Professional Documents
Culture Documents
SL
NO
TITLE
SYLLABUS
QUESTION BANK
CLASS WORK PROBLEMS
TWO MARKS
UNIT I INTRODUCTION
1.1 Design
1.2 Engineering Design
1.3 Considerations To Evolve A Good Design
1.4 Design Factors
1.4.2 Electromagnetic Fields
1.4.1 Electrostatic Fields
1.5 The Basic Structure Of An Electromagnetic
Rotating Electrical Machine
1.6 Limitations In Design
1.7 Constructional Details Of Machines
1.8 Specification Of Machines
1.8.1 Specification
1.8.2 The Standard Specifications Issued For
Electrical Machines,
1.8.3 Indian Standard Specifications Numbers
Along With Year.
1.9 Recend Trends In Design
1.10 Basic Principles
1.10.1 Faradays Law Of Electromagnetic
Induction
1.10.2 The Change In Flux Linkages Can Be
Caused In Three Ways
1.10.3 Biot-Savarts Law
1.10.4 Force Between Current Carrying
Conductor
1.11 General Design Procedure
1.11.1 Main Dimension Of The Rotating
Machines
PAGE
NUMBER
1
1
1
1
2
4
6
11
14
16
22
26
29
30
30
32
II
36
38
39
41
42
43
45
47
48
48
PROBLEMS
48
UNIT II
DC MACHINES
2.1 Constructional Elements
66
67
68
69
44
II
IV
72
73
75
78
PROBLEMS
79
84
85
86
UNIT III
TRANSFORMER
3.1 Constructional Details
3.2 Output Equation Of Single Phase Transformer
3.3 Output Equation Of Three Phase Transformer
III
71
100
100
103
105
115
PROBLEMS
118
UNIT - IV
105
108
109
111
112
114
128
130
INDUCTION MOTORS
4.1 Constructional Details
4.2 Separation Of D And L For Induction Motors
4.3 Choice Of Specific Loadings
132
134
134
134
135
135
135
136
137
138
133
133
138
138
139
139
140
141
141
142
142
142
142
144
UNIT - IV
INDUCTION MOTORS
5.1 Introduction
5.1.1 (I)Salient Pole Machines
5.1.2 (Ii)Cylindrical Rotor Machines
5.2 Output Equation
5.3 Design Of Salient Pole Machines
159
159
159
160
161
161
161
162
162
166
168
PROBLEMS
5.15 Dispersion Coefficient
5.15.1 Higher Value Of Dispersion Co Efficient
171
163
164
170
174
A.MUMTHAJ,AP/EEE
SYLLABUS -EMD
Page 1
Computer
4. M.V.K. Chari and P.P. Silvester, "Finite Elements in Electric and Magnetic
Field Problems", John Wiley, 1980.
REFERENCE BOOKS
5. K.G. Upadhyay,
Publishers, 2008.
Design
International
"Finite
Element
for
Electrical
Engineers",
A.MUMTHAJ,AP/EEE
SYLLABUS -EMD
Page 2
UNIT - I
INTRODUCTION
Basic Principles of Machine Design
Principles of electrical machine design - General design considerations Specifications of machines- Limitation in design- Recent trends in design CAD
Flow chart methods - Review of properties of materials used in electrical machines
- Magnetic circuit calculations- Introduction to Finite element method mathematical formulation - magnetic field calculations.
1.1 DESIGN
Design is defined as a creative physical realization of theoretical concepts.
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Page 1
OF
AN
ELECTROMAGNETIC
ROTATING
Magnetic circuits
Electric circuits
Dielectric circuits
Thermal circuits
Mechanical parts
A.MUMTHAJ ,AP/EEE
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Magnetic circuits
It provides the path for the magnetic flux and consists of airgap, stator and rotor
teeth and stator and rotor cores (yokes)
Electric circuits
It consists of stator and rotor winding.The winding of a transformer or a rotating
machine conveys electrical energy to or from the working region and is concerned with
production of emf and development of magneto mechanical force.winding are formed
from suitable insulated conductors.
Dielectric circuits
The dielectric circuit consists of insulation required to isolate one conductor from
another and also the windings from the core. The insulating materials are essentially
non-metallic and may be organic or inorganic ,natural or synthetic.
Thermal circuits
The thermal circuits is concerned with mode and media for dissipation of heat
produced inside the machine on account of losses.
