of the disc cuts
through the lines of force in the gap of a permanent magnet, and
eddy currents, with consequent damping, are produced. An
arrangement similar to this is often used in hotwire instruments.
Electromagnetic Damping
Figure shows the essential parts of a permanent-magnet, moving
coil, instrument. The coil is wound on a light metal former in
which eddy currents are induced when the coil moves in the
permanent-magnet field. The directions of the eddy-current which
in turn produce the damping torque due to the motion of the coil
(clockwise) are as shown in Fig and this will produce damping
forces as indicated in the figure.

The

movement of a coil in a magnetic field produces a current in the

coil which interacts with the magnetic field to produce a torque.
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120

This torque opposes the movement of the coil and slows the
response.
The magnitude of the current and hence the damping torque is
dependent upon the resistance of the circuit which the instrument is
connected.
This damping method is used in galvanometers.
Types of Electrical Measuring Instruments:

VOLTMETER A voltmeter is used to measure the potential

difference between two points of a circuit. It is thus connected in
parallel with the circuit or some part of the circuit as shown in
figure. The voltmeter must have enough resistance so that it will
not be injured by the current that flows through it, and so that it
will not materially affect the current in the circuit to which it is
connected.
AMMETERS An ammeter is used to measure the flow of current
in a circuit. It is thus connected in series with the circuit under test
(as shown in fig.1.7) so that current to be measured or a fraction of
it passes through the instrument itself. The ammeter must be
capable of carrying this current without injury to itself and without
abnormally increasing the resistance of the circuit into which is
inserted. For this reason, an ammeter is designed to have low
resistance.

The
basic principle of the ammeter and of the voltmeter is the same.
Both are current operated devices i.e. deflecting torque is produced
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121

when current flows through their operating coils. In the ammeter,

the deflecting torque is produced by the current we wish to
measure or a certain fraction of that current. In the voltmeter, the
deflecting torque is produced by a current which is proportional to
the potential difference to be measured.
Moving Coil Instruments Accurate measurement of current and
(potential difference (voltage) is needed in all branches of
electricity and their applications, for example in television, radio
telecommunications, dynamos and motors.
The most widely used commercial meter is the moving coil type.
Basically, it consists of
(a) A rectangular coil with many turns
(b) A powerful radial magnetic field between curved pole pieces N
and S and a soft iron cylinder
(c) Springs to control the angle of rotation of the coil
(d) A uniform (linear) scale for measuring the current.

Whe
n the
instrument is connected in the circuit to measure current or
voltage, the operating current flows through the coil. Since the coil
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122

is carrying current and is placed in the magnetic field of the

permanent magnet, a mechanical force (torque) acts on it. As a
result, the pointer attached to the moving system moves in a
clockwise direction over the graduated scale to indicate the value
of current or voltage being measured. (See fig. 3.1) In the
permanent magnet moving coil, the deflecting torque in a moving
coil instrument results from interaction between the field set up by
a permanent magnet (for which reason such instruments are
referred to as permanent magnet moving coil instrument) and the
field produced by a current carrying coil.
Interaction between Fields Producing a Force consider a current
carrying conductor of fig, it produces a magnetic field in the
anticlockwise direction. We now have a uniform magnetic field
between the poles N and S as shown in fig. Let the current carrying
conductor be placed in this magnetic field. The resultant field is as
shown in fig. This results in distortion of magnetic field causing a
force F to act from down to upward. The reversal of direction of
the current will can be a force F in the opposite direction, i.e. from
bottom to top subject to the condition that the direction of the
existing field remains the same.

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On the downward side of the current carrying conductor, the field

is strengthened and the lines are denser. On the upwards side of the
current carrying conductor the field is weakened and the lines are
relatively less dense. If the lines of force are imagined to be like
elastic threads, we see that, as in a catapult, the conductor will
move from downward to upward. This is the direction from the
strong part of the field, where the lines are most dense, to the
weaker part. The direction of the force when a current-carrying
conductor is in a perpendicular magnetic field is given by
Flemings left hand rule. The rule can be used only if the
magnetic field and current perpendicular, or inclined, to each other.
Deflecting Torque When the current is passed through the coil,
forces act upon both its sides and produce a deflecting torque fig

Let, B = Flux density, in Weber /m2

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L = Length of depth of the coil, in m

b = breadth of the coil, in m
N = number of turns in the coil
I = current passing through the coil, in A
Now, the magnitude of the force experienced by each side of the
coil is given as,
Force = BIL Newton
For N turns, the force on each side of the coil will be,
Force = N x BIL Newton
Now, deflecting torque (Td) = force x perpendicular distance
Td = NBIL x b
Or Td = NBI (L x b)
But, l x b = A = face area of the coil,
Td = NBIA (N.M)
It is seen that, if B is constant, Td is proportional to the current
passing through the coil,
I.e. Td = KI (where K = NBA constant). or Td I
Such instruments generally use spring control so that
Controlling torque Tc Deflection
Since, at final deflection position, Td = Tc
Td NBIA

Or
I

Since the deflection is directly proportional to the current, such

instruments have uniform scale.
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125

Controlling Torque In this type of instrument, the controlling

torque is provided by a spring.
Damping Torque Damping is provided by current induced in the
aluminum frame on which the coil is wound. Damping is very
effective in this type of instrument.

The damping force is required to minimize (or damp out)

oscillations of the pointer and coil before settling down at their
final position.

The damping force must be present only when the coil is in

motion; thus it must be generated by the rotation of the coil.
In PMMC instruments, the damping force is normally
provided by eddy currents.
Eddy currents induced in the coil set up a magnetic flux
that opposes the coil motion, thus damping the oscillations
of the coil.

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126

The damping force in a PMMC instrument is provided by eddy

currents induced in the aluminum coil former as it moves
through the magnetic field.

The moving coil instrument is commonly used in voltmeters,

ammeters and ohmmeters. It responds only to direct current. It is
used in rectifier- type instruments to measure alternating current
and voltage.
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127

Advantages of Permanent Magnet Moving Coil instruments

i. Low power consumption
ii. It has a uniform scale i.e. evenly divided scale
iii. They have high sensitively, this enables very small current to
be detected or measure.
iv. Not affected much by stray magnetic fields.
v. They have very effective and efficient eddy-current damping
vi. They have no hysteresis loss as the magnetic is practically
constant
vii. Very accurate and reliable
viii. They can be modified with the help of shunts and multipliers
to cover a wide range of currents and voltages.

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128

Disadvantages of P.M.M.C Instruments

i. Such instruments cannot be used for a.c measurement because of
the rapidly changing direction of the current.
ii. Use limited to d.c only
iii. It is more expensive than moving iron instruments because of
their accurate design.
Applications of P.M.M.C Permanent magnet moving coil
instruments are acknowledged to be the best type of all d.c
measurements. They are very sensitive and maintain a high degree
of accuracy over long periods. The chief applications of such
instruments are:

In the measurement of direct currents and voltage

In d.c galvanometers to defect small currents.
In ballistic galvanometers used mainly for measuring
changes of magnetic flux linkages.

Note The moving coil instrument can be modified to enable it

measure a.c quantities by using it in conjunction with a rectifier (as
shown in fig. The meter is calibrated so that the rectified (d.c)
current indicates the R.M.S. value of the a.c, the calibration is
usually carried out with a sinusoidal waveforms and for accurate
results the form factor of the measured a.c wave form must be
1.11.
AC voltmeters and ammeters AC electromechanical meter
movements come in two basic arrangements: those based on DC
movement designs, and those engineered specifically for AC use.
Permanent-magnet moving coil (PMMC) meter movements will
not work correctly if directly connected to alternating current,
because the direction of needle movement will change with each
half-cycle of the AC. Permanent-magnet meter movements, like
permanent-magnet motors, are devices whose motion depends on

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129

the polarity of the applied voltage (or, you can think of it in terms
of the direction of the current).
In order to use a DC-style meter movement such as the D'Arsonval
design, the alternating current must be rectified into DC. This is
most easily accomplished through the use of devices called diodes.
We saw diodes used in an example circuit demonstrating the
creation of harmonic frequencies from a distorted (or rectified)
sine wave.
When an alternating current (sinusoidal) with a very low frequency
(0.1 Hz or lower) is passed through a PMMC instrument, the
pointer tends to follow the instantaneous level of the AC.

As the current grows positively, the pointer deflection

increases to a maximum at the peak of the ac.
Then as the instantaneous current level falls, the pointer
deflection decreases towards zero.
When the ac goes negative, the pointer is deflected (offscale) to the left of zero.

With the normal 50 Hz or higher supply frequencies, the damping

mechanisms and the inertia of the meter movement prevent the
pointer from following the changing instantaneous levels of the
signal.

The instruments pointer settles at the average value of the

current flowing through the moving coil which is zero.
PMMC instrument can be modified by one of the following
circuits to measure AC signals

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130

Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier Voltmeter

When the input is positive, diodes D1 and D4 conduct,

causing current to flow through the meter from top to
bottom (red solid path path - 1).
When the input goes negative, diodes D2 and D3 conduct,
current flows through the meter from the positive to the
negative terminal (blue dashed path path - 2).

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131

The ac voltmeter uses a series-connected multiplier resistor

(Rs) to limit the current flow through the instrument
The meter deflection is proportional to the average current
(Iav), which is 0.637 x peak current Ip or Im).
But the actual current (or voltage) to be indicated in ac
measurement is normally the
Irms = 0.707 x Ip (Im). (Note Irms = 1.11 x Iav & Ip (Im) =
1.414 x Irms)
When other than pure sine waves are applied, the voltmeter
will not indicate the rms voltage.

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132

To increase the sensitive of P.M.M.C

(i) The magnetic field is made stronger
(ii) The number of turns in the rectangular coil is increase
(iii) The area of the coil is increased
(iv)The springs should be made of thinner wire to enable them to
twist more easily.
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133

PMMC as Ammeter
When high current are to be measured the major part of the current
is by passed through a low resistance called as SHUNT (Rsh)

According to KCL
Voltage drop across shunt and PMMC meter are equal
(Parallel circuit)

Where
Features of shunt resistor:

The shunt resistance should be stable and constant with

time.
The shunt resistances bypass the current to protect the
meter.
The temperature coefficient of the shunt and the meter
should be low as equal as possible.
The manganin is usually used for the shunts of d.c
instruments while the constantan is useful for the shunts of
a.c measurements.

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134

Resistance should be low to by-pass the current through

them.

PMMC AS A VOLTMETER

The basic dc voltmeter is nothing but a PMMC DArsonval

galvanometer with a resistor.
In order to use PMMC as voltmeter, resistance is required
to be connected in series. This series resistance is called a
multiplier.
The multiplier resistance can be calculated as follows from
above fig.
According to KVL,
Where

(in series circuit)

Therefore
The multiplier m defined as the ratio of total voltage
to the full scale deflection voltage (voltage across
meter), thus

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135

Features of series multiplier:

Their resistance should not change with time.

The change in their resistance with temperature
should be small.
They should be non-inductively wound for a.c.
meters.
Are high resistance, limit the starting current in
meter.

MOVING IRON INSTRUMENTS

Moving Iron instruments depend for their action upon the
magnetic effect of current, and are widely used as indicating
instruments. In this type of instrument, the coil is stationary and
the deflection is caused by a soft-iron piece moving in the field
produced by the coil. This type of instrument is principally used
for the measurement of alternating currents and voltages, though it
can also be used for D.C measurements but is then liable to small
errors due to remanent magnetism in the iron; there are two basic
forms of moving iron instruments.
i. Attraction type
ii. Repulsion type
Attraction Type The basic working principle of attraction type
moving iron instruments is illustrated in fig. In this system, when
current flows through the coil, a magnetic field is produced at its
centre. A soft iron rod fixed to the spindle becomes magnetized
and is pulled inside the coil, the force of attraction being
proportional to the strength of the field inside the coil, which again
is proportional to the strength of the current.

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136

Working Principle When the current to be measured is passed

through the coil, a magnetic field is produced which attracts the
iron rod inwards, thereby deflecting the pointer which moves over
a calibrated scale.

Deflecting Torque

In the attraction type moving iron instrument, the deflecting

torque is due to the force of attraction between the field of the coil
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137

and the iron disc. The magnetization of the iron disc is proportional
to the field strength H. The force F pulling the disc inwards is
proportional to the magnetization M of disc and field strength H.

Controlling Torque

In the above instrument the controlling torque is achieved by

gravity control, but now spring control is used almost universally.

Damping Torque

The damping of the moving system is obtained by air damping, in

which a light aluminum piston moves freely inside the curved
cylinder closed at one end. The resistance offered by air in
escaping from the restricted space around the piston effectively
damps out any oscillations.
Torque equation of moving iron instrument:
Consider a small increment in current supplied to the coil of the
instrument. Due to this current let
be the deflection under the
deflecting torque . Due to such deflection, some mechanical
work will be done.

Mechanical work =
There will be a change in the energy stored in magnetic field due
to the change in inductance.
Stored energy =
Mechanical work done = stored energy

Or
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While the controlling torque is given by

Under steady position
Therefore
Thus the deflection is proportional to the square of the current
through the coil. And the instrument gives square law response.
Repulsion Type It consists of a fixed coil inside which two soft
iron and are arranged parallel to one another and along the axis of
the coil (as shown in fig).
One of these rods A is fixed to the coil frame, while the other rod
B is moving and is mounted on the spindle. The moving rod carries
a pointer that moves over a calibrated scale.
In this type of movement, the coil that receives the current to be
measured is stationary. The field set up by the coil magnetizes two
iron vanes, which then becomes temporary magnets.
Since the same field magnetizes both vanes, both vanes have the
same magnetizes polarity. Consequently, there is a force of
repulsion between the two vanes. One of the vanes (statotionary
vane) is attached to the coil form. The other vane (the moving
vane) is mounted on the pivot shaft to which the meter pointer is
attached.
Thus, the magnetic force of repulsion forces the moving vane away
from the stationary vane. Of course, this force is offset by the
counter torque of the spiral springs attached to the pivot shaft. The
greater the current through the coil in, the stronger the magnetic
repelling force; thus, the farther the moving vane rotates and the
more current the pointer indicates. The iron vane meter movement
can operate on either a.c or d.c
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139

Working Principle When the current to be measured is passed

through the fixed coil, it set up its own magnetic field, which
magnetizes the two rods with same polarity so that they repel one
another, with the result that the pointer is deflect and causes the
pointer to move from zero position. The force of repulsion is
approximately proportional to the square of the current passing
through the coil.
Deflecting Torque
The deflecting torque results due to the repulsion between the two
similarly magnetized (charged) soft iron rods. Therefore,
Instantaneous torque repulsive force and repulsive force to the
product of pole strengths M1 and M2 of two vanes.
Pole strengths are magnetizing force H of the coil and H
current passing through the coil
Therefore, the instantaneous torque, which is the deflecting torque,
is given as
Instantaneous torque I2

i.e. Td I2

Hence, deflecting torque is proportional to the square of the current

when used in an A.C circuit; the instrument reads the r.m.s value
of the electrical quantity.
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140

Advantage of Moving Iron Instruments Following are the

advantages of moving iron instruments
i. Cheap, robust and give reliable service
ii. Usable in both a.c and d.c circuits.
Disadvantages and Limitations of Moving Iron Instrument
i. Have non-linear scale
ii. Cannot be calibrated with a high degree of precision for d.c on
account of the affect of hysteresis in the iron vanes
iii. The instrument will always have to be put in the vertical
position if it uses gravity control.
Applications The moving iron instruments are primarily used for
a.c measurement such as, alternating currents and voltages.
Electrodynamic (Dynamometer) Instruments These instruments
are the modified form of permanent magnet moving coil
instrument in which the operating field is produced, not by a
permanent magnet but by a two air-cored fixed coils placed on
either side of the moving coil as seen in fig.
Electrodynamometer meter movements use stationary coil and
moving coils to develop interacting magnetic fields (that is the
electrodynamometer uses two electromagnetic fields in its
operation. One field is created by the current flowing through a
pair of series-connected stationary coils. The other field is caused
by current flowing through a movable coil that is attached to the
pivot shaft.
If the current in the coils are in the correct directions, the pointer
rotates clockwise. The rotational torque on the movable coil is
caused by the opposing magnetic forces of the three coils.
They respond to alternating current because the a.c reverses
direction simultaneously in all three coils and also can operates on
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141

direct current and are used in wattmeter. Electrodynamometer

meters have low sensitivity and high accuracy

The operating principle of electrodynamics instruments is the

interaction between the currents in the moving coil, mounted on a
shaft, and the fixed coils, that is, the deflecting torque is produced
by the reaction between the magnetic field set up by the current in
the moving coils and the magnetic field set up by current in the
fixed coil. When the two coils are energized, their magnetic fields
will interact as a result of mechanical force exists between the coils
and the resulting torque will tend to rotate the moving coil and
cause the pointer attached to it to move over the scale. Since there
is no iron, the field strength is proportional to the current in the
fixed coil and therefore, the deflecting torque is proportional to the
product of the currents in the fixed coils and the moving coil.

