Weathering

Weathering is the breaking down of rocks, soil and minerals as well as wood
and artificial materials through contact with the Earth's atmosphere, waters and
biological organisms. Weathering occurs in situ, roughly translated to: "with no
movement", and thus should not be confused with erosion, which involves the
movement of rocks and minerals by agents such as water, ice, snow, wind, waves
and gravity and then being transported and deposited in other locations.

Two important classifications of weathering processes exist physical and

chemical weathering; each sometimes involves a biological component. Mechanical
or physical weathering involves the breakdown of rocks and soils through direct
contact with atmospheric conditions, such as heat, water, ice and pressure. The
second classification, chemical weathering, involves the direct effect of atmospheric
chemicals or biologically produced chemicals also known as biological weathering in
the breakdown of rocks, soils and minerals.[1] While physical weathering is
accentuated in very cold or very dry environments, chemical reactions are most
intense where the climate is wet and hot. However, both types of weathering occur
together, and each tends to accelerate the other. For example, physical abrasion
(rubbing together) decreases the size of particles and therefore increases their
surface area, making them more susceptible to rapid chemical reactions. The
various agents act in concert to convert primary minerals (feldspars and micas) to
secondary minerals (clays and carbonates) and release plant nutrient elements in
soluble forms.
The materials left over after the rock breaks down combined with organic
material creates soil. The mineral content of the soil is determined by the parent

material; thus, a soil derived from a single rock type can often be deficient in one or
more minerals needed for good fertility, while a soil weathered from a mix of rock
types (as in glacial, aeolian or alluvial sediments) often makes more fertile soil. In
addition, many of Earth's landforms and landscapes are the result of weathering
processes combined with erosion and re-deposition.

Soil erosion
Soil erosion is one form of soil degradation. The erosion of soil is a naturally
occurring process on all land. The agents of soil erosion are water and wind, each
contributing a significant amount of soil loss each year. Soil erosion may be a slow
process that continues relatively unnoticed, or it may occur at an alarming rate
causing serious loss of topsoil. The loss of soil from farmland may be reflected in
reduced crop production potential, lower surface water quality and damaged
drainage networks.

While erosion is a natural process, human activities have increased by 10-40

times the rate at which erosion is occurring globally. Excessive (or accelerated)
erosion causes both "on-site" and "off-site" problems. On-site impacts include
decreases in agricultural productivity and (on natural landscapes) ecological
collapse, both because of loss of the nutrient-rich upper soil layers. In some cases,
the eventual end result is desertification. Off-site effects include sedimentation of
waterways and eutrophication of water bodies, as well as sediment-related damage
to roads and houses. Water and wind erosion are the two primary causes of land
degradation; combined, they are responsible for about 84% of the global extent of
degraded land, making excessive erosion one of the most significant environmental
problems world-wide.
Intensive agriculture, deforestation, roads, anthropogenic climate change and
urban sprawl are amongst the most significant human activities in regard to their
effect on stimulating erosion.[3] However, there are many prevention and
remediation practices that can curtail or limit erosion of vulnerable soils.

Impact Cratering
Impact cratering is the excavation of a planet's surface when it is struck by a meteoroid.
Impacts are instantaneous events. They leave very characteristic features.
What are craters?
Craters are roughly circular, excavated holes made by impact events. The circular shape is
due to material flying out in all directions as a result of the explosion upon impact, not a
result of the impactor having a circular shape (almost no impactors are spherical). Craters
are the most common surface features on many solid planets and moonsMercury and our
Moon are covered with craters.

This portion of the Moon is covered by numerous circular

holes. These are impact craters, each of which was formed
when an asteroid or comet collided with the Moon's surface.
The large number of craters in this region indicates that this
part of the Moon is quite ancient. Geologic processes have
not erased the craters with time.
Apollo 16 photograph courtesy of NASA.

What happens when an impactor hits?

When an impactor strikes the solid surface of a planet, a shock wave spreads out from the
site of the impact. The shock wave fractures the rock and excavates a large cavity (much
larger than the impactor). The impact sprays material ejecta out in all directions. The
impactor is shattered into small pieces and may melt or vaporize. Sometimes the force of
the impact is great enough to melt some of the local rock. If an impactor is large enough,
some of the material pushed toward the edges of the crater will slump back toward the
center and the rock beneath the crater will rebound, or push back up, creating a central
peak in the crater. The edges of these larger craters also may slump, creating terraces that
step down into the crater.
What are the major parts of a crater?

Floor The bottom of a crater, either bowl-shaped or flat, usually below the level of
the surrounding ground.
Central peaks Peaks formed in the central area of the floor of a large crater. For
larger craters (typically a few tens of kilometers in diameter) the excavated crater
becomes so great that it collapses on itself. Collapse of the material back into the
crater pushes up the mound that forms the central peak. At the same time, the rock
beneath the crater rebounds, or bounces back up to add to the peak.
Walls The interior sides of a crater, usually steep. They may have giant stair-like
terraces that are created by slumping of the walls due to gravity.

Rim The edge of the crater. It is elevated above the surrounding terrain because it
is composed of material pushed up at the edge during excavation.
Ejecta Rock material thrown out of the crater area during an impact event. It is
distributed outward from the crater's rim onto the planet's surface as debris. It can be
loose materials or a blanket of debris surrounding the crater, thinning at the outermost
regions.
Rays Bright streaks extending away from the crater sometimes for great distances,
composed of ejecta material.