Mechanical parts
Fig
(1.5
)
Basic
structure
ofrotating
machines
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Saturation
Temperature rise
Insulation
Efficiency
Mechanical parts
Commutation
Power factor
Consumers specifications
Standard specifications
Saturation
Electromagnetic machines use ferromagnetic materials
The maximum allowable flux density to be used is determined by the saturation level
of the ferromagnetic material used.
A high value of flux density results in increased excitation resulting in higher cost for
the field system.
Temperature rise
The most important parts of the machine is insulation.
The operating life of a machine depends upon the types of insulating materials used in
its construction .
A.MUMTHAJ ,AP/EEE
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The life of s insulating materials in turn depends upon the temperature rise of the
machine.
Proper cooling and ventilation techniques are required to keep the temperature rise
within safe limits.
Insulation
The insulation materials used in a machine should be able to withstand the electrical
,mechanical and thermal stresses which are produced in the machines.
The type of insulation is decided by the maximum operating temperature of the
machine parts where it is put.
And also the size of the insulation is decided by maximum voltage stress and
mechanical stresses produced.
Efficiency
The efficiency of the machine should be as high as possible to reduce the operating
costs.
In order to design a highly efficient machine, the machine and electric loadings used
should be small and this requires the use of large amount of material.
Mechanical parts
The construction of mechanical parts should be as simple as possible and also it is
technologically good.
The design of mechanical part is particularly important in case of high speed
machines.
For example
In turbo alternator ,the rotor slot dimensions are so selected that the mechanical
stresses at the bottom of rotor teeth do not exceed the maximum allowable limit.
In induction motors ,the length of airgap is kept as small as possible in order to have
a high power factor.
The length of airgap and also that of the size of the shaft are mainly decided by the
mechanical considerations.
A.MUMTHAJ ,AP/EEE
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In large machines,the size of the shaft is decided by considering the critical speed
which depends on the deflection of the shaft.
Commutation
The problem of commutation is important in the case of commutator machines.
Commutation condition limit the maximum output that can be taken from a
machine.
Power factor
Poor power factor results in larger values of current for the same power and therefore
large conductor sizes have to be used.
Power factor problem is particularly important in the case of induction motors.
The size and hence cost of induction motors can be reduced by using a high value of
flux density in the airgap but results in saturation in iron parts of machine and
consequently a poor power factor.
Thus the value of flux density depends upon the power factor.
Consumers specifications
The specifications as laid down in the consumers order have to be met and the design
evolved should be such that it satisfied all the specifications and also the economic
constraints imposed on the manufacturer.
Standard specifications
This specifications are the biggest strain on the design because both the manufacturer
as well as the consumer cannot get away from them without satisfying them.
-------------------------------*-----------------------------
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IRON CORE
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY WINDING
TRANSFORMER TANK
COOLING TUBES
Rotor
a. Armature core
b. Armature winding
c. Commutator.
d.
Others
a. Brush
b. Brush holder
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Page 7
b. Stator core
c. Stator winding
Rotor
a. Rotor core
b. Rotor bars
c. End rings
1. Electromagnetic Design
2. Mechanical Design
3. Thermal Design
4. Dielectric Design
--------------------*-------------------------------
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Page 8
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
IS 1231 1974
IS 4029 1967
IS 12615 1986
IS 13555 1993
IS 2026 1994
IS 11171 1985
IS 10561 1983
IS 13956 -1994
: Testing transformers
IS 1885 1993
IS 996 1979
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Page 9
Electromagnetic design
Mechanical design
Thermal design
Dielectric design
For example
Generators ,motors and transformer form a part of an electromechanical energy
network.
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The different machines of such a system are inter connected and react upon each
other ,sometimes considerably and on occasions disasteroulsy.
Therefore the machines for such a system cannot be designed in isolation and the
designs of all the machines have to be complete concurrently since the design of ine
machine depends upon that of the others.
The problem thus is that of optimization of the system.
To design a series of machines having different ratings to fit into a single frame size.
In this case ,the finished designs of machines must be produced in groups ,where all
designs with in a group are independent.
The evolution of design to meet the specified optimum criteria is a matter of long and
tedious iterations and this fact has led to the applications of fast digital computers to
the design of electrical machines and transformers.
The digital computers has completely revolutionalized the field of electrical machine
deisgn.
The computer aided design has the advantages of eliminating tedious and time
consuming hand calculations thereby releasing the designer from numerical.