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Deflecting Torque The force of attraction or repulsion between the

fixed and moving coils is directly proportional to the product of
ampere turns of fixed coils and the moving coils i.e. Deflecting
torque,
If
is the instantaneous deflecting torque and
the deflection then
Mechanical energy = Mechanical work done

is the change in

The controlling torque is provided by springs hence

But

for steady position

for D.C currents.

Where

Current through the current (fixed) coil

Current through the pressure (potential or movable) coil

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M = Mutual inductance between the fixed and moving

coils.
Thus, the deflection is proportional to the product of product of the
two currents and the rate of change of mutual inductance.
for A.C currents.
Where
is power factor, and
fixed and moving coil currents.

is the phase angle between

This show that the scale of these instruments is not uniform, being
crowded at the beginning and open at the upper end of the scale as
shown in fig the obvious disadvantage of such a scale is that the
divisions near the start of the scale are small and cannot be read
accurately.
Control System The controlling torque is produced by two control
springs, which also act as leads to the moving coil.
Damping System This system provides for air damping.
Advantages of Dynamometer Instruments

These instruments can be used for both d.c and a.c

measurements.
Since the coil is generally air cored, they are free from eddy
current and hysteresis losses.
They can be use for power measurements.

Disadvantages of Dynamometer Instruments

They have low sensitivity

Such instruments are more expensive than the other types
Because the deflecting torque varies with the square of the
current, the scale is not uniform.

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144

The dynamometer instrument may be applied or used as an

ammeter or as a voltmeter but is generally used as a wattmeter.
They are suitable for d.c as well as a.c work.

EDM as ammeter, voltmeter and wattmeter

For using EDM as ammeter, fixed and moving coils are
connected in series and carry the same current. A suitable
shunt is connected to these coils to limit current through
them up to desired limit.
The EDM can be used as voltmeter by connecting the
fixed and moving coils in series with a high non-inductive
resistance.
For using EDM as wattmeter to measure the power, the
fixed coils act as a current coil and must be connected in
series with the load. The moving coil acts as a voltage coil
or pressure coil and must be connected across supply
terminals.

EDM instrument as an ammeter:

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145

The pointer deflection is given by,

Since fixed and moving coils are connected in series manner,

so

Therefore from above equation

, square law, the scale is non-uniform.

EDM instrument as a voltmeter:

The pointer deflection is given by,

Since

where z is impedance.

Therefore

, square law, the scale is non-uniform.

Wattmeter A wattmeter, as its name implies, measure electric

power given to or develop by an electronic apparatus or circuit.
A wattmeter is hardly over required in a d.c circuit because power
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146

(P = VI) can be easily determined from voltmeter and ammeter

readings. However, in an a.c circuit, such a computation is
generally speaking impossible. It is because in an a.c circuit, power
(P = VI Cos ) depends not only on voltage and current but also on
the phase shift between them. Therefore, a wattmeter is necessary
for a.c power measurement. The wattmeter shows a reading which
is proportional to the product of the current through its current coli,
the p.d across its potential or pressure coil and cosine of the angle
between this voltage and current. The wattmeter is an indicating
type instruments, generally used for power measurement of the
electrical circuit.

Measurements

147

Operation When the wattmeter is connected in the circuit to

measure power (see figure ), the current (stationary coil) which is
wound with a larger-diameter wire carries the load current and
potential (moving coil) coil carries current proportional to the load
voltage.
Due to currents in the coils, mechanical force exists between them.
The result is that movable coil moves the pointer over the scale.
The pointer comes to rest at a position when deflecting torque is
equal to the controlling torque. The moving coil is used to detect
the magnitude of the circuit voltage. The stationary coils are
referred to as the current coils. The circuit current is detected by
the current coils, which are connected in series with the load. The
stationary current is wound with larger diameter. This keeps the
resistance that is in series with the load as low as possible.
The moving coil is wound with thin wire to keep it as high as
possible. Since the movable coil responds to voltage, it has a
multiplier (a high non-inductive resistance) connected in series
with the moving coil to limit the current flowing through the
moving coil to a small value, usually up to 100mA. Such
instruments can be used for the measurement of d.c as well as a.c
power.
The deflecting torque is given by
From the above fig.

is proportional to the load current, i since

current coil is connected in series with load.

Moreover,

is proportional to the voltage across the load, V since

voltage coil connected across the load.

Therefore
Where

, power measured by the w attmeter.

Measurements

, power.
148

for a.c.
currents.
Thus

, deflection of pointer is proportional to power of the

circuit
Advantages of Dynamometer Wattmeters
i. Such instruments can be made to give a very high degree of
accuracy. Hence, they are used as a standard for calibrated
purposes.
ii. They are equally accurate on d.c as well as a.c measurements.
iii. It can be used on both a.c and d.c supply, for any waveform of
voltage and current, and is not restricted to sinusoidal waveforms.
Disadvantages Of Dynamometer Wattmeter At low power factor,
the inductance of the voltage coil causes serious error unless
special precautions are taken to reduce this effect.
EDM - Power Factor Meter:
The power factor of an AC electrical power system is defined as
the ratio of the real power flowing to the load, to the apparent
power in the circuit, and is a dimensionless number between -1 and
1. Real power is the capacity of the circuit for performing work in
a particular time. Apparent power is the product of the current and
voltage of the circuit. Due to energy stored in the load and returned
to the source, or due to a non-linear load that distorts the wave
shape of the current drawn from the source, the apparent power
will be greater than the real power. A negative power factor occurs
when the device which is normally the load generates power which
then flows back towards the device which is normally considered
the generator
In an electric power system, a load with a low power factor draws
more current than a load with a high power factor for the same
amount of useful power transferred. The higher currents increase
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149

the energy lost in the distribution system, and require larger wires
and other equipment. Because of the costs of larger equipment and
wasted energy, electrical utilities will usually charge a higher cost
to industrial or commercial customers where there is a low power
factor. Hence measuring power factor in electrical an electrical
network is essential.
AC power flow has the three components: real power (also known
as active power) (P), measured in watts (W); apparent power (S),
measured in volt-amperes (VA); and reactive power (Q), measured
in reactive volt-amperes (var).
The power factor is defined as:

.
In the case of a perfectly sinusoidal waveform, P, Q and S can be
expressed as vectors that form a vector triangle such that:

If is the phase angle between the current and voltage, then the
power factor is equal to the cosine of the angle,
, and:

Since the units are consistent, the power factor is by definition a

dimensionless number between -1 and 1. When power factor is
equal to 0, the energy flow is entirely reactive, and stored energy in
the load returns to the source on each cycle. When the power factor
is 1, all the energy supplied by the source is consumed by the load.
Power factors are usually stated as "leading" or "lagging" to show
the sign of the phase angle. Capacitive loads are leading (current
leads voltage), and inductive loads are lagging (current lags
voltage).
If a purely resistive load is connected to a power supply, current
and voltage will change polarity in step, the power factor will be
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unity (1), and the electrical energy flows in a single direction

across the network in each cycle. Inductive loads such as
transformers and motors (any type of wound coil) consume
reactive power with current waveform lagging the voltage.
Capacitive loads such as capacitor banks or buried cable generate
reactive power with current phase leading the voltage.
The power in single phase a.c. circuit is given by P = VI Cos
where Cos = power factor of the circuit. The power factor of a
ac circuit is measured directly by Electrodynamometer.
Basic construction of power factor meter is similar to a wattmeter.
It has two circuits, current circuit and a voltage circuit. The current
circuit carries current or fraction of current in the circuit whose
power factor is to be measured. The voltage coil is split into two
parallel paths. One inductive and one non-inductive. The currents
in the two paths are proportional to the voltage of the circuit. Thus
the deflection depends upon the phase difference between the main
current through current circuit and the currents in the two branches
of the voltage circuit i.e. power factor of the circuit.
The
construction
of
electrodynamometer as power factor meter is similar to wattmeter.
Due to interaction of the fields produced by the currents through
various coils, both the coils A and B experience a torque. The
windings are arranged in such a manner that the torques
experienced by coil A and B are opposite to each other. Hence the
pointer attains an equilibrium position when these two torques are
equal. i.e.
where

= Power factor angle = Angle of deflection

thus angular position taken up by moving coils is indicative of

power factor, and is calibrated directly in terms of power factor
from the scale.

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Thermocouple A.C current meters (or RF ammeter): Figure

below shows schematically the thermocouple ammeter. This
instrument is used mainly to measure radio frequency (RF)
currents. It consists of a nonreactive (i.e., resistive heating element,
R, thermally coupled to a thermocouple sensor device (i.e., a
sensor that produces an output voltage that is a function of the
applied temperature). So that both are in the same thermal
environment. Thus, the thermocouple measures the temperature of
the heating element, which is proportional to the current flowing in
it.

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The alternating current being measured flows through the heater

resistance R and causes it to rise in temperature, thereby causing
the thermocouple output voltage to rise. A voltmeter connected
across terminals A and B measures this mill volt-level potential,
but its scale is calibrated in amperes or mill amperes.
V TC I2R
Electrostatic voltmeter:
Electrostatic forces may also be used to indicate electric potential
difference. For this purpose, two plates are arranged as shown in
Fig. one plate is fixed, and the other is mounted in bearings so that
it may move freely.
A spiral spring provides a
restraining force on the two plates. If two complete disks were
used instead of the sectored plate arrangement. The net torque
would be zero. As the movable plate changes position, the
capacitance changes, and hence the proportionality between the
stored energy and the voltage varies with the impressed voltage.

The
electrostatic voltmeter may be used for either AC or DC voltage
measurements, but potentials above 100 V are required in order to
produce a sufficiently strong torque in the system. The meter may

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153

be calibrated with direct current and then used for measurement of

values of ac voltages, regardless of the waveform.
Principle of operation:
The operation of all the electrostatic instruments is based on the
principle that there exists a force between the two plates with
opposite charges. This force can be obtained using the principle
that the mechanical work done is equal to the stored energy if there
is a relative motion of plates.
For rotational motion,
Mechanical work done = stored energy

If the meter uses the spring control with spring constant K then,
But

for steady position

Such an instrument can be used for a.c. and d.c.

measurements as the deflection is proportional to the square
of the voltage to be measured.
It shows square law response hence the scale is nonuniform which is compressed at the lower end.

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MEASUREMENT OF R, L, C PARAMETERS:
Measurement of Resistance:
Definition of Resistance: Resistance is the opposition that a
substance offers to the flow of electric current. It is represented by
the uppercase letter R. The standard unit of resistance is the ohm,
represented as When an electric current of one ampere passes
through a component across which a potential difference (voltage)
of one volt exists, then the resistance of that component is one
ohm. Mathematical relationship among electric current, resistance,
and voltage is Ohms law. Ohms Law for DC circuits can be
stated as three equations:
E = IR

where

E = voltage

1. If there is an increase in voltage (or electrical pressure) in a

circuit then the current (flow of electrons) will increase in
direct proportion, e.g. If you double the voltage the current
flow will doubled.
2. If there is an increase in resistance (the opposition to current
flow) in a circuit then the current flow will decrease in direct
proportion, e.g. if the resistance in a circuit doubles then
current flow will halved.

Resistance in Circuits

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Wheatstone bridge:
The Wheatstone bridge circuit is used to precisely measure
resistances in the range of 1 to 1 M. The bridge circuit consists
of four resistors, a dc voltage source, and a detector. The resistance
of one of the four resistors can be varied. The dc voltage source is
usually a battery, which is indicated by the battery symbol for the
voltage source. The detector is generally a DArsonval movement
in the microampere range and is called a galvanometer. Fig. shows
the circuit arrangement of the resistances, battery, and detector.

The bridge is said to be balanced when the potential difference

across the galvanometer is 0 V so that there is no current
through the galvanometer.
The bridge is balanced when

When the galvanometer current is zero

By solving the above equations, we get the bridge balancing

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condition as follows

Measurement of Inductance:
Definition of Induction & Inductance:
The process of generating electrical current in a conductor by
placing the conductor in a changing magnetic field is called
electromagnetic induction or induction. It is so called induction
because the current is said to be induced in the conductor by the
magnetic field. Induction is measured in unit of Henries (H).
Inductance is the ability of an inductor to store energy in
a magnetic field.
When induction occurs in an electrical circuit and affects
the flow of electricity it is called inductance, Inductance is the
property of an electric circuit as a result of which an electromotive
force (emf) is created by a change of current in the same circuit
(self-inductance) or in a neighboring circuit (mutual inductance). It
is usually measured in Henries. Symbol is L.
L = N/I Where N = no. of coil turns, I = current, = flux

Fig. Self-Inductance

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Fig. Mutual Inductance

157

If the emf is induced in the same circuit in which the current is

changing, this effect is called Self-induction (L).
When the emf is induced into an adjacent component situated
within the same magnetic field, the emf is said to be induced by
Mutual induction (M). It is the basic operating principle of
transformers, motors, relays etc.
Inductance Comparison Bridge (or) Maxwells Bridge:
Fig. gives a schematic diagram of an inductance comparison
bridge. In this, values of the unknown inductance L1 and its
internal resistance R1 are obtained by comparison with the
standard inductor and resistance, i.e. L3 and R3.
In this bridge R2 is chosen as the inductive balance control and
R4as the resistance balance control. Balance is obtained by
alternately varying L3 or R3.

Z1 = R1 + jX1 = R1 + jL1.unknown;
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Z3 = R3 + jX3 = R3 + jL3.known;
R2,R4 = known pure resistances; D = detector
The inductance L4 is a variable self-inductance of constant
resistance, its inductance being of the same order as L1. The bridge
is balanced by varying L4 and one of the resistance R2 or R3.
Alternatively, R2 and R3 can be kept constant and the resistance of
one of the other two arms can be varied by connecting an
additional resistance in that arm.
The balance condition is that Z1Z4 = Z2Z3
(R1 + jL1)R4 = (R3 + jL3)R2
Equation the real and imaginary parts on both sides, we have
R1R4 = R2R3 or R1/R3 = R2/R4
(i.e. products of the resistances of opposite arms are equal).
And
L1R4 = L3R2
Or L1 =L3R2/R4
We can also write that L1 = L3R1/R3
Hence, the unknown self-inductance can be measured in term of
the known inductance L3 and the two resistors. Resistive and
reactive terms balance independently and the conditions are
independent of frequency. This bridge is often used for measuring
the iron losses of the transformers at audio frequency.
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Anderson Bridge:
Andersons bridge is the most accurate bridge used for the
measurement of self inductance over a wide range of values,
from a few micro-Henries to several Henries. In this method the
unknown self-inductance is measured in terms of known
capacitance and resistances, by comparison. It is a modification of
Maxwells L - C bridge. In this bridge, double balance is obtained
by the variation of resistances only, the value of capacitance being
fixed.
AC bridges are often used to measure the value of unknown
impedance (self/mutual inductance of inductors or capacitance of
capacitors accurately). A large number of AC bridges are available
and Anderson's Bridge is an AC bridge used to measure self
inductance of the coil. It is a modification of Wheatstones Bridge.
It enables us to measure the inductance of a coil using capacitor
and resistors and does not require repeated balancing of the bridge.
The connections are shown in Fig.

The
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bridge
160

is balanced by a steady current by replacing the headphone H by

moving coil galvanometer and A.C source by a battery. This is
done by adjusting the variable resistance, r. After a steady balance
has been obtained, inductive balance is obtained by using the A.C
source and headphone.
The condition for balance is that the potentials at the terminals D
and E are same. Then the current flowing through branch AB is
I1, through branch AE and EB is I2. The current flowing through
branches AD and DC is I3, while that through branch BC is I1+I2.
No current flows through branch DE.
Under balanced condition the unknown inductance and internal
resistance are as follows,

and

Measurement of Capacitance:
Definition of Capacitor & Capacitance:
A capacitor (formerly known as condenser) is a passive twoterminal electrical component used to store energy in an electric
field. It is basically two electrical conductors separated by a
dielectric (insulator).
When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the
conductors, a static electric field develops across the dielectric,
causing positive charge to collect on one plate and negative charge
on the other plate. Energy is stored in the electrostatic field.

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Capacitance:
Capacitance is the ability of
a capacitor to
store energy in
an electric field. Capacitance is
also a measure of the amount
of electric
potential
energy stored (or separated) for
a given electric potential. It is
measured in unit of Farads.
Capacitance C, defined as the ratio of charge Q on each
conductor to the voltage V between them.
C = 0 r A /d

Q = electric charge,

V= potential difference between plates

C = capacitance, d = distance between plates
A = area of the plates, 0 = absolute permittivity
r = relative permittivity
De Sautys Bridge:
It is a fundamental capacitance
comparison bridge for the
measurement
of
unknown
capacitance. Fig. represents a
basic capacitance measuring
bridge called De sautys bridge.
It
comprises
two
fixed
resistances and two capacitances
in which one capacitance is
unknown. Resistances R3 or R4
is varied to get balance condition.
If C1 is unknown capacitance,

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then
Schering Bridge:
A schering bridge is a electric circuit used for measuring an
unknown electrical capacitance and its dissipation factor. The
dissipation factor of a capacitor is the ratio of its resistance to its
capacitive reactance.
The Schering Bridge is basically a four-arm alternating-current
(AC) bridge circuit whose measurement depends on balancing the
loads on its arms. The below figure shows a diagram of the
Schering Bridge.
In the Schering Bridge, the resistance values of resistors R1 and R2
are known, while the resistance value of resistor R3 (Series
resistance of unknown capacitor) is unknown. The capacitance
values of C1 and C2 are also known, while the capacitance of C3 is
the value being measured. To measure R3 and C3, the values of
C2 and R2 are fixed, while the values of R1 and C1 are adjusted
until the current through the ammeter between points A and B
becomes zero. This happens when the voltages at points A and B
are equal, in which case the bridge is said to be 'balanced'. In this
state, one can obtain these relations:
and
Note: that the balancing of a Schering Bridge is independent of
frequency.
There are some volumes switches that one can change the values
of resistance and capacitance by turning them. After the balancing
condition, the indicator will show zero.
But because of the inductance of the resistances, we forced to put a
capacitance in parallel with the resistances to compensate their
inductances. Also for accurate measurement in high voltage tests,
shielding of the circuit components is of crucial importance.
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Review Questions
1. Reason why shielding is provided for analog type of
instruments.
2. How many forces are required for satisfactory measurement of
electrical parameter using an
electrical instrument and list
the function of each force.
3. Given a frame of permanent moving coil is 6m2. The number
of windings around the coil is 50 turns and flux is 0.12wb/m2.
If 1mA current is allowed through the coil, calculate the
deflection torque.
4. What is damping and mention the types of damping used in
analog meters.
5. What is eddy current damping and explain is the mechanism
provided in PMMC for smoothening the oscillation of the
pointer.
6. Why PMMC meter cannot be used to measure the AC voltage
or current. Is there any way to measure AC voltage and
current using PMMC meters
7. The coil of moving coil permanent magnet voltmeter is 40mm
long and 30mm wide and has 100turns on it. The control spring
exerts a torque of 120 x 10^-6 N-m. When the deflection is 100
divisions on full scale. If the flux density of the magnetic field
in the air gap is 0.5wb/m2, estimate the resistance that must be
put in series with the coil to give 1volt per division. The
resistance of the voltmeter coil may be neglected.
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8. a) Define the operational constants of a Darsonval

galvanometer. Derive the equation of motion of a Darsonval
galvanometer in terms of the operational constants.
b) A basic Darsonval movement with internal resistance of
100 and half scale current deflection of 0.5 mA is to be
converted by direct method into a multirange d.c voltmeter
with voltages ranges of 10V, 50V, 250V, and 500V.
9. Select the suitable AC bridge to measure the output of an
inductive transducer. And derive the balance condition.
10. Explain how a Darsonval galvanometer can be used to
measure voltage, and derive the relevant equation for using
PMMC as voltmeter?
11. A basic Darsonval movement with internal resistance of
100 and half scale current deflection of 0.5 mA is to be
converted by direct method into a multirange d.c voltmeter
with voltages ranges of 10V, 50V, 250V, and 500V.
12. Design d.c voltmeter by using direct method with Darsonval
meter of 100 and full scale deflection of 100A to give the
following ranges: 10mV, 1V, and 100V.
13. Describe the working of a universal shunt used for multi-range
ammeter derive expressions for resistance of different sections
of a universal shunt used for a 3-range ammeter.
14. A moving coil instrument has a resistance of 10 and gives a
full-scale deflection when carrying a current of 50mA. Show
how it can be adopted to measure current up to 1000A, 500A,
250A.
15. Explain why moving iron instrument can be used on both A.C
and D.C, and discuss the following types of errors in moving
iron instrument.
a. Hysteresis error
b. Temperature error
c. error on account of stray
magnetic fields
d. error on account of change of frequency
16. The resistance of four arms of Wheatstone bridge are p=1k,
R=1k, S=5k, galvanometer resistance (G=100). The
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source generated voltage Eo=24V and Ig=13.6A. Calculate the

value of Q.
17. Why PMMC instrument used for dc measurements only?
18. State Flemings Left Hand Rule.
19. List different methods of current measurement.
20. Why PMMC instruments are limited to low range compared to
MI instruments? Explain the effects if it is used in high range
measurement.
21. Design an ayrton shunt for the current ranges 0-2mA, 0-5mA
and 0-10mA using a dc meter
having internal resistance of
10 operating under its full scale value of 1mA.
22. Suggest the constructional difference to make an EDM meter
as wattmeter.
23. Mention the advantages and disadvantages of all the electrical
meters with respect to
i) Design ii) losses iii) applications.
24. Differentiate AC and DC bridges.
25. Derive the balance condition for AC Inductance Bridge,
suggest the quality factor.
26. Derive the balance condition for AC Capacitance Bridge,
suggest the dissipation factor.
27. Name few limitations of Wheatstone bridge.
28. Give in details the principles used in RF ammeter and Hall
effect ammeter.
29. What is the necessity of using magnet, moving damping and
control systems in designing an electrical instrument?
30. In a Wheatstone bridge a change of 5 in an arm is required to
produce a change in deflection of 1.60 in galvanometer. Determine
the Sensitivity.
31. By using suitable laws, derive the expression for force experienced
by a rectangular current carrying coil placed in a permanent
magnetic field with neat sketch.
32. Design an ayrton shunt for the current ranges 0-2mA, 0-5mA and 010mA using a PMMC having internal resistance of 10 operating
under its full scale value of 1mA.

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33. Explain the principle and working of Electrodynamometer (EDM)

as wattmeter with the help of a neat sketch.
34. Illustrate the forces/torques that are necessary for effective design of
an analog meter, explain the various methods of providing these
torques in an analog meter
35. Justify why PMMC cannot be used for measurement of AC current
with valid reason. Is it possible to measure AC current using PMMC
if so suggest some design modification to be done in PMMC meter
so as to use for measurement of AC current?
36. How do you measure high frequency current?
37. What are the reasons for oscillation of pointer in analog meter and
suggest and explain some methods to reduce the oscillation in meter.
38. Describe how an unknown capacitance can be measured with the
help of DSautys bridge. Derive the equation of balance with bridge
diagram?
39. Describe how an unknown inductance can be measured with the help
of Maxwells bridge. Derive the equation of balance with bridge
diagram?
40. Define power factor. Explain how electrodynamometer can be used
for measurement of power factor with neat diagram.
41. Derive the general equation for balance for an AC bridge. Prove that
two conditions i,e. for magnitude and phase have to satisfy if an AC
bridge is to be balanced unlike DC Bridge.
42. Describe how an unknown capacitance can be measured with the
help of Scherings bridge. Derive the equation of balance with bridge
diagram?
43. Explain the working of attraction type and repulsion type moving
iron instruments with neat diagrams.
44. Describe the construction and working of PMMC instrument. Derive
the equation for deflection if the instruments is spring controlled.
45. Compare moving coil and moving iron

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Part 3
ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
Electronic Instruments These days most of the scientist and
industrial measurements require very fast response. The inability
of the mechanical and electrical instruments to cope with such
requirements led to the design of todays electronic instruments
and their associated circuitry. These instruments require the use of
semi-conductor devices. Since in electronic devices, the only
movement involved is that of electrons, the response time is
extremely smaller account of very small inertia of electrons.
Example of these instruments is cathode ray oscilloscope,
transducers, computers, microwave, and video etc.
The most important use of electronic instruments is their usage in
measurement of non-electrical quantities, where the non-electrical
quantity is converted into electrical form through the use of
transducers. Electronic instruments have the following advantaged
over their electrical counterparts.

High sensitizing

A faster response

A greater flexibility

Lower weight

They can monitor remote signal

Lower power consumption and a higher degree of

reliability than their mechanical or purely electrical
counterparts.

The advantages of electronic measurements are

1. Most of the quantities can be converted by transducers into the
electrical or electronic signals
2. An electrical or electronic signal can be amplified, filtered,
multiplexed, sampled and measured.
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3. The measurement can easily be obtained in or converted into

digital form for automatic analysis and recording.
4. The measured signals can be transmitted over long distances
with the help of cables or radio links without any loss of
information.
5. Electronic circuits can detect and amplify very weak signals
and can measure the events of very short duration as well.
7. Electronic measurement makes possible to build analog and
digital signals. The digital signals are very much required in
modern development in science and technology.
8. Higher sensitivity, low power consumption and a higher degree
of reliability are the important features of electronic
instruments and measurements.
CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE
Oscilloscopes are the printf of the electronics world. Without
a scope you can only predict and deduce whats happening in
a circuit, not actually verify (let alone see) it. Heres what an
oscilloscope does: on the vertical axis, you see what happens,
on the horizontal axis you see when it happens. Its a voltmeter
plus time-machine.

The cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO, for short) is a versatile

laboratory instrument used for the visual observation,
measurement, and analysis of waveforms. It is considered as an
electronic eye of an engineer as it visualizes what happening
inside an electric circuit in the form of a visual waveform. With the
help of transducers, many physical quantities like pressure, strain,
temperature, acceleration etc. can be converted into voltages which
can be displayed on CRO. Thus many dynamic phenomena can be
studied by means of a CRO. Basically, a CRO is a very fast X-Y
plotter that shows an input signal versus another signal or versus
time. A luminous spot moving over the display area serves as the
stylus of this plotter.
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Oscilloscopes are used very widely used in electronic

measurements and instrumentation systems. Unlike other
measuring instruments, the signal being measured can be visually
seen on the screen. The characteristics of the signals, like
amplitude, frequency, phase, time period, duty cycle etc. can be
measured using oscilloscopes. The amplitude of the signals can
vary from 1V to even a few hundred volts. The frequency can
range from very low (even DC) to MHz. Because of the
phosphorus screen effect, the electrical signal is converted to a
visible form and the shape of the signal can be seen.
CROs are employed to study waveforms, transient phenomena,
and other time-varying quantities from very low to very high
frequencies. These phenomena can be recorded by a special
camera connected to the CRO for quantitative interpretation. By
incorporating microprocessor based computing circuitry, CROs
can directly display the characteristics of the signal on the screen
with a possibility of recalling the result by storage into a memory
device called Storage Oscilloscope.
A CRO has majorly 4 sections they are,
1. Vertical section

2. Horizontal section

3. Display section

4. Power supply section

The normal form of a CRO uses a horizontal input voltage which is

an internally generated Ramp voltage called Tine Base. This
horizontal voltage moves the luminous spot periodically in a
horizontal direction from left to right over the display area or
screen. The vertical input to the CRO is the voltage under
investigation. The vertical input voltage moves the luminous spot
up and down in accordance with the instantaneous value of the
vo1tge. The luminous spot thus traces the waveform of the input
voltage with respect to time. When the input voltage repeats itself
at a fast rate, the trace (display) on the screen appears stationary on
the screen. The CRO thus provides a means visualizing time
varying voltages. As such, the CRO has become a universal tool in
all kinds of electrical and electronic investigations.
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CROs operate on voltages. However, it is possible to convert

current, strain, acceleration, pressure and other physical quantities
into voltages with the help of transducers and thus to present visual
representations of a wide variety of dynamic phenomena on CROs.
CROs are also used to investigate waveforms, transient
phenomena, and other time varying quantities from a very low
frequency range to the radio frequencies.

The cathode ray tube is the heart of CRO. It is used to emit the
electrons required to strike the phosphor screen to produce the spot
for the visual display of the signals.

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The cathode ray tube (CRT) is a vacuum tube containing one or

more electron guns (a source of electrons or electron emitter) and
a fluorescent screen used to view images. It has a means to
accelerate and deflect the electron beam(s) onto the screen to
create
the
images.
The
images
may
represent
electrical waveforms (oscilloscope), pictures (television, computer
monitor), radar targets or others.
The electron gun or electron emitter, the deflecting system and the
fluorescent screen are the three major components of a general
purpose CRT.
Electron Gun:
In the electron gun of the CRT electrons are emitted, converted
into a sharp beam and focused upon the fluorescent screen. The
electron beam consists of an indirectly heated cathode, a control
grid, an accelerating electrode and a focusing anode. The
electrodes are connected to the base pins. The cathode emitting the
electrons is surrounded by a control grid with a fine hole at its
centre. The accelerated electron beam passes through the fine hole.
The negative voltage at the control grid controls the flow of
electrons in the electron beam, and consequently, the brightness of
the spot on the CRO screen is controlled.
Deflection Systems
Electrostatic deflection of an electron beam is used in a general
purpose oscilloscope. The deflecting system consists of a pair of
horizontal arid vertical deflecting plates. The beam is focused at
point 0 on the screen in the absence of a deflecting plate voltage.
The deflection is proportional to the deflecting voltage between the
plates.
Vertical Amplifier
The input signals are generally not strong to provide the
measurable deflection on the screen. Hence the vertical amplifier
stage is used to amplify the input signals. The amplifier stages used
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are generally wide band amplifiers so as to pass faithfully the

entire band of frequencies to be measured.
Similarly it contains the attenuator stages as well. The attenuators
are used when very high voltage signals are to be examined, to
bring the signals within the proper range.
Delay line
The delay line is used to delay the signal for some time in the
vertical section. When the delay line is not used, the part of the
signal gets lost. Thus the input signal s not applied directly to the
vertical plates but is delayed by some time.
Key Point: As the signal is delayed the sweep generator output
gets enough time to reach to the horizontal plates before signal
reaches the vertical plates..
Trigger Circuit
It is necessary that horizontal deflection starts at the same point of
the input vertical signal. Each time it sweeps. Hence to
synchronize horizontal deflection with vertical deflection a
synchronizing or triggering circuit is used. It converts the incoming
signal into the triggering pulses which are used for the
synchronization.
Time Base Generator
The time base generator is used to generate saw tooth voltage,
required to deflect the beam in the horizontal section. This voltage
deflects the spot at a constant time dependent rate. Thus the x-axis
on the screen can be represented as time, which helps to display
and analyze the time varying signals.
Horizontal Amplifier
The saw tooth voltage produced by the time base generator may
not be of sufficient strength. Hence before giving it to the
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horizontal deflection plates it is amplified using the horizontal

amplifier.
Power Supply
The power supply block provides the voltages required by CRT to
generate and accelerate an electron beam and voltages required by
other circuits of the oscilloscope like horizontal amplifier, vertical
amplifier etc. There are two sections of a power supply block. The
High Voltage (HV) section and Low Voltage (LV) section. The
high voltages of the order of 1000 to 1500 V are required by CRT
such high negative voltages are used for CRT.
The low voltage is required for the heater of the electron gun,
which emits the electrons. This is a positive voltage of the order of
few hundred volts. This voltage is also used for other circuits of
C.R.O.
TYPES OF CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPES
The categorization of CROs is done on the basis of whether they
are digital or analog. Digital CROs can be further classified as
storage oscilloscopes.
Analog CRO
n an analog CRO the amplitude, phase and frequency are measured
from the displayed waveform, through direct manual reading.
Digital CRO
A digital CRO offers digital read-out of signal information, i.e., the
time, voltage or frequency along with signal display. It consists of
an electronic counter along with the main body of the CRO.
Storage CRO
Storage CRO retains the display up to a substantial amount of time
after the first trace has appeared on the screen. The storage CRO is
also useful for the display of waveforms of low-frequency signals.
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The displayed waveform can also be stored or saved in the

memory section of the CRO.
Dual-Beam CRO
In the dual-beam CRO two electron beams fall on a single CRT.
The dual-gun CRT generates two different beams. These two
beams produce two spots of light on the CRT screen which make
the simultaneous display of two signals.
Dual-trace CRO
The signal trace capability of the conventional CRT can be
modified to produce dual image or dual trace display, by means of
fast electronic switching of two separate input signals. Channel A
and Channel B with preamplifier and delay lines feed their input to
an electronic switch that alternately connects the input of the main
vertical amplifier to the two signal inputs. The same are displayed
with various display modes.
APPLICATIONS OF CRO
An oscilloscope is a test instrument which allows you to look at the
'shape' of electrical signals by displaying a graph of voltage against
time on its screen. It is like a voltmeter with the valuable extra
function of showing how the voltage varies with time. A graticule
with a 1cm grid enables you to take measurements of voltage and
time from the screen.
The graph, usually called the trace, is drawn by a beam of electrons
striking the phosphor coating of the screen making it emit light,
usually green or blue. This is similar to the way a television picture
is produced.
Measuring voltage and time period

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The trace on an oscilloscope screen is a graph of voltage against

time. The shape of this graph is determined by the nature of the
input signal.
In addition to the properties labelled on the graph, there is
frequency which is the number of cycles per second.
The diagram shows a sine wave but these properties apply to any
signal with a constant shape.

Amplitude is the maximum voltage reached by the signal.

It is measured in volts, V.

Peak voltage is another name for amplitude.

Peak-peak voltage is twice the peak voltage (amplitude).

When reading an oscilloscope trace it is usual to measure
peak-peak voltage.