---------------------------* ----------------------------------
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Page 11
=N11+N22+..Nnn
(volt)
Method I
Where the coil is stationary and the flux is time varying an emf called transformer
or pulsational emf is produced.
There is no energy conversion takes place is energy transference.
This principles used in transformers.
Method II
The flux cutting rule can be employed to illustrate the emf generated in a
conductor moving in a constant stationary field.
The emf generated in d conductor of length moving at right angles to a uniform
,stationary,time invarying magnetic field.
e=- Blv (volt)
where
B flux density ,wb/m2(T)
l=length of conductor ,(m)
A.MUMTHAJ ,AP/EEE
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Method III
A conductor or coil is moving across a stationary time varying magnetic field
(flux)and therefore both transformer as well as motional emf are produced in the
conductor or coil.
This process involves both transformer and energy conversion.
This principles is utilized in the commutator machines.
The direction of force produced is perpendicular to both current and magnetic field.
Conductor and magnetic field are perpendicular to each other and thus =
90,sin90= 1
fe=Bli newton
B= H
B=
Electromagnetic force
F = BI2l
F=
F=
A.MUMTHAJ ,AP/EEE
I2l
I1I2 newton
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Page 13
Transformer
DC machines
Induction machine
&
Synchronous machines
Primary
Winding
secondary
winding
stator
Winding
Armature winding
Rotor
Winding
Field winding
The general design procedure is to relate the main dimensions of the machines to its
rated power outputs.
An electrical machine is designed to deliver a certain amount of power called rated
power.
Rated power is the maximum power that can be delivered by the machine safety.
In DC machines the power rating is expressed in KW
In AC machines the power rating is expressed in KVA
In case of motor the output power is expressed in HP
Active part
In electrical machines the core and winding of the machine are together called active
part.
Because the energy conversion takes place only in the part active part of the
machines.
For all the machines the general output equation can be developed for DC machines
which relates the power output to volume of active part (D2L),speed, magnetic and
electric loading.
Similarly a general output equation can be developed for AC machine which relates
KVA rating to volume of the active part (D2L), speed, magnetic and electric loading.
A.MUMTHAJ ,AP/EEE
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Page 14
In DC machines
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Page 15
In AC machines
D Inner diameter of stator
L The length of stator core
Dr Diameter of Rotor
lg-Length of airgap
--------------------*-----------------------
A.MUMTHAJ ,AP/EEE
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Page 16
Copper
Copper is the most widely used electrical conductor.
Aluminum
Aluminum is joining ever increasing applications for a number of economic and
engineering reasons.
The high demand for conductor materials which cannot be met by copper production
alone.
A.MUMTHAJ ,AP/EEE
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Page 17
Copper
1
1
1
1
1
1
Aluminum
0.49xPe / Pa
1.62
1.27
2.04
0.49
0.64
Where
Pc unit price by weight of copper
Pe unit price by weight of Aluminum
Alloys of copper
1. Bronze (cadmium ,beryllium)
2. Brass
3. Copper silver alloys
A.MUMTHAJ ,AP/EEE
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Electrical carbon materials are manufactured from graphite and other forms of carbon
coal.
Used for making brushes for electrical machines.
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Electrical machines
Transformers
Electrical apparatus
Instruments and devices
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Page 20
Soft iron
Relay steel
Cast steel
Cast iron
Ferro cobalt
Insulating materials
It is essentially
1. Non metallic
A.MUMTHAJ ,AP/EEE
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Page 21
Paper
Cloth
Paraffin
Wax
Natural resins
The above said properties of insulating materials vary widely with many factors.
1.
2.
3.
4.
A.MUMTHAJ ,AP/EEE
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Page 22
The computer aided design eliminates the tedious and time consuming hand
calculations thereby releasing the designer from numerical drudgery to enable time to
grapple with physical and logical ideas thereby accelerating the design process.
The use of computer makes possible more trial designs and enables sophisticated
calculations to be made without intolerable tedium and excessive time.
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Page 23
The performance is calculated by the computer and is returned to the designer for him
to examine.
The designer examines the performance and makes another choice of input,if
necessary and the performance is recalculated.
Analysis method
A preliminary design is made by the designer regarding the machine dimensions,
materials and other constructional features and these are given as input data to the
computer and the performance quantities are calculated.
The designer examines the performance and accordingly alters the input data and
then feed them to the computer again.
The computer calculates the new performance with the revised data.
This process is repeated till the required performance is achieved.
A.MUMTHAJ ,AP/EEE
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Start
Human decision
NO
Input
Is
Decision
OK?
Performance
calculations
Performance
Start
Output
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Page 25
Performance specification
Performance calculations
NO
IS
Performance
satisfactory
Yes
Calculate total cost
Stop
Print design values
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Page 26
Poles
Pole shoes
Air gap
Armature teeth
Armature core
Yoke
The various elements in the flux path of non salient pole machines are
Stator core
Stator teeth
Air gap
Rotor teeth
Rotor core
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Page 27
(or)
= AT x ,
permeance
Reluctance of the magnetic materials can be estimated using the following equation
Reluctance
S=
S=
- permeability of the magnetic materials
- Relative permeability
Absolute permeability of free space.
H/m
The strength of the magnetic field is measured by the term magnetizing force (H).
Flux =
H=
X
=
(B =
,A=
H=
For the case of a materials of length l and carrying a uniform flux,the total mmf AT is
H=
H=
AT = H x l = at x l
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Page 28
Total reluctance
S = S1+S2+S3+..
S1,S2,S3 Reluctance of individual parts
Total mmf acting around a complete magnetic circuit is
Total mmf
AT = S
AT = (S1+S2+S3+..)
= AT1+AT2+AT3+..
= at1l1+at2l2+at3l3+...
AT =
In a parallel circuit
Total flux divides between the paths in inverse proportion to their releuctances.
In parallel circuit
Total flux = 1+ 2+ 3+
Divide by AT
=
=
+ +=
= 1+ 2+ 3+.
S- Total reluctance of magnetic circuit
S1,S2,S3 Reluctance of individual parts
Total permeance of magnetic circuit
1 2 3 Permeance of individual parts.
----------------------------*----------------------------------
A.MUMTHAJ ,AP/EEE
MAGNETIC CIRCUIT
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Page 29
MAGNETIC CIRCUIT
Resistance R = l / A = l / A
conductivity
Reluctance ,S = l / A
Current =
Flux =
Current density
=
Flux density
B=
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The most important difference between electric and magnetic circuits arises from the
fact that whereas the resistance of an electric circuit is not directly dependent upon
value of current flowing and may be regarded as constant.
The value of reluctance of a magnetic materials is dependent upon the value of flux
passing through it.
The relative permeability of ferro magnetic materials may vary between a flow hundred
and about five hundred thousand.
The actual values of permeability and reluctance are hardly used in magnetic circuit
calculations.
The magnetization curves of magnetic materials relating flux density B to mmf per uint
length ,H or at per mt are used for the rapid determination of necessary excitation.
The analytic relations between B and H prove more convenient
B=
B=
A,ao,a1,a2,b1,b2 constants
A.MUMTHAJ ,AP/EEE
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Page 31
= 800000B
Where B wb/m2
-------------------------*----------------------------
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S l / A
The area of cross section of the magnetic path over one slot of the armature.
Sg =
Sy-Reluctance of the airgap
lg-length of airgap
o-Permeability of air
-Area of cross section of airgap over one slot (The product of the length of armature
and slot pitch)
Ys-slot pitch
1.18.1 Reluctance of airgap in machines with open armature slot
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Ys = Wt+Ws+ Ws-Ws
Ys = Ys+ Ws-Ws
Ys = Ys-Ws(1-)
Ys = Ys - KcsWs
Sg =
1.18.4 The gap contraction factor for slots
Kgs - Gap contraction factor for slots
Kgs =
Kgs =
Kgs =
Kgs =
Kgs =
,Kgs >unity
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A.MUMTHAJ ,AP/EEE
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Page 36
Kgd =
Kgd =
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Page 37
Kg =
Kg =
Kg =
X = Kgs X Kgd
Kg = Kgs x Kgd
A.MUMTHAJ ,AP/EEE
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~ 800000B AT/m
= 800000Bav
1.21.3 Mmf of air gap in machines with open armature slot and Radial ventilating ducts
A.MUMTHAJ ,AP/EEE
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>
Smooth
Armature slots
Mmf required for airgap in machines with open armature slots and ducts =
Kg x ATg for airgap in machines with smooth armature surface
= Kg x 800000Bavlg
1.21.4 Effect of Saliency on the mmf for airgap
,Also Kf ~ =
=
-----------------------*---------------------------
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1.22.1 METHODS
1. GRAPHICAL METHOD
2. THREE ORDINATE METHOD (SIMPSONS RULE)
3. Bt1/3 method
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A.MUMTHAJ ,AP/EEE
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Page 42
2.