Time period is the time taken for the signal to complete

one cycle.
It is measured in seconds (s), but time periods tend to be
short so milliseconds (ms) and microseconds (s) are
often used. 1ms = 0.001s and 1s = 0.000001s.

Frequency is the number of cycles per second.

It is measured in hertz (Hz), but frequencies tend to be

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high so kilohertz (kHz) and megahertz (MHz) are often

used. 1kHz = 1000Hz and 1MHz = 1000000Hz.

Voltage
Voltage is shown on the vertical y-axis and the scale is determined
by the Y AMPLIFIER (VOLTS/CM) control. Usually peak-peak
voltage is measured because it can be read correctly even if the
position of 0V is not known. The amplitude is half the peak-peak
voltage.
If you wish to read the amplitude voltage directly you must check
the position of 0V (normally halfway up the screen): move the
AC/GND/DC switch to GND (0V) and use Y-SHIFT (up/down) to
adjust the position of the trace if necessary, switch back to DC
afterwards so you can see the signal again.
Voltage = distance in cm volts/cm
Example: peak-peak voltage = 4.2cm 2V/cm = 8.4V
amplitude (peak voltage) =
peak-peak voltage = 4.2V
Time period
Time is shown on the horizontal
x-axis and the scale is determined by
the TIMEBASE (TIME/CM) control.
The time period (often just called
period) is the time for one cycle of
the signal. The frequency is the
The trace of an AC signal
number of cyles per second, Y AMPLIFIER: 2V/cm
frequency = 1/time period
TIMEBASE: 5ms/cm
Ensure that the variable time-base control is set to 1 or CAL
(calibrated) before attempting to take a time reading.
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Example measurements:
peak-peak voltage = 8.4V
amplitude voltage = 4.2V
time period = 20ms
frequency = 50Hz
Time = distance in cm time/cm
Example: time period = 4.0cm 5ms/cm = 20ms
and frequency = 1/time period = 1/20ms = 50Hz
LISSAJOUS FIGURES
One of the applications of a CRO is to determine the phase,
frequency, amplitude, and other characteristics of a given
waveform. These characteristics can be determined in terms of
known signal characteristics by the Lissajous patterns or Lissajous
figures method. Lissajous patterns named after a scientist called
Lissajous result when sine waves are applied simultaneously to
both the horizontal and vertical deflection plates of the CRO. The
waveform seen on the CRO screen will be the same as that given
as the Y-input if the internal time base circuit is used. If two
different signals are given to the X and Y-plates, the pattern or
figure seen on the screen is the resultant of the two inputs. From
the shape or pattern of the resultant figure, the characteristics of the
unknown input can be determined in terms of the characteristics of
the known input waveform. These are as shown below:

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Measurements

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The measurement of frequency is done by using Cathode ray

Oscilloscope (CRO). Before we go in to the measurement of
frequency by CRO let us understand the meaning of frequency.
Frequency: Defined as the number of cycles per second. It
describes the number of waves that pass a fixed place in a given
amount of time. Frequency, F = No. of cycles/time

Frequency of AC Signals
Example:
If the time it takes for a wave to pass is sec, the frequency is 2, if
it takes 1/100 of an hour; the frequency is 100 per hour. It is
measured in Hertz unit (Hz).
Method 1:
For the measurement of frequency, the waveform is displayed on
the screen such that one complete cycle is visible on the screen.
The period of the waveform can be obtained as,
Time period, T = (number of divisions occupied by 1 cycle) x
(Time/Division)
The frequency is the reciprocal of the period. F = 1/T Hz.
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Method 2:
The Lissajous pattern method is the quickest method of measuring
the frequency using CRO. The patterns obtained by applying
simultaneously two different sine waves to horizontal and vertical
deflection plates are called Lissajous Figures or Lissajous
Patterns.
In this method, the standard known frequency signal is applied to
horizontal plates and unknown frequency signal is applied to the
vertical plates. The shape of Lissajous figures depends on:
1) Amplitudes of two waves
2) Phase difference between two waves
3) Ratio of frequencies of two waves
If FH = frequency of signal applied to Horizontal plates (Known
value) FV = frequency of signal applied to Vertical plates
(Unknown value)
Where Lv Lh are vertical and horizontal tangencies
possible with pattern respectively.

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Example: From fig shown, horizontal tangencies = 3 Vertical tangencies

=2
If known frequency, FH = 2 kHz
Then FV / FH = 3/2,
FV = 1.5 FH
then unknown frequency,
FV = 1.5 x 2 kHz = 3 kHz.

The measurement of phase is done by using Cathode ray

oscilloscope (CRO). Before we go in to the measurement of
frequency by CRO let us understand the meaning of phase.
Phase:
Defined as the fractional part of a period through which the time
variable of a periodic quantity has moved. Usually expressed in
terms of angular measure, degree ().
Phase difference is the difference expressed in electrical degrees or
time between two waves having the same frequency and
referenced to the same point in time.
When two sinusoidal voltage signals of equal frequency having
some phase difference are applied to the deflection plates of CRO,
a straight line or an ellipse appears on the screen. In the case of
straight line appearing on the screen, phase angle difference would
be zero or 180 but in case of an ellipse we will have to use a
formula for determination of phase difference.
The phase difference between two sinusoidal signals of same
frequency can be calculated from the amplitudes y1 and y2 of the
Lissajous pattern. Phase difference is given by
or

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Measurements

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ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGICAL MEASUREMENTS
The association of electricity with medical science dates back to
the 18th century when Galvani demonstrated that most of the
physiological processes were accompanied with electrical changes.
This discovery formed the basis of the explanation of the action of
living tissues in terms of bioelectric potentials. It is now well
established that the human body, which is composed of living
tissues, can be considered as a power station generating multiple
electrical signals with two internal sources, namely muscles and
nerves. Normal muscular contraction is associated with the
migration of ions which generates potential differences measurable
with suitably placed electrodes. For example, the heart and the
brain produce characteristic patterns of voltage variations which
when recorded and analyzed are useful in both clinical practice and
research. Potential differences are also generated by the
electrochemical changes accompanied with the conduction of
signals along the nerves to or from the brain. These signals are of
the order of a few micro volts and give rise to a complicated
pattern of electrical activity when recorded. The fact that the
activity of the living tissues is due to the potential changes in them
suggested the use of external electricity for the diagnosis of certain
diseases affecting muscles and nerves, for the augmentation or
replacement of a deficient natural activity or for the restoration of a
palsied muscle.
Bioelectric potentials are generated at a cellular level and the
source of these potentials is ionic in nature. A cell consists of an
ionic conductor separated from the outside environment by a semipermeable membrane which acts as a selective ionic filter to the
ions. This means that some ions can pass through the membrane
freely where as others cannot do so. All living matter is composed
of cells of different types. Human cells may vary from 1 micron to
100 microns in diameter, from 1 mm to 1 m in length, and have a
typical membrane thickness of 0.01 micron.
The distribution of positively charged ions on the outer surface and
negatively charged ions inside the cell membrane results in the
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difference of potential across it and the cell becomes, in effect, a

tiny biological battery. Experiments have shown that the internal
resting potential within a cell is approximately - 90 mV with
reference to the outside of the cell. When the cell is excited or
stimulated, the outer side of the cell membrane becomes
momentarily negative with respect to the interior. This process is
called depolarization and the cell potential changes to
approximately +20 mV. Repolarization then takes place a short
time later when the cell regains its normal state in which the inside
of the membrane is again negative with respect to the outside.
Repolarization is necessary in order to reestablish the resting
potential. This discharging and recharging of the cell produces the
voltage waveforms which can be recorded by suitable methods
using microelectrodes. A typical cell potential waveform so
recorded is shown in Fig.

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The currents involved in bioelectricity are unlike the currents

involved in electronics. Bioelectric currents are due to positive and
negative ion movement within a conductive fluid. The ions possess
finite mass and encounter resistance to movement within the fluid
for they have limited speeds. The cell action potential, therefore,
shows a finite rise time and fall time. It may be noted that a cell
may be caused to depolarize and then repolarize by subjecting the
cell membrane to an ionic current. However, unless a stimulus
above a certain minimum value is applied, the cell will not be
depolarized and no action potential is generated. This value is
known as the stimulus threshold. After a cell is stimulated, a finite
period of time is required for the cell to return to its pre-stimulus
state. This is because the energy associated with the action
potential is developed from metabolic processes within the cell
which take time for completion. This period is known as refractory
period.
The bioelectric signals of clinical interest, which are often
recorded, are produced by the coordinated activity of large groups
of cells. In this type of synchronized excitation of many cells, the
charges tend to migrate through the body fluids towards the still
unexcited cell areas. Such charge migration constitutes an electric
current and hence sets up potential differences between various
portions of the body, including its outer surface. Such potential
differences can be conveniently picked up by placing conducting
plates (electrodes) at any two points on the surface of the body and
measured with the help of a sensitive instrument. These potentials
are highly significant for diagnosis and therapy. The primary
characteristics of typical bioelectric signals are given in Table.

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Measurements

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Electrocardiogram (ECG):
The recording of the electrical activity associated with the
functioning of the heart is known as electrocardiogram. ECG is a
quasi-periodical, rhythmically repeating signal synchronized by the
function of the heart, which acts as a generator of bioelectric
events. This generated signal can be described by means of a
simple electric dipole (pole consisting of a positive and negative
pair of charge). The dipole generates a field vector, changing
nearly periodically in time and space and its effects are measured
on the surface. The waveforms thus recorded have been
standardized in terms of amplitude and phase relationships and any
deviation from this would reflect the presence of an abnormality.
Therefore, it is important to understand the electrical activity and
the associated mechanical sequences performed by the heart in
providing the driving force for the circulation of blood.
The heart has its own system for generating and conducting action
potentials through a complex change of ionic concentration across
the cell membrane. Located in the top right atrium near the entry of
the vena cava, are a group of cells known as the sino-atrial node
(SA node) that initiate the heart activity and act as the primary
pace maker of the heart. The SA node is 25 to 30 mm in length and
2 to 5 mm thick. It generates impulses at the normal rate of the
heart, about 72 per minute, because the body purely acts as
resistive medium.
The ECG records the electrical activity that results when the heart
muscle cells in the atria and ventricles contract.

Atrial contractions show up as the P wave.

Ventricular contractions show as a series known as the

QRS complex.

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The third and last common wave in an ECG is the T wave.

This is the electrical activity produced when the ventricles
are recharging for the next contraction (repolarizing).

Interestingly, the letters P, Q, R, S, and T are not

abbreviations for any actual words but were chosen many
years ago for their position in the middle of the alphabet.

The electrical activity results in P, QRS, and T waves that

are of different sizes and shapes. When viewed from
different leads, these waves can show a wide range of
abnormalities of both the electrical conduction system and
the muscle tissue of the hearts 4 pumping chambers.

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Electroencephalogram (EEG)
An electroencephalogram (EEG) is a test to measure the electrical
activity of the brain. Brain cells talk to each other by producing
tiny electrical signals, called impulses. An EEG helps measure this
activity. The test is done by an EEG specialist.
Electroencephalography (EEG)
is
the
recording
of electrical activity along the scalp. EEG measures voltage
fluctuations resulting from ionic current flows within
the neurons of the brain. In clinical contexts, EEG refers to the
recording of the brain's spontaneous electrical activity over a short
period of time, usually 2040 minutes, as recorded from
multiple electrodes placed on the scalp. Diagnostic applications
generally focus on the spectral content of EEG, that is, the type
of neural oscillations that can be observed in EEG signals.

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Signal intensity: EEG activity is quite small, measured in microvolts (mV).

Signal frequency: the main frequencies of the human EEG waves
are:

Delta: has a frequency of 3 Hz or below. It tends to be the

highest in amplitude and the slowest waves. It is normal as the
dominant rhythm in infants up to one year and in stages 3 and 4

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of sleep. It may occur focally with subcortical lesions and in

general distribution with diffuse lesions, metabolic
encephalopathy hydrocephalus or deep midline lesions. It is
usually most prominent frontally in adults (e.g. FIRDA Frontal Intermittent Rhythmic Delta) and posteriorly in
children e.g. OIRDA - Occipital Intermittent Rhythmic Delta).

Theta: has a frequency of 3.5 to 7.5 Hz and is classified as

"slow" activity. It is perfectly normal in children up to 13 years
and in sleep but abnormal in awake adults. It can be seen as a
manifestation of focal subcortical lesions; it can also be seen in
generalized distribution in diffuse disorders such as metabolic
encephalopathy or some instances of hydrocephalus.

Alpha: has a frequency between 7.5 and 13 Hz. Is usually best

seen in the posterior regions of the head on each side, being
higher in amplitude on the dominant side. It appears when
closing the eyes and relaxing, and disappears when opening the
eyes or alerting by any mechanism (thinking, calculating). It is
the major rhythm seen in normal relaxed adults. It is present
during most of life especially after the thirteenth year.

Beta: beta activity is "fast" activity. It has a frequency of 14

and greater Hz. It is usually seen on both sides in symmetrical
distribution and is most evident frontally. It is accentuated by
sedative-hypnotic drugs especially the benzodiazepines and the
barbiturates. It may be absent or reduced in areas of cortical
damage. It is generally regarded as a normal rhythm. It is the
dominant rhythm in patients who are alert or anxious or have
their eyes open.

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EEG
Electromyogram (EMG)
Electromyography (EMG) is a technique for evaluating and
recording the electrical activity produced by skeletal
muscles. EMG is performed using an instrument called
an electromyograph,
to
produce
a
record
called
an electromyogram. An electromyograph detects the electrical
potential generated by muscle cells when these cells are
electrically or neurologically activated. The signals can be
analyzed to detect medical abnormalities, activation level, and
recruitment order or to analyze the biomechanics of human or
animal movement.
Electromyography (EMG) is a diagnostic procedure to assess the
health of muscles and the nerve cells that control them (motor
neurons).
Motor neurons transmit electrical signals that cause muscles to
contract. An EMG translates these signals into graphs, sounds or
numerical values that a specialist interprets.
An EMG uses tiny devices called electrodes to transmit or detect
electrical signals.
During a needle EMG, a needle electrode inserted directly into a
muscle records the electrical activity in that muscle.
A nerve conduction study, another part of an EMG, uses electrodes
taped to the skin (surface electrodes) to measure the speed and
strength of signals traveling between two or more points.
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EMG results can reveal nerve dysfunction, muscle dysfunction or

problems with nerve-to-muscle signal transmission.

Electroretinogram (ERG)
Eletroretinography measures the electrical responses of various
cell types in the retina, including the photoreceptors (rods and cone
s), inner retinal cells (bipolar and amacrine cells), and the ganglion
cells. Electrodes are usually placed on the cornea and the skin near
the eye, although it is possible to record the ERG from skin
electrodes. During a recording, the patient's eyes are exposed to
standardized stimuli and the resulting signal is displayed showing
the time course of the signal's amplitude (voltage). Signals are very
small, and typically are measured in microvolts or nanovolts. The
ERG is composed of electrical potentials contributed by different
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cell types within the retina, and the stimulus conditions (flash or
pattern stimulus, whether a background light is present, and the
colors of the stimulus and background) can elicit stronger response
from certain components.
The patient assumes a comfortable position (lying down or sitting
up). Usually the patient's eyes are dilated beforehand with standard
dilating eye drops. Anesthetic drops are then placed in the eyes,
causing them to become numb. The eyelids are then propped open
with a speculum, and an electrode is gently placed on each eye
with a device very similar to a contact lens. An additional electrode
is placed on the skin to provide a ground for the very faint
electrical signals produced by the retina.
During an ERG recording session, the patient watches a
standardized light stimulus, and the resulting signal is interpreted
in terms of its amplitude (voltage) and time course. This test can
even be performed in cooperative children, as well as sedated or
anesthetized infants. The visual stimuli include flashes, called a
flash ERG, and reversing checkerboard patterns, known as a
pattern ERG. The electrodes measure the electrical activity of the
retina in response to light. The information that comes from each
electrode is transmitted to a monitor where it is displayed as two
types of waves, labeled the A waves and B waves.
Readings during eletroretinography are usually taken first in
normal room light.
The lights are then
dimmed
for
20
minutes, and readings
are again taken while
a white light is shined
into the eyes. The
final readings are
taken as a bright flash
is directed toward the
eyes.

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Part 4
MECHANICAL MEASUREMENTS
It has been said. Whatever exists exist in some amount. The
determination of the amount is what measurement is all about. If
those things that exist are related to the practice of mechanical
engineering, then the determination of their amounts constitutes
the subject of mechanical measurements.
The process or the act of measurement consists of obtaining a
quantitative comparison between a predefined standard and a
measurand. The word measurand is used to designate the
particular physical parameter being observed and quantified; that
is, the input quantity to the measuring process. The act of
measurement produces a result..
The quantities as temperature, strain, and the parameters associated
with fluid flow. Acoustics, and motion, in addition to the
fundamental quantities of mass, length, time, and so on, are typical
of those within the scope of mechanical measurements.
The measurement of mechanical quantities also involves
consideration of things electrical. Since it is often convenient or
necessary to change or transduce, a mechanical measurand into a
corresponding electrical quantity.
Some of the commonly used mechanical quantities include
displacement, speed, force, torque, strain, Temperature, parameters
associated with fluid flow, etc. For convenient processing and data
presentation, these mechanical quantities mostly converted into
electrical form.
MEASUREMENT OF DISPLACEMENT
Optical Method
The displacement measurement by optical methods can be done by
using the device called interferometer.
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when two coherent sources of light are considered, if the waves

coming out has same amplitude, same wavelength, traveling in
same direction with the same speed and if they are in same phase
or they are maintaining constant phase difference between them,
the redistribution of light energy in space is observed. This
phenomenon is called Interference of light.
when two waves of same phase or constant phase difference
superimpose at some points, where the crust of one wave falls on
the crust of the other, a resultant maximum amplitude is obtained.
This is called Constructive Wave Interference. At these points,
the maximum intensity of light is produced because intensity is
directly proportional to the square of the amplitude of the wave.
At certain points where the crest of one wave falls on the trough of
the other, the resultant amplitude becomes zero and hence the
intensity of light is zero. This is called Destructive Wave
Interference

Fig. 4.1 Interference of light waves

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Working of interferometer:
Fig below shows the constructional features of a Michelson
interferometer, A traditional interferometer is a device where we
shoot a laser at a half transparent mirror, which splits the laser into
two beams, reflecting half the light at a 900 angle and allowing the
other half to continue on a straight path. After traveling some
distance those beams are then reflected off mirrors and recombined
at the half transparent mirror where they travel as a single beam to
an observing screen.
If the separated beams of light have traveled the same distance
they recombine and form constructive interference and a bright
spot will appear on the screen, however if they have traveled
different lengths while separated they recombine and form
destructive interference and a dark or dim spot will appear on the
screen.

Fig. 4.2 Interferometer

One of the mirror is connected on the part to which we have to find
the displacement. If this mirror moves a distance , the path of the
light beam increases by 2. If the number of successive
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occurrences of destructive interference, or dark spots, at the photo

detector screen during this motion is equal to N then the
displacement of the movable reflector is given by the following
equation:
2 = N

Where, = Distance moved by the part

N = Number of successive occurrences of destructive interference,

or dark spots; = Wave length of the beam.
Pneumatic Displacement Gauge
In pneumatic type of devices, the displacement signal is converted
to pressure signal. The device shown below is pneumatic
displacement gauge and this is also known as flapper nozzle
device.
A pneumatic displacement gauge system operates with air. One of
the basic building blocks of a pneumatic displacement gauge
system is the flapper nozzle amplifier. It converts very small
displacement signal (in order of microns) to variation of air
pressure. The basic construction of a flapper nozzle amplifier is
shown in above figure. Constant air pressure (20psi) is supplied to
one end of the pipeline. There is an orifice at this end. At the other
end of the pipe there is a nozzle and a flapper. As the flapper
moves closer to the nozzle, there will be less airflow through the
nozzle and the air pressure inside the pipe will increase. On the
other hand, if the flapper moves further away from the nozzle, the
air pressure decreases. At the extreme, if the nozzle is open
(flapper is far off), the output pressure will be equal to the
atmospheric pressure. If the nozzle is blocks, the output pressure
will be equal to the supply pressure. A pressure measuring device
in the pipeline can effectively show the pressure variation. The
characteristic is inverse and the pressure decreases with the
increase in distance.

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Fig:4.3 Pneumatic Gauge

LVDT displacement transducer:
*** (Refer page no. 81 for the operation of LVDT as displacement
transducer)
MEASUREMENT OF SPEED
Tachometer:
A tachometer (revolution-counter, Tach, rev-counter, RPM gauge)
is an instrument measuring the rotation speed of a shaft or disk, as
in a motor or other machine. The device usually displays
instantaneous values of speed in revolutions per minute (RPM) on
a calibrated analogue dial, but digital displays are increasingly
common.
Centrifugal tachometer
Centrifugal tachometers utilize the fact that the centrifugal force on
a rotating mass depends on the speed of rotation and can be used to
stretch or compress a mechanical spring.

Where,

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M = Rotating mass
R = Radius of rotation
= Angular speed (rad/s)
200

Vibrating reed tachometer

The instrument consists of set of vertical reeds each having its own
natural frequency of vibration. The reeds are lined up in their order
of natural frequency and are fastened to a base plate at one end,
with other end free to vibrate. When the tachometer base plate is
placed in mechanical contact with frame of rotating machine, a
reed tuned to resonance with machine vibration responds more.

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Drag cup tachometer

In an eddy current or drag type tachometer, the test shaft rotates a
permanent magnet and this induces eddy currents in a drag cup or
disc held close to the magnet. The eddy current produces a torque
which rotates the cup against the torque of a spiral spring. The disc
turns in the direction of the rotating magnetic field until the torque
developed equals that of the spring. A pointer attached to the cup
indicates the rotational speed on a calibrated scale.

Magnetic pick up tachometer

Magnetic pick-up sensors senses a sudden change in the magnetic
field caused by a metal protrusion on a rotating shaft, slot on a
wheel disc, teeth of a gear or metal indicator on a material
handling system. The sensor generates a sine wave for
transmission to the tachometer.
MEASUREMENT OF FORCE
Force represents the mechanical quantity which changes or tends
to change the relative motion or shape of a body to which it is
applied.
Newton's Second Law of motion states that the external force
acting on an object is directly proportional to rate of change of its
linear momentum.
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m=

mass , v = velocity
SI unit of force is newton (N), newton is defined in such a way that
proportionality constant in above equation is unity. so

As mass is constant

Represents rate of change of velocity, which is equal to

acceleration (a), then

Elastic Elements for Force Measurement

These are important devices for the measurement of both static and
dynamic forces. In such devices, the force applied to the elastic
member results in a displacement or strain in the elastic member,
which is sensed by mechanical or electromechanical means.
Example for elastic member are spring, proving ring, etc.
Spring:
Force can be measured by compressing or extending a spring (Fig.)

Fig. Spring

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Using a simple spring instrument based on the Hookes Law:

F = Kx
Where F is the applied force, K the spring constant and x the
spring deformation.
Proving ring:
In order to measure the deflection
of the elastic element due to the
applied force, a mechanical
method involving the use of a dial
gauge may be used as shown in
Fig. The elastic ring, called the
proving ring, has on its inside an
accurate dial gauge that can be
calibrated in terms of the force.
Different proving rings are
available for various force ranges.

MEASUREMENT OF TORQUE

Torque represents the amount of twisting

effort of a force, and numerically it equals
the product of force (F) and perpendicular
distance from point of rotation to the point
of application of force.(R)
T= FR
Rope brake dynamometer:

In such dynamometers, the friction of rope, band or block brake

absorbs the energy. Heat is dissipated by cooling the brake with
water. Figure shows a rope brake, one end of which s connected to
a mass while the other end is connected to a spring balance. Due to
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rotation, frictional force is generated, inducing tensions at the two

ends of the rope.

Fig. Rope brake dynamometer

If s is the force in the spring balance,

Where r being the pulley radius

Prony brake:
It consists of wooden blocks placed around a pulley fixed to the
shaft whose torque at a particular speed is required to be measured.
The blocks are clamped by means of bolts and nuts a helical spring
is provided between nut and the upper block to control the speed of
the shaft. The upper block has along lever attached to it and is
connected to two spring balances S1 and S2 as shown in the figure.
In order to limit the motion of the lever two stops are provided.
The nuts are tightened until shaft runs at constant speed, the
readings of Spring balances S1and S2 are noted.

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Then torque

STRESS & STRAIN MEASUREMENT

Stress Terms
Stress is defined as force per unit area. SI Unit of stress is N/m2
Different types of stresses:
Tensile stress: Consider a uniform bar of cross sectional area A
subjected to an axial tensile force F. The stress at any section x-x
normal to the line of action of the tensile force F is T = F/A

Compressive stress: If the bar is subjected to axial compression

instead of axial tension, the stress developed at x-x is specifically
called compressive stress

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Volume Stress: Force per unit area acting everywhere on the

surface of an object in such a way that the force at any point is
normal to the surface.

Shear stress: Stress that acts parallel to a surface. It can cause one
object to slide over another. It also tends to deform originally
rectangular objects into parallelograms. The most general
definition is that shear acts to change the angles in an object.

.Strain
Strain is defined as the amount of deformation an object
experiences compared to its original size and shape.

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207

Tensile strain: It is the strain due to tensile stress

Compressive strain: It is the strain due to compressive stress
Volume strain: It is defined as the fractional change in volume
due to volume stress.
Shear strain: It is defined as displacement of a layer divided by its
distance from the fixed layer. It gives angular deformation of body
under shear stress
Terms for Behavior of Materials
Elastic: Material deforms under stress but returns to its original
size and shape when the stress is released. There is no permanent
deformation. Some elastic strain, like in a rubber band, can be
large, but in rocks it is usually small enough to be considered
infinitesimal.
Brittle: Material deforms by fracturing. Glass is brittle. Rocks are
typically brittle at low temperatures and pressures.
Ductile: Material deforms without breaking. Metals are ductile.
Many materials show both types of behavior. They may deform in
a ductile manner if deformed slowly, but fracture if deformed too
quickly or too much. Rocks are typically ductile at high
temperatures or pressures.
Viscous: Materials that deform steadily under stress. Purely
viscous materials like liquids deform under even the smallest
stress. Rocks may behave like viscous materials under high
temperature and pressure.
Plastic: Material which undergo permanent deformation due to an
applied load

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208

Viscoelastic: Combines elastic and viscous behavior. Models of

glacio-isostasy frequently assume a visco-elastic earth: the crust
flexes elastically and the underlying mantle flows viscously.
In the design and construction of machines and structures, the
strength of material plays a very important role. A theoretical
knowledge of this property is essential to estimate whether the
mechanical components can carry the loads imposed on them,
without excessive deformation or failure. These load-carrying
abilities are normally characterized in terms of stress, which is
defined as the force experienced per unit area. Stress itself cannot
he measured directly and is normally deduced from the changes in
mechanical dimensions and the applied load. The mechanical
deformation formed due to stress is measured with strain-gauge
elements.
The precise measurement of the parameter strain is an important
aspect in measurement engineering, as it very often encountered in
many fields of engineering and technology, especially in
experimental stress analysis.

Fig. Member subjected to tension

Hooks law states that within elastic limit, strain ()is directly
proportional to stress()

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209

=E.

where E is proportionality constant called as modulus of elasticity.

In case of normal stress (tensile or compressive) E represents
Youngs modulus
Various Types of Stress-Strain Measurements

As we already discussed stress cannot be measured directly, so

strain is measured at first and stress is then measured by using the
equation
= E. We will now discuss various methods of strain
measurement and the methods are as follows:
1) Grid method
2) Mechanical method
3) Electrical stain gauges
Grid method:
The method requires placement of reference marks over the area of
interest on the test member. The distances between the marks are
measured before and after the member is subjected to stress field,
and the strain is computed us the change in the length divided by
the original length between the marks.

Mechanical method:

Fig. Mechanical strain

measurement

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210

Since the magnitude of deformation is very small, some kind of

magnification is to be provided for the measurement. The figure
above shows a mechanical strain gauge using lever and dial gauge
for amplification. Prior to 1930, all instruments used for the
measurement of deformation were of mechanical nature and
amplification was achieved with mechanical elements like levers,
gears, etc. The length of the gauge was about 250 mm and hence
only a value of average deformation over such large lengths was
experimentally obtained. Therefore, these mechanical gauges were
not suitable for the measurement of steep gradients of strain.
Further it is rather difficult to design a mechanical system which
gives a precise and desired magnification. Various other factors
like friction, lost motion, the weight and inertia, and the flexibility
of parts hinder accurate measurements by these instruments. These
instruments cannot be used for the study of dynamic strains as are
obtained in impact loading etc.
Electrical Strain Gauges
When a metal conductor is stretched or compressed, its resistance
changes on account of the fact that both length and diameter of
conductor change. Strain-gauges are resistive pick-up type
transducers. The resistance of the gauge changes in accordance
with the input measurand which is strain. The strain gauge consists
of metallic filament (a resistor) of approximately 0.03 mm
thickness, which is bonded between thin paper and plastic and is
sticked directly to the strained surface by a thin layer of epoxy
resin. When a load is applied to the surface, resulting change in
surface
length,
hence the strain
(Strain is defined
as a ratio of
change in length to
the
original
length.)
is
communicated to
the metallic wire
(Fig.) and the
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211

corresponding strain is measured in terms of the electrical

resistance of the filament, which varies linearly with strain. The
gauge may be designed in the form of wire or thin-flat surface.
The change in the resistance of the strain gauge wire is found out
by connecting it in the one of the bridges of the Wheatstone bridge.

Fig. Wheatstone bridge for

strain measurement

Temperature Compensation of strain gauges:

It is obvious that the temperature of the strain gauge and

the body on which it is cemented should remain at the same
temperature at which they are cemented together, throughout the
period of strain measurement. Then any increase in resistance of
the gauge can be considered to be due to strain of the structure
transmitted to the strain gauge. In practice, however, it is difficult
to hold the entire system under test, which may be large or small in
size, at one temperature, throughout the period of measurement.
The solution for such situations is always found, as in
earlier cases, in having two identical gauges, one a dummy gauge
and the other an active gauge, in a Wheatstone bridge circuit, as
shown in Figure. The dummy gauge is cemented to the same
surface, and kept free from
any mechanical stress.

Fig. Dummy strain gauge

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212

When both structures are under stress-free conditions and at the

same temperature, the bridge is balanced. An equal rise in
temperatures of both the structures raises equally the resistance
values of both the active and dummy gauge, and the bridge still
remains
balanced.

Fig. Temperature compensation arrangement

Gauge Factor
The gauge factor indicates the strain sensitivity of the gauge in
terms of the change in resistance per unit resistance per unit strain.

For a good strain gauge the gauge factor should be as high as

possible, so that the sensitivity is high. Theoretical value of gauge
factor (assuming volume of material remain constant while
applying stress) is 2

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213

Method of usage of Resistance Strain Gauges for Bending,

Tensile, Compression, and Torque Measurements
For measuring Bending strain:
Positioning of gauges to measure bending strains is shown in Fig.
(a) and (b). The gauges R1 and R2 are mounted diametrically
opposite to each other; the arrangement is inherently insensitive to
temperature effects.

In the arrangement of Fig. (a) The bridge works as a half bridge.

The bridge can be made to work as full bridge if the gauges R1 and
R3 are mounted on one side and the gauges R2, R4 on the
diametrically opposite side of the test member as shown in Fig. (b).
In full bridge, the sensitivity is four times that achievable with a
single active gauge.
For measuring tensile and compressive strains:
Fig. (a) and (b) below show strain gauges mounted on a bar and the
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214

schematic of the bridge circuitry respectively. The gauges R1 and

R3 are mounted axially on the bar which is subjected to either
tensile or compressive stress, gauges R2 or R4 are located where
they remain unstrained.
The arrangement provides double the sensitivity compared to that
achievable with a single active gauge. Further the arrangement is

insensitive to bending stress, as one of the gauges is compressed

(- R) while the other is elongated thus cancelling the effect of
bending stress provided they are bonded diametrically opposite to
each other.
For measuring strain due to torque:

A cylindrical bar subjected to torsion has principal strain directions

at 450 to the longitudinal axis of the bar. Since the principal axes of
strain due to torsion are at 450 to the longitudinal axis of the
cylinder and the strain gauges R1, R2, R3 and R4 are mounted as
shown in Fig.
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215

STRAIN GAUGE ROSETTES

The need to simultaneously measure strain in more than one
direction is quite common in both stress analysis and transducer
applications. Obviously, this could be accomplished by placing the
required number of single element gauges at the proper locations,
to simplify this task and at the same time provide greater accuracy,
a number of multi element or rosette gauges are available.

Single strain gauges are used to measure only those strains which
are parallel to the strain axis. But when the direction of the strain is
unknown, it is necessary to use a multiple array of gauges which
permit the calculation of the direction as well as the magnitude of
the two principal strains. Three or four arm rosette gauges are
most commonly used. To make the calculations easier, gauges are
usually set with either 450 or 60 angles between them. Fig. shows
some forms of rosettes.
MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE
The pressure may be due to application of load or weight on the
solid surfaces or by the fluids flowing through pipes or gas filled in
a container. The pressure on the surface can be easily calculated by
measuring force and dividing it by the area on which the force was
applied. However the pressure applied by the fluids is to be
measured by instruments because the force exerted by fluids
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216

cannot be measured directly. In this some of the instruments used

to measure the pressure applied by the fluids are discussed.
Pressure: Pressure is defined as force per unit area.
Pressure = Force / Area
Pressure exerted by a fluid column of height h is given by
P= gh
= Density of the fluid.

Where

g = Acceleration due to gravity.