The apparent flux density = Bapp = total flux over a slot pitch /iron area over a slot
pitch
Bapp = Breal +BaK
Ba flux density in air
Ba =oH = o atreal
Bapp = Breal +4*10-7atreal (Ks-1)
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A.MUMTHAJ ,AP/EEE
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A slot consist of
Zs conductors
Conductor carrying a current of Iz
Slot inductance = flux linkages / current
= Zssl / Iz ---------------(1)
sl slot leakage flux
sl = mmf * permeance
sl = ZsIzs
- ---------------------(2)
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A.MUMTHAJ ,AP/EEE
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Pa=CoD2Ln
PROBLEMS
P1) A 350 KW, 500V, 450rpm, 6-pole, dc generator is built with an armature
diameter of 0.87m and core length of 0.32m. The lap wound armature has 660
conductors. Calculate the specific electric and magnetic loadings.
Given data
P= 350KW
N= 450rpm = n=450 / 60 = 7.5rps
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Page 48
Z = 660
; p=6
D = 0.87m
V = 500V
L = 0.32m
To find
Bav and ac
Formula
Bav = p / DL
ac=IzZ / D
soln
The power output of the generator
P= VI *10-3 in KW
Full load current I = P / V*10-3 = 350 / (500*10-3)
I =700 amps
Neglecting field current Ia~ I
Current through each armature conductor Iz=
Iz = Ia / a
Iz = 700 /6
Iz = 116.67A ( a= p in lap wound)
1.Specific electric loading
ac=IzZ / D = 116.67 *660 / ( *0.87)
ac=28173 amp.cond / m
induced emf in dc generator
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Page 49
E = ZnP /a
E = Zn ( for lap wdg p=a)
Flux / pole =E /Zn
= 500 / 660*(450/60)
= 0.101wb
2.specific magnetic loading
Bav = p / DL
= 6*0.101/ *0.87*0.32
Bav = 0.6929 wb/m2
..
P2) Calculate the MMF per meter for a flux density of 1.7wb/m and a
permeability of 23.5 x
10- 6H/m.
Given data
Flux density B = 1.7wb/m2
permeability = 23.5 x 10-6H/m
To find
Mmf / meter = ?
Formula used
B = H
H=B/
Solution
H=B/
H = 72.3x103A/m
Result
Mmf / meter H =
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Page 50
72.3x103A/m
P3 ) The length of the iron path of a magnetic circuit is 50cm.the area of cross
section is 12.5cm2 r = 800, what is the reluctance of the magnetic circuit.
Given data
l=50cm =50x10-2m
Area of cross section a=12.5cm2
a=12.5x10-4
r=800
To find
Reluctance (S)
Formula used
S=
Solution
S = 3.98X105A/wb
..
P4) Calculate the mmf required for the air gap with kg = 1.1, Lg =2mm, Bg
=1.5Wb/m2
Given data
Kg=1.1
Lg=2mm=2x10-3m
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Page 51
Bg=1.5wb/m2
To find
Mmf for airgap
Formula
Mmf = 800000kg lg Bg
Solution
Mmf = AT=8x105x1.1x2x10-3x1.5
Mmf = 2640A
Mmf = 2640AT
P5) Calculate the mmf required for one air gap of a dc machine with an axial
length of 20 cm (no ducts) and a pole are 18 cm. The slot pitch is 27 mm, slot
opening 12 mm, air gap 6 mm and the useful flux per pole 25 mWb.
Take
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Page 52
,=
, pole arc b
Pole pitch -
Bg=
Bg= 0.6944 wb /m2
Soln
ATg = 800000 *Kg*Bg*lg
= 800000*1.1538*0.6944*6*10-3
ATg = 3845.75 AT
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P6) A 15 KW, 230 V, 4- pole dc machine has the following data: armature
diameter = 0.25 m, armature core length = 0.125 m, length of air gap at pole
center = 2.5 mm, flux per pole = 11.7 x 10-3 Wb, (pole arc/pole pitch) = 0.66.
Calculate the mmf required for air gap (i) if the armature surface is treated
as smooth (ii) if the armature is slotted and the gap contraction factor is 1.18.