Units:
S.I unit of pressure is pascal (i.e. N/m2). Other units like Kgf/cm2
, psi(i.e lbf/in2), mm of Hg, etc are used
Different ways to express pressure
Pressure may be measured with Reference to Some Arbitrary
Datum. Two such datum is:
i) Absolute zero Pressure
ii) Local atmospheric pressure

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217

i) Absolute Pressure:
When the pressure is measured above the absolute zero as a datum
is called as absolute pressure.
Absolute zero pressure exists in complete vacuum where there are
no fluid molecules at all. Absolute pressure has always positive
value.
ii) Atmospheric Pressure:
Air, other gases possesses weight and hence it must exert some
intensity of pressure. Atmospheric air is the pressure exerted by the
atmospheric air on the surfaces in contact with it. It varies with the
height (i.e. elevation).
Atmospheric pressure is measured by a barometer and it is also
termed as barometric pressure.
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218

The values of atmospheric pressure is:

Atmospheric pressure = 101300 N/m2
= 1.033 kgf/cm2
= 10.33 m of water
= 760 mm of mercury
iii) Gauge Pressure:
When the pressure is measured above or below the atmospheric
pressure, it is known as gauge pressure. It is measured with the
help of pressure measuring instrument in which atmospheric
pressure is taken as datum.
The instruments are known as gauges which measure the
difference in pressure of the fluid to which they are connected and
surrounding air. If the pressure of the fluid is below the local
atmospheric pressure then it is known as negative gauge pressure
and gauge is designated as vacuum gauge.
If the pressure of fluid above the local atmospheric pressure then it
is known as positive gauge pressure.
The absolute, gauge and atmospheric pressure are related by the
following relation:
Absolute pressure = Gauge pressure + Atmospheric pressure
Pabs = Pgauge + Patm
Manometers measure pressure by balancing a column of liquid
against the pressure to be measured. Height of column so balanced
is noted and then converted to the desired pressure units.
Manometers may be vertical, inclined, open, etc. choice of any
type depends on its sensitivity of measurement, ease of operation
and the magnitude of pressure being measured. Manometers can be
used to measure gauge, differential, atmospheric and absolute
pressure.
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219

U-tube manometer:
U tube manometer consists of a transparent tube bent in the form
of letter U and partially filled with monometric liquid whose
density is known as shown in Fig. below. The difference in
pressure between the unknown pressure p and the atmospheric
pressure p0 is determined as a function of the differential height h.
The difference between the densities of the manometer fluid and
fluid transmitting the pressure p is m - f.
Then the unknown pressure can be found out by the equation below:
P - P0 = g . h (m f )

Well type manometer:

A well-type manometer operates in the same manner as the U-tube
manometer, except that the construction is as shown in Fig. In this
case the unknown pressure still can be found the same equation as
above case,
P P0 = g . h (m - f )

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220

The main difference between U-tube manometer and well type

manometer is that one of the limbs of the U-tube is made in the
shape of well having a large cross section area compared to other
limb. By this arrangement the level difference of monometric fluid
can be read directly from the smaller limb and the level change in
larger limb is practically negligible
Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge
The pressure responsive element in Bourdon tube pressure gauge is
a tube of steel or bronze tube which is elliptical cross-section and
curved into a circular arc, called Bourdon tube.

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221

The outer end of the tube is closed and free to move. The other end
of the tube, through which the fluid enters, is rigidly fixed to the
frame as shown in Fig.
The pressure gauge is connected to the vessel containing fluid
under pressure. Due to increase in internal pressure, the elliptical
cross-section of the tube tends to become circular, thus causing the
tube to straighten out slightly.
The outward movement of
the free end of the tube is
transmitted, through a link,
quadrant and pinion, to a
pointer
which
moving
clockwise on the graduated
circular dial indicates the
pressure intensity of the
fluid. When a gauge is
connected to a partial
vacuum, the Bourdon tube
tends to close, thereby moving the pointer in anti-clockwise
direction, indicating the negative or vacuum pressure.
The movement of the free end of the Bourdon tube in directly
proportional to the difference between the external atmospheric
pressure and internal fluid pressure. Hence the Bourdon pressure
gauge records
(a) the gauge pressure which is the difference between fluid
pressure and outside atmospheric pressure, and (b) the negative or
vacuum pressure which is difference between outside atmospheric
pressure and fluid pressure.
THE McLeod GAUGE
To measure low pressure, we can isolate a sample of the low
pressure gas, compress it to a known extent and measure the
resultant pressure with a simple manometer. Precisely, this
principle is followed in pressure measurement by a McLeod gauge.
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222

Initially the mercury level is lowered to a fixed mark (M) in the

tube by lowering the mercury reservoir, thus admitting the gas at
unknown pressure Pi into the gauge. Then the reservoir is raised
when the mercury level goes up sealing off a gas sample of known
volume V in the bulb and the capillary tube A. The reservoir is
raised slowly (so that the gas does not get heated) until the mercury
level in the capillary B reaches the 0 mark.
If,

a - is the area of cross-section of the capillary tube A

h - is the height of the gas column trapped in the capillary

tube A when mercury level in B has reached the 0 mark
P - is the pressure of the trapped gas in capillary tube A
P = Pi + gh
Vf = final volume in capillary
tube A = ah
- is the density of mercury
g - is the acceleration due to gravity
Then by Boyles law

PiV= P Vf
PiV=( Pi + gh) ah
Re arranging
Pi =

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223

Fig. McLeod Gauge

Measurements

224

MEASUREMENT OF FLOW
Industrial flow measurements Include measurement of fluid
velocity, flow rate and flow quantity of liquids and gases.
Types of fluids
Fluids are classified into two types, namely incompressible and
compressible. Fluids in liquid phase are incompressible whereas
fluids in gaseous phase are compressible. Liquid occupies the same
volume at different pressures whereas gases occupy different
volumes at different pressures. This point has to be taken care of
while calibrating the flow meters.
Types of flow
Flow may laminar or turbulent.
Nature flow is described by dimension less number called
Reynolds number which given by

Laminar flow occurs when the flow velocity is low and liquid
having high viscosity (low Reynolds number). A flow is described
laminar when the motions of the individual particles are parallel to
the surface of flow. All the particles have same stream wise
direction, but not necessarily the same magnitude of velocity.
As the Reynoldss number increases laminar flow pattern gets
disturbed and particles assumes random and complex pattern such
flow is called Turbulent flow

Measurements

225

Classification of Flow Measurement Systems

Broadly the flow meters are classified in to 2 types. They are:
1) Primary or quantity meters
2)
of rate meters
3) Secondary
P
Primary (Or) Quantity Meters
Quantity or total flow measurement signifies the amount of fluid in
terms of mass or volume that flows past a given point in a definite
period of time. In other words, in this technique, the time required
to collect a particular amount of fluid is determined accurately and
then the average flow rate can be evaluated. Improved accuracy
may be obtained by using longer and precise time measurement
along with precise volume/weight measurements.
This technique of flow measurement is not only simple and
economical but also is extremely accurate. Because of this, it is
routinely used in the calibration of other flow measuring devices.
Example for such device is sliding vane flow meter.
Secondary or Rate Meters
The secondary or rate meters do not measure the flow directly but
instead measure another physical quantity which is related to the
flow like velocity of flow.
The principle of some typical secondary meters is as follows:
(i) Variable head meters:
These are also termed as Obstruction type of meters in which the
obstruction to the flow consists of an engineered constriction in the
metered fluid which causes a reduction in the flow pressure.
Example: Orifice meter

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226

(ii) Variable area meters:

Herein, the change in area causes change in the drag force of a
body placed in the flowing fluid.
Example: Rota meter
(iii) Turbine/propeller type meters:
In this type of device, the fluid flow causes rotation of the curved
vanes or blades and its rotational speed is proportional to the
average flow velocity passing through the vanes. Quite often these
vanes are fixed inside a casing of a given area of cross-section.
This type of meters can also be used as quantity meter. In
such case quantity of fluid passing through the instrument is
directly proportional to angular displacement of the blade.
(iv) Hot wire anemometers:
In this device, the resistance of a thin heated wire changes due to
the cooling effect of the flowing fluid stream. The change in
resistance is the principle for the measurement of local fluid flow
velocity as well as the flow quantity.
ORIFICE METER

An orifice plate is a plate with a hole through it, placed in the flow;
it constricts the flow, and measuring the pressure difference across
the constriction gives the flow rate. It is basically a crude form of
Venturi meter, but with higher energy losses.
Orifices can be used in a wide range of applications, because these
plates are available in a variety of materials and in many designs,
such as concentric, segmental, or eccentric. Another advantage is
that the orifice plate can be badly worn or damaged, yet it will still
provide a reasonably repeatable output, significantly inaccurate.

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227

Working of Orifice meter:

An orifice meter is essentially a thin circular plate with a sharp
edged circular hole in it. The orifice plate, being fixed at a section
of the pipe, (see Fig. below) creates an obstruction to the flow by
providing an opening in the form of an orifice to the flow passage.
The area of the orifice is much smaller than the cross-sectional
area of the pipe. The orifice plate acts as obstruction in the path of
the flowing fluid, causing change in the velocity. Consequently
with the velocity change, there is a corresponding pressure change
in the flow. This variation in pressure change is a measure of rate
of flow of the fluid. The pressure change in the flowing fluid is
measured by U-tube manometer in which the difference in pressure
causes level difference of liquid h in manometer.
The flow rate through the orifice meter Qideal is found out by

Where,

A1 = Area of the pipe

A2 = Area of the orifice
h = Difference in liquid level in U-tube manometer
In actual practice, the actual rate of fluid flow Qactual is always less
than Qideal as given by above equation, because of the losses in the
fluid flow due to friction and eddying motions. To account for
these losses, the term coefficient of discharge Cd is introduced in
to the above equation.
Thus the actual flow rate is given by the equation:

Where,
Cd = Coefficient of discharge which is a constant value.
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228

ROTAMETER

The variable area meter, also commonly called a rotameter,

consists of a tapered tube, typically made of glass, with a float
inside that is pushed up by fluid flow and pulled down by gravity.
As flow rate increases, greater viscous and pressure forces on the
float cause it to rise until it becomes stationary at a location in the
tube that is wide enough for the forces to balance. Floats are made
in many different shapes. Some are designed to spin visibly in the
fluid stream to aid the user in determining whether the float is
stuck or not. Rotameters are available for a wide range of liquids
but are most commonly used with water or air.
Working of Rotameter:

A Rotameter is a variable area flow meter shown in Fig. below. In

this device, the flow enters the bottom of a vertically placed
tapered tube and causes the bob or float (which has higher
density than the fluid) to move upwards. The float will rise to a
point in the tube where the drag force (upward direction) and
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229

buoyant force (upward direction) is balanced by the weight of float

(downward direction). The position of the float in the tube is taken
as an indication of the flow rate. With the increase in the flow rate,
the float rises in the tube.

A Rotameter has the advantage of simplicity and ability to handle

variety of corrosive fluids. The meter however is to be mounted
vertically is limited to small pipe sizes capacities and is less
accurate compared to orifice meter.
TURBINE FLOW METER
The turbine flow meter translates the mechanical action of the
turbine rotating in the liquid flow around an axis into a userreadable rate of flow (gpm, lpm, etc.). The turbine wheel is set in
the path of a fluid stream. The flowing fluid impinges on the
turbine blades, imparting a force to the blade surface and setting
the rotor in motion. When a steady rotation speed has been
Measurements

230

reached, the speed is proportional to fluid velocity. Turbine flow

meters are used for the measurement of natural gas and liquid flow.
Working
The turbine flow meter uses multi-bladed turbine. The multibladed wheel mounted in the pipe along the axis parallel to the
direction of the flow of fluid. When the flow of the fluid passes the
wheel, the wheel starts rotating at a rate proportional to the volume
flow rate. The flow meter is constructed such that a magnetic pick
up is above the turbine wheel and then the rate of rotation of wheel
is measured using magnetic pick up. For that turbine blades are
made of ferromagnetic material. When each blade on the turbine
passes the coil, a voltage pulse induces in the coil. Then by
counting these pulses we can calculate the flow rate. The basic
structure of the turbine flow meter is as shown in the Fig. below.

The turbine flow meter provides high accuracy when the turbine
wheel is mounted on low friction bearing. This meter is less rugged
and reliable than restriction type flow meters. Turbine flow meters
are lighter and preferred mostly in oil-industries, for low viscosity,
high flow measurements.
Their principal limitations include high cost, incompatibility with
viscous or dirty liquids, and the potential for being damaged by
over-speeding if slugs of gas or vapor are sent through the meter.
The installation of upstream filters is often recommended, in spite
of the fact that it increases both the pressure drop and the
maintenance requirement of the installation.
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231

HOT WIRE ANEMOMETER

The principle of hot wire anemometer is that when an electrically
heated fine wire is placed in a flowing stream of air or gas, there
will be an exchange of heat energy between the wire and the
surroundings. The rate of heat transfer will increase with
increasing velocity of air and vice versa i.e. the rate of heat transfer
is directly proportional to the velocity of fluid, and by making use
of this principle, it is possible to measure the velocity at a given
point and the instrument, working on this principle, is called hot
wire.
Hot-wire anemometer consists of a probe for sensing and an
electronics unit for signal processing of the probe output. The
probe consists essentially of a very thin platinum or nickel wire of
length of about 5 mm. The wire is mounted on the ends of two
pointed prongs and is introduced into the flow field so that the flow
is normal to the wire. A small electric current is passed through the
wire to heat it. As the gas flow passes past the wire, the hot wire is
cooled. The amount of heat lost from wire to the gas flow is a
function of the velocity of the flow. The heat transfer alters the
resistance of the wire. This change in the resistance is
appropriately processed by the Wheatstone bridge whose
galvanometer is calibrated in terms of quantity of flow as the flow
rate is product of area of pipe and velocity of flow.
In anemometer, the voltage across the wire is maintained constant.
The galvanometer is set to read zero when the hot wire is placed in
a stream at zero velocity.
With increase in velocity, the hot wire cools, the resistance
changes and the galvanometer deflects. This deflection is related to
the air velocity and hence the quantity of flow.

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232

Hot wire anemometer probe

NOTCHES
A notch is an opening in the side of a measuring tank or reservoir
extending above the free surface. A weir is essentially a dam with
a notched opening at the top through which liquid flows. Weir
mostly make use of rectangular or V notch. Rate of flow is simply
measured by measuring the head of water above the lowest point
of notch opening through which the liquid flows. Relation between
flow rate (Qactual) and height (H) depends upon the shape of notch.
For a rectangular notch

And for a triangular notch

Where

Measurements

Cd = coefficient of discharge

233

MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE
Temperature is a very widely measured and frequently controlled
variable used in numerous industrial applications. In general,
chemical reactions in the industrial processes and products are
temperature dependent and the desired quality of a product is
possible only if the temperature is accurately measured and
maintained. Further, it forms an important governing parameter in
Measurements

234

the thermodynamic and heat transfer operations like steam raising,

gas turbines in power generations and also in numerous propulsion
systems like jet planes. In addition, in the heat treatment of steel
and aluminum alloys, temperature measurement and control plays
a crucial role in incorporating the desired material properties in the
finished metal products. The other areas where measurement and
control of temperature is essential are: plastic manufacture, nuclear
reactor components, milk and dairy products, plant furnace and
molten metals, heating and air-conditioning systems, space shuttle
components, blades of gas turbines, etc.
Temperature may be defined as driving force or potential causing
the flow of energy as heat. Temperature is an intensive quantity
independent of size of the system.
Most commonly used units of temperature are
1) Degree centigrade (0C )
2) Degree Fahrenheit (0F )
3) Degree Kelvin (0K)
Relation between above are
0
C = 5/9 (0F -32)
0
K = 0C +273.2
Principles of Temperature Measurement
Physical effects utilized to measure Temperature:
Expansion of Liquid or a Solid:
This is one of the most important principles used in thermometry, the
measurement of temperature.
Ex:
Mercury-in-glass Thermometers -

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235

Change in Electrical Resistance:

Electrical resistance of a wire (Copper, Platinum and Nickel) changes
with respect to temperature as given by the equation
RT = R0 (1 + T)

Where

R0 = Resistance at 0C
RT = Resistance attemperature TC
= Temperature- resistance co-efficient

Ex: Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs) made of Copper, Nickel

or Platinum

Thermoelectricity:
When two dissimilar metal wires are twisted together and heated,
an emf is generated which is directly proportional to the difference
in temperature between the heated or hot junction and the other
end which is called the cold junction. This phenomenon is called
Seebeck effect and such arrangement is called Thermocouple
which is widely used for temperature measurement.
Ex:

(i) Copper-Constantan Thermocouple

(ii) Iron-Constantan Thermocouple
(iii) Nickel Chrome-Nickel Thermocouple
(iv) Platinum Rhodium-Platinum Thermocouple

Measurements

236

Radiation:
Radiation of a hot body can be measured and the temperature of
the body deduced from it. This principle is used for non-contact
measurement of high temperatures.
Ex: Radiation Pyrometers
Temperature Indicators:
Paints and Crayons:
Temperature-indicating paints may show a single or several
successive color transformations as certain temperature levels are
reached.
Temperature-Indicating Pellets:
Shapes formed of selected metals or metal alloys will melt at
pre-established temperatures.
Seger Cones:
In the ceramic industry, cones prepared of mixtures of suitable
minerals have some pyrometric value since they behave like the
products in the Kiln. The point at which the tip of the cone softens
and bends over to touch the base gives the desired temperature for
which the cone was prepared.
Thermistors
Thermistors are Semiconductor Resistance Sensors. A Thermistor
is a thermally sensitive variable resistor made of ceramic-like
semiconducting materials. They are available in a greater variety of
shapes and sizes having resistance ranging from a few ohms to
mega ohms. The size can range from extremely small bead, thin
disc, thin chip or wafer to a large sized rod as illustrated in Fig.
below. Unlike metals, thermistors respond negatively to
temperature and their coefficient of resistance is of the order of 10
times higher than that of platinum or copper.
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237

Thermistors are fabricated from the semiconducting materials

which include the oxides of copper, manganese, nickel, cobalt,
lithium and titanium. These oxides are blended in a suitable
proportion and compressed into desired shapes from powders and
heat treated to re crystallize them, resulting in a dense ceramic
body with the required negative resistancetemperature
characteristics.
Thermocouple
The most common electrical method of temperature measurement
uses the thermo-electric sensor, also known as the thermocouple
(TC). The thermocouple is a temperature transducer that develops
an emf which is a function of the temperature between hot junction
and cold junction. The construction of a thermocouple is quite
simple. It consists of two wires of different metals twisted and
brazed or welded together with each wire covered with insulation
which may be either of the fallowing types:
1. Mineral (magnesium oxide) insulation for normal duty, or
2. Ceramic insulation for heavy duty.
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238

The basic principle of temperature measurement using a thermoelectric sensor was discovered by Seebeck in and is illustrated in
Fig.

When two conductors of dissimilar metals, say A and B, are joined

together to form a loop (thermocouple) and two unequal
temperatures T1 and T2are connected at two junctions J1 and J2,
respectively, then an infinite resistance voltmeter detects the
electromotive force E, or if a low resistance ammeter is connected,
a current flow I is measured. Experimentally, it has been found that
the magnitude of E depends upon the difference of the temperature
T1 and T2. Thus, in practical applications, a suitable device is
incorporated to indicate the emf E or the flow of current I. For
convenience of measurements and standardization, one of the two
junctions is usually maintained at some known temperature. The
measured emf E then indicates the temperature difference relative
to the reference temperature, such as ice point which is very
commonly used in practice.
Laws of thermocouple
Law of Homogeneous circuits:
The intermediate temperature along a conductor do not alter emf
produced by a given temperature difference between the junctions

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239

Law of intermediate Temperatures:

This states that the emf generated in a thermocouple with junctions
at temperatures T1 and T3, is equal to the sum of the emf generated
by similar thermocouples, one acting between temperatures T1 and
T2 and the other between T2 and T3 when T2 lies between T1 and T3.

This law is useful in practice because it helps in giving a suitable

correction in case a reference junction temperature (which is
usually an ice bath at 0C) other than 0C is employed. For
example, if a thermocouple is calibrated for a reference junction
temperature of 0C and used with junction temperature of say
20C, then the correction required for the observation would be the
emf produced by the thermocouple between 0 and 20C. This is
called as temperature compensation of Thermocouple
Law of Intermediate Metals:
The basic thermocouple loop consists of two dissimilar metals A
and B. If a third wire is introduced, then three junctions are formed
as shown in Fig. the emf generated remains unaltered if the two
new junctions BC and CA are at the same temperature.

Measurements

240

It may be noted that extension wires are needed when the

measuring instrument is to be placed at a considerable distance
from the reference junction. Maximum accuracy is obtained when
the leads are of the same material as the thermocouple element.

However, this approach is not economical while using expensive

thermocouple materials. Further, a small inaccuracy is still possible
if the binding post of the instrument is made of say copper and the
two binding posts are at different temperatures. Therefore, it is
preferable to employ the system shown in Fig. (b) to keep the
copper-iron and copper-constantan junctions in the thermos flask at
0C and provide binding posts of copper. This ensures maximum
accuracy in the thermocouple operation.

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241

Radiation Pyrometer
Radiation pyrometer uses thermal energy radiated by a hot object
for measuring temperature. Any objet radiate heat which is
proportional to fourth power of its absolute temperature

Example for such pyrometer is disappearing filament type

radiation pyrometer.
In Disappearing filament type radiation pyrometer temperature is
measured by brightness comparison of the emitted ration by the hot
body with that of filament of an incandescent lamp.
The radiation from the target surface is focused by an objective
lens upon the plain filament of an incandescent lamp. Matching of
brightness of the lamp filament with that of target surface is
achieved by adjusting current through the standard lamp by
changing the value of circuit resistance. This variable resistance
can be calibrated in terms of temperature to be measure.

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242

Temperature Indicators
Seger cones: In the ceramic Industry, cones prepared of mixtures
of suitable minerals have some pyrometric value since they behave
like the products in the kiln. The point at which the tip of the cone
softens and bends over to touch the base gives the desired
temperature for which the cone was prepared.

Temperature-Indicating Paints and Crayons:

Temperature-indicating paints basically contain finely dispersed
temperature sensitive inorganic pigments. These temperatureindicating paints, applied by brush or spray may show a single or
several successive color transformations as certain temperature
levels are reached.

Temperature-indicating crayons are sticks manufactured from

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243

powders of mineral mixes of certain melting temperatures and a

binder. Temperature indicating crayons, with which the work piece
is stoked, usually show a single color change.
Temperature-Indicating Pellets:
Temperature-indicating pellets are manufactured by pressing
powders of mineral mixes of certain melting temperatures with a
binder. Shapes formed of selected metals or metal alloys will melt
at pre-established temperatures.

Liquid crystals:
Some liquid crystals also change color at a certain temperature.
According to the design of sensors using such liquid crystals, the
color change can either occur gradually during a temperature rise
or change abruptly at some specified temperature. The second kind
of sensors is able to resolve temperature changes as small as 0.1C
and, according to type, arc used over the temperature range from 20 to +100C.

Measurements

244

VISCOSITY MEASUREMENT
Viscosity is one of important property of uids. Physical systems
and applications as diverse as uid ow in pipes, the ow of blood,
lubrication of engine parts, the dynamics of raindrops, volcanic
eruptions to name just a few, all involve uid ow and are
controlled to some degree by uid viscosity. Viscosity may be
dened as the internal friction of a uid.
A viscometer is an instrument used to measure the viscosity of
a fluid.
In general, either the fluid remains stationary and an object moves
through it, or the object is stationary and the fluid moves past it.
The drag caused by relative motion of the fluid and a surface is a
measure of the viscosity.
Falling sphere viscometers
Stokes' law is the basis of the falling sphere viscometer, in which
the fluid is stationary in a vertical glass tube.
A sphere of known size and density is allowed to descend through
the liquid. If correctly selected, it reaches terminal velocity, which
can be measured by the time it takes to pass two marks on the tube.
Electronic sensing can be used for opaque fluids.
Knowing the terminal velocity, the size and density of the sphere,
and the density of the liquid, Stokes' law can be used to calculate
the viscosity of the fluid.
Viscous force on a falling sphere in a viscous medium is given by

where:

is the radius of the spherical object,

is the fluid viscosity, and
is the particle's velocity.

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245

If the particles are falling in the viscous fluid by their own weight,
then maximum velocity attained by it is called as terminal velocity.
Terminal velocity is reached when this frictional force combined
with the buoyant force exactly balances the gravitational force.
Terminal velocity is given by:

Re arranging

where:

is the terminal velocity of the particle

(m/s)

is the radius of the particle (m),

is the gravitational acceleration (m/s2),

is the density of the particles (kg/m3),

is the density of the fluid (kg/m3), and

is the (dynamic) fluid viscosity (Pa s).

Note that Stokes flow is
number must be small.

assumed,

so

the Reynolds

U-tube Viscometer
These devices also are known as glass capillary viscometers or Ostwald
viscometers, named after Wilhelm Ostwald. It consists of a U-shaped
glass tube held vertically in a controlled temperature bath. In one arm of
the U is a vertical section of precise narrow bore (the capillary).
Above this is a bulb; with it is another bulb lower down on the other arm.
In use, liquid is drawn into the upper bulb by suction, and then allowed

to flow down through the capillary into the lower bulb.

Measurements

246

Two marks (one above and one

below the upper bulb) indicate a
known volume. The time taken
for the level of the liquid to pass
between
these
marks
is
proportional to the kinematic
viscosity. Most commercial units
are provided with a conversion
factor, or can be calibrated by a
fluid of known properties. The
time required for the test liquid to
flow through a capillary of a
known diameter of a certain
factor between two marked points
is measured. By multiplying the
time taken by the factor of the
viscometer,
the
kinematic
viscosity is obtained.

HUMIDITY MEASUREMENT
Humidity is the amount of moisture in the air. It is an important
variable that affects human comforts and efficient operation of
many industrial processes. Few important terms related to
humidity and its measurement is:
Absolute humidity: It is the amount of water vapour present in the
air expressed as g/m3 of air.
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247

Relative humidity: It is the ratio of absolute humidity of the air to

the absolute humidity of saturated air at same temperature and
pressure.
Dew point temperature: when the temperature of air is reduced by
continuous cooling at constant pressure the water vapour in the air
starts condensing at a particular temperature which is referred to as
dew point temperature.
Dry bulb temperature: it refers to the temperature of air-water
vapour mixture as registered by a thermometer whose bulb is
exposed to the mixture.
Wet bulb temperature: It refers to the temperature of air-water
vapour mixture as registered by a thermometer whose bulb is
covered by a wick maintained continuously wet.
Hygrometer
A hygrometer is an instrument used for measuring the amount of
humidity in the atmosphere. Examples for hygrometers are dry and
wet bulb Hygrometer and a condensation hygrometer.
Wet and dry bulb hygrometer
Wet and dry bulb Hygrometer are the most simple and common
way of measuring humidity. This type of hygrometer uses two
basic mercury thermometers, one with a wet bulb one with a dry
bulb. Evaporation from the water on the wet bulb causes its
temperature reading to drop, causing it to show a lower
temperature than the dry bulb.
Relative humidity is calculated by comparing the readings using
a calculation table that compares the ambient temperature (the
temperature given by the dry bulb) to the difference in
temperatures between the two thermometers.

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248

Resistive hygrometer
Among some hygroscopic salt(example: lithium chloride) which
exhibit the a change in resistivity with humidity. This Hygroscopic
salts with binder may be coated on a wire or non electrodes.
Resulting resistance changes over a wide range ex: 104 to 109 as
humidity changes from 100 to 0 percent.
Resistance is measured either with a
wheat stone bridge or by a combination
of current and voltage measurements

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249

Hygrometer type
Absorption
spectrometer
Acoustic

Adiabatic expansion

Sensing principle
Infrared light absorption by water vapour
Humidity-dependent acoustical transmission or
resonance
'Cloud' formation in chamber on expansion cooling
of sample gas

Cavity ring-down

Decay time of absorbed, multiply-reflected infrared

spectrometer

light

Colour change

Condensation

Crystals or inks using cobalt chloride or other

chemicals changing colour with hydration
Temperature of formation of water or ice, on cooling
humid air
Relative humidity sensor - electrical change on
absorption of water vapour into (typically) polymer
film

Electrical impedance
'Dew-point' probe - electrical change on absorption
of water vapour into (typically) porous metal oxide
film.
Electrolytic
(phosphorous
pentoxide)
Gravimetric

Mechanical
Optical fibre

Measurements

Electric current proportional to dissociation of water

into hydrogen and oxygen
By weighing - mass of water gained or lost by humid
air sample
Dimensional change of humidity sensitive material
(hair, polymer, paper...)
Change in reflected or transmitted light, using

250

hygroscopic coating, or optical grating

Quartz crystal

Change in resonant frequency due to mass of

resonator

surface-adsorbed water

Saturated lithium
chloride

Conductivity of hygroscopic salt

Wet- and dry-bulb

Humidity-dependent evaporative cooling of wetted

(psychrometer)

surface

Zirconia

Humidity derived from oxygen content of gas

@@@

Measurements

251

Review Questions
1. Explain interference of light. What are the conditions required to
get a sustained interference pattern.
2. How principle of interference of light can be used for
measurement of displacement.
3. Linear displacement can be converted in to a change in pressure.
Justify.
4. What is the working principle of LVDT?
5. Give few commonly used units of linear speed
6. Explain working of centrifugal tachometer.
7. Explain working of drag cup type tachometer.
8. How vibration of a machine component can be used for
measurement of its speed.
9. Derive expression for external force acting on an object by using
Newtons second law of motion.
10. What is torque? How it differ from force? Give any practical
situation where measurement of torque is important.
11. Explain working of Rope brake dynamometer. In a Rope brake
dynamometer, a counter weight of 10 kg is used. Spring balance
shows the reading of 2 kg. Calculate torque in the shaft
connected to drum if radius of drum is 40 cm.
12. Explain working of Prony brake with neat sketch.
13. Define stress, define strain. Explain different types of stress and
strain.
14. Define hooks law.
15. Explain working of mechanical strain gauge and electrical strain
gauge. What are the advantages of electrical strain gauge over
mechanical strain gauge.
16. What is gauge factor? What is its importance in measurement of
strain?
17. Assuming volume of a electrical strain gauge remains constant
during application of load, prove that theoretical value of gauge
factor is 2.
18. Resistance strain gauges are used for measurement of strain as
resistance changes with strain, but resistance also changes with
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252

19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.

25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.

35.
36.
37.

change in temperature. how you will use a resistance strain

gauge in a varying temperature condition without any error due
to change in temperature.
Sketch arrangement of strain gauges for measurement of torque
in a shaft.
Explain different ways to express pressure.
Pressure of gas measured as -1.5 cm of Hg of vacuum. Calculate
its absolute pressure in Pa.
Discuss desirable and undesirable characteristics of manometric
fluids
Compare U tube, well type, inclined well type manometers
Choose an instrument for the vacuum measurement, explain
working principle and derive the expression of unknown
pressure.
What is difference between quantity meters and rate meters in
measurement of flow?
What are principles used for measurement of flow.
Explain variable head principle for measurement of flow.
Explain the method of estimation for water flow rate in canal.
Compare Rotameter with turbine flow meter.
Explain working of flow measuring instrument which works
based on variable area principle.
Explain any instrument which converts flow in to change in
resistance.
What are the principles used for measurement of temperature.
Illustrate any practical application of law of intermediate metals
of thermocouple.
Describe the construction and working of bimetallic
thermometers. Explain their applications, temperature range,
advantages and disadvantages.
Explain working of radiation pyrometer. What are the
advantages and limitations?
Explain laws of thermocouple. Bring out few applications of the
same.
How you will have an estimate of temperature of a gas pipe line
in industry. Justify your answer.

Measurements

253

38. Give any two practical situations where measurement of

viscosity becomes important.
39. Explain the term terminal velocity. Derive an expression to find
out terminal velocity.
40. How principle of terminal velocity can be used for measurement
of viscosity.
41. Explain the working of U tube viscometer.
42. What is humidity? Explain working of any two instruments used
for measurement fo humidity.
43. Differentiate between dew point temperature, wet bulb
temperature, and dry bulb temperature.
44. Discuss working of any two instruments used for measurement
of humidity.
45. Discuss importance of measurement of humidity in your day to
day life.
46. Which type of temperature sensor is more accuratea
thermocouple or an RTD?
47. What is the difference between thermocouples and RTD's
48. Explain what a thermocouple is and how it functions.
49. What is a thermistor and how is it used to measure temperatures?
Briefly explain.
50. Explain clearly the law of intermediate temperature, law of
intermediate metals and law of homogeneous circuit. Discuss the
influence of these laws on the industrial usage of thermocouples.
51. A customer wants to use a ceramic-beaded style thermocouple to
sense oven temperatures up to 1000 C. A pretty goodaccuracy
is required. Do you recommend a Type J or K thermocouple?
Briefly explain your answer.
52. A customer wants a very accurate temperature sensor for her
application. The sensors accuracy and ability to measure

Measurements

254

accurately over long periods of time is important. Which sensor

do you recommend and why?
53. Describe the construction and working of resistance type
thermometer.
54. Why platinum is preferred for making resistance thermometers?
Describe the advantages of 3 wire and 4 wire constructions.
55. Describe the construction and principle of working of
thermocouples. Describe the thermo electric laws and their
applications.
56. Describe the construction and working of bi metallic
thermometers. Explain their applications, temperature range,
advantages and disadvantages.
57. Describe the construction and working of disappearing filament
optical pyrometer.
Does the accuracy of an optical pyrometer depend on its distance
from the object? If so, why?
58. What is seebeck effect? What factors are considered when
choosing the materials for a thermocouple? Mention different
material pairs are used for making commercial thermo
couples? How they are designated.
59. What are the accuracies and temperature ranges of the various
thermocouples?
60. If a part is moving, can I still measure temperature? Explain
suitable method for this purpose.
61. List the metals used for resistance thermo meters and give their
useful temperature ranges. Name the materials of which
thermistors are made, and explain the working of thermistor in
Measurements

255

the act of temperature measurement. Compare and contrast the

advantages and limitations of resistance thermometers and
thermistors.
62. It is desired to measure the temperature in a furnace having a
highly oxidizing atmosphere and variation also very rapid.
Explain suitable method for this purpose.
63. It is required to measure the surface temperatures at several
points along a pipe line. Explain suitable method for this
purpose.
64. Explain how pyrometric cones are used for the measurement of
temperature.