Given data
Power developed = 15KW
Armature diameter D = 0.25m
Armature core length L = 0.125m
Length of air gap lg=2.5mm
Flux per pole = 11.7*10-3wb
Pole arc (b) / pole pitch () = = 0.66
No of poles p=4
Gap contraction factor Kg=1.18
To find
Mmf required for airgap
1.
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Page 54
Bav =
Bav =
Bav =0.47 wb /m2
Flux density at the centre of the pole
Bg = Bav /
Bg=0.4767 / 0.66
Bg=0.7223wb/m2
i)
ii) mmf required for airgap with slotted armature ATg = 800000 Kg Bg lg
= 800000 * 1.18*0.7223*2.5*10-3
ATg = 1705AT
P7) Determine the air-gap length of a dc machine from the following particulars:
gross-length of core = 0.12m, number of ducts = one and is 10 mm wide, slot
pitch = 25 mm, slot width = 10 mm, carter's coefficient for slots and ducts =
0.32, gap density at pole center = 0.7 Wb/m2; field mmf/pole = 3900 AT, mmf
required for iron parts of magnetic circuit = 800AT,
Given data
Gross length L = 0.12m
No of ducts nd=1
Wd=10mm
Slot pitch Ys = 25mm
Slot width Wt = 10mm
Kcs = Kcd = 0.32
Gap density Bg=0.7 wb/m2
Mmf per pole = 3900AT
Mmf per iron = 800AT
To find
Airgap length lg=?
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Page 55
Formula
We know that
Mmf for airgap ATg = 800000 Kg Bg lg
lg = ATg /800000 Kg Bg
soln
mmf for airgap
ATg = mmf per pole mmf for iron parts
ATg =3900 800
ATg = 3100AT
Gap contraction factor for slots
Kgs = Ys / (Ys KcsWt)
= 25 / (25-0.32*10)
Kgs = 1.1468
Gap contraction factor for ducts
Kgd
Kgd =
Kgd = 1.02
Total gap contraction factor
Kg =Kgs * Kgd
Kg = 1.1468 * 1.02
Kg = 1.1782
lg=ATg / 800000*Bg*Kg
= 3100 / 800000*0.7*1.1782
lg=4.678*10-3
lg=4.7mm
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P8 ) The following data refers to a 20KW,2 pole DC motor ,Air gap =2.5mm,Area
under
each
pole
20x10-3m,air
gap
flux
density
=0.8wb/m2,vertical
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P9 ) Calculate the unbalanced magnetic pull of 4 pole DC machine having air gap
flux density of 0.85wb/m2, and a gap length of 2mm. the area of each pole is
24x10-3m2 and poles are symmetrically mounted. The accentricity is 15% in the
air gap.
Given data
p=4
lg=2mm
B=0.85wb/m2
Ap=24*103m2
Accentricity= e = 15% of lg
To find
Unbalanced magnetic pull due to four poles = p*Ap*Pm*(e/lg)
Formula
Magnetic pull per unit area Pm = B2 / o
Pm = 0.852 / 4*10-7
Pm= 287.4736*103 N/m2
e=15% of lg
e=15 /100*2
e=0.3mm
Unbalanced magnetic pull due to four poles = p*Ap*Pm*e/lg
= 4* 24*10-3*287.47 *103*(0.3/2)
Unbalanced magnetic pull due to four poles
=4139.6 N
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P10 )Calculate the apparent flux density at a section of the teeth of an armature
of a DC machine from the following data at that section, slot pitch=24mm, slot
width=tooth width=12mm, length of armature core including 5 ducts of 10mm
each=0.38m, iron stacking factor=0.92, true flux density in teeth at that section
is 2.2wb/m2 for which the mmf is 70,000AT/m.
Given data
Slot pitch Ys = 24mm
Slot width = tooth width
Ws = 12mm
L = 0.38m
Wt =12mm
Ducts = 5 nos
Wd= 10mm
Stacking factor Sf= 0.92
B real = 2.2wb/m2
at=70000AT/m
To find
Apparent flux density Bapp =?
Formula
Bapp = Breal + [o at (Ks-1)]
Soln
Ks =
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Ks =
Ks = 2.5
Bapp = Breal + [o at (Ks-1)]
= 2.2 +4*10-7*70000(2.5-1)
B
app
= 2.332 wb/m2
.
P11) Find the permeability at the root of the teeth of a DC machine armature
from the following data, slot pitch 2.1cm,tooth width at the root 1.07cm,gross
length 32cm,stacking factor=0.9 real flux density at the root of the teeth
2.25tesla,apparent flux density at the root 2.36tesla.
Given data
slot pitch 2.1cm = Ys = 2.1cm
tooth width Wt = 1.07cm
gross length L = 32cm= 32*10-2m
stacking factor Sf = 0.9
Breal = 2.25 tesla
Bapp = 2.36 tesla
To find
Permeability = ?
Formula
Breal = at
real
= Breal / at
real
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Ks =
Ks =
( Li = SfL)
Soln
Bapp = Breal +4*10-7atreal (Ks-1)
atreal = Bapp - Breal / o(ks-1)
To find
Ks =
Ks =
Ks = 2.181
atreal
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Given data
Stator bore D = 500mm
Core length L = 220mm
Stator slots Ss = 76
Rotor slots Sr = 94
Slot opening Wos = 2mm
Wor = 2mm
Air gap length lg=0.9mm
Kgd = 1.15
Bav = 0.54wb/m2
To find
Mmf for air gap
Formula
Mmf for air gap = 800000 Bav Kg lg
Total gap contraction factor Kg = Kgs*Kgd
Soln
Carters co efficient for stator slots Kcs = 1/ (1+5lg/Wos)
Kcs =
Kcs = 0.3077
Kcss =Kcsr = 0.3077
Gap contraction factor for stator slots Kgss =
Gap contraction factor for rotor slots Kgsr =
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= *500 / 76 = 20.67mm
= (500-2*0.9)/ 94 = 16.65mm
Kgss =
Kgss = 1.0307
Kgsr =
Kgsr = 1.0307
Kgs= Kgss *Kgsr
Kgs = 1.0307 *1.0307
Kgs = 1.0703
Total gap contraction factor
Kg = Kgs *Kgd
Kg = 1.0703*1.15
Kg= 1.2308
Mmf for air gap = 800000 Bav Kg lg
= 800000 *0.54*1.203*0.9*10-3
Mmf for air gap = 478.5AT
.
P13) University repeated question
Calculate mmf required for the air gap of a machine having core length of 0.32m
including 4 ducts of 10mm each ,pole arc of 0.29m,slot pitch of 65.4mm ,slot
opening of 5mm,air gap length of 5mm,flux per pole of 52mwb,given carters
coefficient is 0.18 for opening /gap =1 and is 0.28 opening / gap =2 .
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Given data
L= 0.32m
nd=4
Wd=10mm
Wo = 5mm
Lg=5mm
b=0.29m
= 52*10-3wb
Ys = 65.4mm
Kcs = 0.18
Kcd = 0.28
Find
Mmf required for air gap =?
Formula
Mmf = 800000 Bg Kg lg
Soln
Bg=Bav /
= p / DLb
[ = b / ]
= pD / DLbp
Bg = / L*b
Bg = 52*10-3 / 0.32*0.29
Bg = 0.56
Kg = Kgs *Kgd
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Kgs =
= 65.4*10-3 / 65.4*10-3-0.18*5*10-3
Kgs = 1.01
Kgd =
= 0.32 / 0.32 (0.28*4*10*10-3)
Kgd = 1.003
Kg = Kgs *Kgd
Kg = 1.01*1.003
Kg= 1.013
ATg = 800000 *0.56*1.013*5*10-3
ATg = 2269.12 AT
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UNIT II
DC MACHINES
Constructional details- Output equation - Choice of specific electric and
magnetic loadings - Separation of D and L for rotating machines. Estimation of
number of conductors / turns - Coils - armature Slots - Conductor dimension Slot dimension. Choice of number of poles - Length of air gap - Design of field
system, Interpoles, Commutator and Brushes.
Consists of
- Constructional Elements
- Output Equation
- Choice of specific loadings
- Selection of number of poles
- Length of airgap
- Armature design
- Field system design
- Commutator and brushes
- Efficiency and Losses
(iii) Frame.