Measurements

256

Multiple Choice Questions

1. The closeness of values indicated by an instrument to the actual value
Is defined as
(a) repeatability (b) reliability
(c) uncertainty (d) accuracy.
2. Precision is defined as
(a) repeatability (b) reliability
(c) uncertainty (d) accuracy
3. The ratio of change in output to the change in the input is called
(a) precision
(b) resolution (c) sensitivity
(d) repeatability
4. The deviation of the measured value to the desired value is defined as
(a) error
(b) repeatability (c) hysteresis
(d) resolution
5. Improper setting of range of a multimeter leads to an error called
(a) random error
(b) limiting error (c)
instrumental
error
(d) observational
6. Errors that occur even when all the gross and systematic errors
are taken care of are called
(a)
environmental errors (b) instrumental
(c) limiting
errors
(d) random error
8. Ability of an instrument to respond to the weakest signal is defined as
(a) sensitivity
(b) repeatability (c) resolution
(d) precision.
9. The difference between the expected value of the variable and
the
measured variable is termed
(a) absolute error (b) random error (c) instrumental (d) gross error
10. Accuracy is expressed as
(a) relative accuracy (b) % accuracy
(c) error
(d) % error
11. Error is expressed as
(a) absolute error
(b) relative error (c) % error (d) % accuracy
12. Gross errors occur due to
(a) human error (b) instrumental error (c) environmental (d) random
13. Static errors are caused due to
(a)
measuring
devices
(b)
human
error
(c)
environmental
(d) observational
14. Dynamic errors are caused by
(a) instrument not responding fast (b) human error (c) environmental
Observational
Measurements

257

15. Limiting errors are

(a) manufacturers specifications of accuracy
(b) manufacturers specifications of instrumental error
(c) environmental errors
(d) random errors

16. A DArsonval movement is

(a) Taut band
(b) PMMC (c) electrodynamometer
(d) moving iron type
17. A PMMC uses a
(a) taut band
(b) moving coil (c)
electrodynamometer
(d) moving iron type.
18. A moving iron movement uses
(a) ribbon
(b) moving coil
(c)
electrodynamometer
(d) none
19. The instrument required to measure current is a/an
(a) voltmeter
(b) ammeter (c) wattmeter (d) ohmmeter
20. Current in the RF range is measured by
(a) simple ammeter
(b) ammeter using thermocouples
(c) multirange ammeters (d) Ayrton shunt.
21. Large current in RF range at low moderate frequencies
is
measured by
(a) simple ammeter
(b) ammeter using thermocouples
(c) Using a current transformer
(d) using Ayrton shunt.
22. A basic bridge consists of
(a) two arms (b) three arms (c) four arms
(d) single arm
23. Wheatstone bridge is used to measure
(a) voltage
(b) power
(c) resistance (d) current
24. An ac bridge uses form of
(a) ammeter
(b) voltmeter (c) headphones (d) wattmeter
25. Maxwells bridge is used to measure unknown
(a) inductance
(b) capacitance
(c) resistance (d) Q
26. Instrument is a device for determining
(a) the magnitude of a quantity (b) the physics of a variable
(c) either of the above

Measurements

(d) both (a) and (b)

258

27. Electronic instruments are preferred because they have

(a) no indicating part

(b) low resistance in parallel circuit

(c) very fast response

(d) high resistance in series circuit

(e) no passive elements.

28. A DC wattmeter essentially consist of
(a) Two ammeters

(b) two voltmeters

(c) A voltmeter and an ammeter (d) a current and

potential
transformer
29. A dc voltmeter may be used directly to measure
(a) Frequency (b) Polarity

(c) Power factor

(d) Power

30. An accurate voltmeter must have an internal impedance of

(a) Very low value (b) Low value (c) Medium value
(d) Very high value
31. The insulation resistance of a transformer winding
can measured with
(a) Wheatstone bridge (b) Megger (c) Kelvin
bridge (d) Voltmeter
32. A 100 V voltmeter has full-scale accuracy of 5%. At its
reading of 50 V it will give an error of
(a) 10%(b) 5%

(c) 2.5%

(d) 1.25%

33.You are required to check the P. F. of an electric load. No P.F.

meter is available. You would use:
(a) a wattmeter (b) a ammeter, a voltmeter and a wattmeter
(c) a voltmeter and a ammeter (d) a kWh meter
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259

34. The resistance of a field coil may be correctly measured by

using
(a) a voltmeter and an ammeter (b) Schering bridge
(c) a Kelvin double bridge

(d) a Maxwell bridge

35. An analog instrument has output

(a) Pulsating in nature

(b) Sinusoidal in nature

(c) continuous function of time bears a relation to its input

(d) Independent of the input quantity
36. Basic charge measuring instrument is
(a) Doddles oscillograph (b) Cathode ray oscilloscope
(c) Vibration Galvanometer

(d) Ballistic Galvanometer

(e) Battery Charging equipment

37. A.C. voltage can be measured (using a D.C. instrument) as
a Value obtained
(a) By subtracting the d.c. reading from its a.c. reading.
(b) Using the output function of the multimeter
(c) By using a suitable inductor in series with it
(d) By using a parallel capacitor with it
(e) None of the above
38. A moving coil permanent magnet ammeter can be used
to measure
(a) D. C. current
Measurements

(b) A. C. current only (c) A. C. and D. C.

260

(d) Voltage by incorporating a shunt resistance (e) none of these

39. Select the wrong statement
(a) the internal resistance of the voltmeter must be high
(b) the internal resistance of ammeter must be low
(c) poor overload capacity is the main disadvantage of hot
wires
instrument
(d) the check continuity with multimeter, the highest range
should
be used.
(e) In moving iron voltmeter, frequency compensation is
achieved
by connecting a capacitor across its fixed coil.
40. Which of the following instrument is suitable for
measuring
both a.c. and d.c. quantities.
(a) permanent magnet moving coil ammeter
(b) Induction type ammeter (c) Quadrant electrometer
(d) Moving iron repulsion type ammeter
(e) Moving iron attraction type voltmeter.
41. Swamping resistance is used in moving coil instruments
to reduce error due to
(a) thermal EMF (b) temperature
(c) power taken by the instrument (d) galvanometer sensitivity.
42. A power factor meter is based on the principle of
(a) electrostatic instrument (b) Electrodynamometer instrument
(c) Electro thermo type instrument (d) Rectifier type instrument.
43. A potentiometer recorder is used for
Measurements

261

(a) AC singles (b) DC signals (c) both (a) and (b)

(d) time varying signals (e) none of these.
44. Transformers used in conjunction with measuring
instruments
for measuring purposes are called
(a) Measuring transformers

(b) transformer meters

(c) power transformers

(d) instrument transformers

(e) pulse transformers.

45. A digital voltmeter has a readout range from 0 to 9,999
counts.
Determine
the resolution
(a) 1 mV

(b) 10mV

(c) 1 V

(d) 100 mV

46. Which of the following is not a static characteristic?

(a) Drift

(b) Dead zone (c) Sensitivity (d) Fidelity

47. ______ is defined as the difference between the largest

and
smallest reading of instrument
(a) Span

(b) Range

(c) Dead space

(d) Resolution

48. ____ refers to the degree of closeness or conformity to the

true
value of quantity under measurement
(a) Precision

(b) Accuracy (c) Drift

(d) Resolution

49. ________ is defined as the nearness of the indicated value

to
the true value of the quantity being measured
(a) Accuracy (b) Resolution (c) Reproducibility (d) Static error
50. The voltage of a circuit is measured by a voltmeter
having
input impedance comparable with the output
impedance of the circuit there by causing error in voltage
measurement. This error may be called as
Measurements

262

(a) Gross error

(b) Error caused by misuse of instrument

(c) Random

(d) Error caused by loading effect

51. A meter reads 127.50V and the true value of voltage is 127.43
(i) Static error ______(ii) static correction _______
(a) 0.07V, 0.07V

(b) 0.07V, - 0.07V

(c) - 0.07V, 0.07V

(d) - 007V, - 0.07V

52. Find the span for given range; Upper limit:

55V,
Lower Limit: 0V
(a) 55

(b) 60

(c) 45

(d) 40

53. A moving coil galvanometer is made into a MC ammeter

by connecting
(a) A low resistance across the meter
(b) high resistance in series with meter
(c) A pure inductance across the meter
(d) A capacitor in series with the meter
54. A DArsonval galvanometer can have the instrument
error
due to:
(a) Humidity (b) Friction in bearings
(C) High temperature (d) Vibrations in the taut suspension
55. Accuracy of a reading of an instrument refers to:
(a) How close the reading is to the previous reading
(b) How many readings were taken at that point
(c) The repeatability of the reading
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263

(d) How close the reading is to the actual value.

56. In an ammeter, the shunt is used to
(a) decrease the voltage range

(b) increase the voltage range

(c) decrease the current range

(d) increase the current range

57. In a voltmeter, a resistance in series with PMMC movement

is
used to
(a) increase the voltage rang (b) decrease the voltage
range.
(c) decrease the current range (d) increase the
current range.
58. The sensitivity of rectifier ac meters is
(a) more than that of dc meters

(b) less than that of dc meters

(c) equal to that of dc meters

(d) always infinite

59. Lissajous patterns can be used to determine

(a) Amplitude of the signal (b) amplitude distortion.
(c) only the phase shift between the two signals
(d) Frequency and phase relationship between two signals.
60. A variable-manipulation element
(a) manipulates the signal to perform the intended task
(b) converts the output signals into a more suitable variable
(c) receives energy from the measured medium
(d) none of the these
61. A data-representation element
(a) transmits data from one element to the other
(b) performs translation functions (c) manipulates the
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264

signal (d) none

62. Precision is the
(a) degree of exactness
(b) ability to respond to true value of a measured variable
(c) closeness of agreement among a number of
consecutive
measurements
(d) none of the above
63. The measurement of a quantity means
(a) Comparison of the quantity with a standard of the same kind
of
quantity
(b) comparison of the quantity with a standard of a different kind
of quantity

(c) Both the above

(d) none of the above

64. The fundamental units in mechanics are measures of

(a) length

(b) mass

(c) time

(d) all of the above

65. Derived units

(a) are expressed in terms of fundamental units
(b) originate from physical law
(c) are recognized by their dimensions

(d) all of the above

66. The base units in the SI system are

(a) Metre, kilogram, second, ampere, Kelvin, candela, mole
(b) metre, kilogram, second, ampere, Kelvin, candela
(c) metre, kilogram, second, ampere. Kelvin
(d) metre, kilogram. Second, ampere
67. The English system of units uses
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265

(a) metre, kilogram, second

(b) foot, pound, second

(c) meter, pound, second

(d) foot, kilogram, second

68. The gravity controlled instruments have scales which

are not uniform but are crowded because
(a) balance weight is more than the control weight
(b) current is proportional to the deflecting angle
the

(c) current is proportional to sin 9. Where 0 is

deflecting angle
(d) balance weight itself is not uniform

69. Which of the following instruments will be used to

measure
alternating current?
(a) moving-iron voltmeter (b) permanent-magnet type ammeter
(c) induction-type ammeter (d) moving-coil voltmeter
70. Eddy current damping cannot be used for movingiron
instruments because
(a) the size of the instrument will increase
(b) eddy currents will pass through the iron, thereby
causing
loss
(c) the presence of a permanent magnet required for
such
purposes would affect the deflection and hence the
reading
of the instruments
(d) none of the above
71. The steady speed of the disc in the energy meter is
achieved
when
(a) operating torque is equal to braking torque
(b) operating torque is half the braking torque
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266

(c) braking torque is zero

(d) Braking torque is more than operating torque.
72. Creeping is the phenomenon which occurs in
(a) voltmeters (b) wattmeter (c) energy meter (d) ammeters
73. Two holes are drilled in the disc of an energy meter, on
the
opposite sides of the disc.
(a) to reduce the weight of the disc for easy rotation
(b) to eliminate creeping on no-load (c) for proper
Ventilation
(d) to increase the deflection torque
74. A moving-coil instrument can be used to measure
(a) low-frequency alternating current (b) direct current
(c) high-frequency alternating current (d) d.c. an ac. both
75. Electrostatic instruments are
(a) voltage sensitive (b) current sensitive
(c) both (a) and (b) (d) none of the above
76. Electrostatic instruments are most commonly used as
(a) ammeters (b) voltmeters (c) wattmeter (d) all of the above
77. Wattmeters are
(a) recording-type instruments
(c) both (a) and (b)

(b) indicating-type instruments

(d) none of the above

78. The Ferranti-mercury motor meter is most commonly used as

(a) Watt-hour meter (b) kilowatt-hour meter
(c) Ampere-hour meter
Measurements

(d) none of the above

267

79. Megger is used for

(a) testing the insulation resistance of a circuit
(b) measuring the resistance of the order of mega ohms
(c) testing the voltage and current

(d) both (a) and (b)

80. A potentiometer is basically a

(a) deflection as well as null-type instrument
(b) deflection-type instrument
(c) a digital instrument

(d) null-type instrument

82. Standardization of potentiometer is done in order that

they
become
(a) accurate and directly readable
(c) accurate and precise

(b) accurate only

(d) precise

83. Brooks deflection potentiometer is used when the

unknown
voltage is
(a) varying at a slow rate

(b) constant

(c) varying very rapidly

(d) all of these

@@@

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268

Bibliography
1. Experimental methods for engineers, JP
Holman,
Tata McGraw Hill publishing company
2. Mechanical Measurements, Thomas G. Beckwith Roy
D. Marangoni John H. Lienhard V, Pearson education, Inc.

3. Mechanical measurements, R. S. Sirohi, H. C. Radha

Krishna, 1991 New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers,New
Delhi
4. A course in electrical and electronic measurements and
instrumentation, A. K. Sawhney, Puneet Sawhney, Dhanpat Rai
& Co, New Delhi.
5. Electronic Instrumentation, H S Kalsi, Tata McGraw
Hill publishing company
6. Measurement and Analysis, B C Nakra K K Chaudhry,
Tata McGraw Hill publishing company.
7. Instrumentation Devices and systems, CS Rangan, GR
Sharma, VSV Mani, Tata McGraw Hill publishing company
8. Transducers and Instrumentation, D. V. S. Murty,
Prentice-Hall of India Private Limited, New Delhi.
9. Electrical Measurements and Instrumentation, Uday A.
Bakshi, Ajay V. Bakshi Mrs. Kshiteeja A. Bakshi,
Technical
publications, Pune.
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269

USEFUL LINKS
S.
No

TOPIC

REFERENCE

For video lectures

http://nptel.iitm.ac.in/video.php?subjectId=112106138
http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/videos/index.html
for web content
http://nptel.iitm.ac.in/courses/IITMADRAS/Mechanical_Measurements_Metrology/index.php
http://lorien.ncl.ac.uk/ming/procmeas/measintr.htm

1
http://reference.wolfram.com/applications/eda/Experi
Fundamentals of
measurements

mentalErrorsAndErrorAnalysis.html

http://teacher.nsrl.rochester.edu/phy_labs/AppendixB/
AppendixB.html
http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/

Electrical
Measurements

http://my.safaribooksonline.com/boo
k/electricalengineering/instrumentation/9788131
721995/6-dc-and-acbridges/navpoint274#X2ludGVybmF
sX0h0bWxWaWV3P3htbGlkPTk3O
DgxMzE3MjE5OTUlMkZuYXZwb2
ludDIzMyZxdWVyeT0=
http://www.nptel.iitm.ac.in/courses/
Webcoursecontents/IIT%20Kharagpur/Basic%2
0Electrical%20Technology/pdf/L42(GDR)(ET)%20((EE)NPTEL).pdf

Measurements

270

http://www.physics.sc.edu/~hoskins/Demos/CathodeR
Electronic
measurements

ay.html

http://electronicsclub.info/cro.htm

http://www.cisl.columbia.edu/kinget_group/student_pr
ojects/ECG%20Report/E6001%20ECG%20final%20re
port.htm

http://www.fammed.wisc.edu/medstudent/pcc/ecg/inter
vals.html

http://www.imt.liu.se/FoUtb/kurser/fysmat/Elfys.pdf

Mechanical
measurements

http://www.nptel.iitm.ac.in/video.php?subjectId=1081
05064
http://www.learnerstv.com/Free-Engineering-Videolectures-ltv146-Page1.htm
http://openbookproject.net/books/socratic/sinst/book/lii
i_0v2.pdf

@@@@

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