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------------------------------------------------(1)
The conductors are connected in parallel paths ,if a number of parallel path,then
Current through each conductor is
Iz= Ia/ a
Or
Ia = Iz a
------------------------(2)
We know that
Specific magnetic loading Bav = p / DL
Or
p = DLBav ------------(3)
Specific electric loading ac = Iz z / D
Or
Iz z = D ac ---------------(4)
In dc generator
Power generated in the armature = induced emf * armature current
In dc motor
Power generated in the armature = induced emf(back emf) * armature current
Power generated in the armature Pa = E Ia*10-3 in KW ---------------(5)
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------------------------(6)
--------------------------------------------------(7)
Where Co = 2Bavac*10-3
Co o/p co efficient
D2L volume of active part
Pa volume of active part *speed
-----------------------------*---------------------------------
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Pole proportional
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The dimension of the machine are decided by the square pole criterion
This states that foe a given flux and cross section area of pole, the length of mean turn
of field winding is minimum when the peripheral forms a square.
Length = pole arc
L= b=
0.64 to 0.72 ; = b / ; b=
L / = 0.64 to 0.72
However in practice L is slightly greater than pole arc
b=L / = 0.7 to 0.9
for square pole criteria choose
L / = 0.7
L core length
ratio of pole arc to pole pitch.
Peripheral speed
The peripheral speed of armature is sometimes a limiting factor to the value of
diameter
The peripheral speed should not exceed about 30m/sec
Moment of inertia
For low moment of inertia diameter should be made as small as possible.
Voltage between adjacent commutator segments
Maximum voltage between adjacent segments Ecm = 2BgmLVaTc
Bgm - maximum airgap flux density under load condition
Tc turns per coil
-------------------------------*---------------------------------------Choice of armature length
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= 7.5 / TcNc
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5. Power output
Pole pitch
Pole
Upto 240
240 to 400
350 to 450
Above 6
450 to 500
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3. Size of machine
(i) Flux density
Large values of Bav in teeth increases field mmf.
Higher mmf results in increase of iron loss, cu loss & cost of cu.
Bav does not exceed 2.2wb/m2
(ii) Frequency of flux reversal
If f is high then iron losses in arm. Core & teeth would be high.
So high value of Bav is not used.
(iii) Size of machine .
If size increases Bav also increases.
As the dia increases the width of the tooth also increases, permitting increased value
of Bg without saturation.
Bg bet 0.55 to 1.15Wb/m2 & Bav 0.4 to0.8 wb/m2
---------------------------*---------------------------
Ex. In m/cs. Using class F insulation which can withstand a temp. of 155c, the value
of ac can be approx. 40% higher than that used in m/cs. Designed for class
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Upto 100
5000 or less
100 to 500
5000 to 7500
500 to 1500
7500 to 10000
Over 1500
Upto 12500
(i) Frequency
F=pn/2
If p is high then f also increases which may lead to excessive iron
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=T
= T/2
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-----------------------*---------------------------------------
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PROBLEMS
P1) Find the main dimensions of a 200KW, 250V, 6 pole, 1000 rpm generator.
The maximum value of flux density in the gap is 0.87 Wb/m2 and the ampere
conductors per metre of armature periphery are 31000. The ratio of pole arc to
pole pitch is 0.67 and the efficiency is 91 percent. Assume the ratio of length of
core to pole pitch = 0.75
Given data
P=200KW
V=250V
P=6
N=1000rpm = 1000/ 60 rps
Flux Density In The Gap = Bg=0.87wb/m2
AmpCond / metre ac =31000
Pole arc / pole pitch = = 0.67
Effi ciency =91%
Length of core / pole pitch = L / = 0.75
Formula
Pa=CoD2Ln
Soln
Power developed in armature Pa=P /
= 200 / 0.91
Pa = 219.78KW
To find Co
Output coefficient Co = 2Bavac*10-3
Bg = Bav /
Bav = Bg
Co = 2 Bgac*10-3
Co = 2*0.67*0.87*31000*10-3
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Co = 178.34KW/m3-rps
Then Pa = CoD2Ln
D2L = Pa / Co*n
= 219.78 / (178.34*(1000/60))
D2L = 0.0739m3
Given L / = 0.75
L=0.75 *
L = 0.75 *D / p = 0.75**D/ 6
L=0.3927D
D2L = 0.0739
D2(0.3927D)= 0.0739
0.3927D3 = 0.0739
D = (0.0739 / 0.3927)1\3
D= 0.57m
L=0.3927D
L= 0.22m
Result
The diameter of the armature, D = 0.57 m
The length of the armature, L = 0.22 m
P2 ) Find the main dimensions and the number of poles of a 37 KW, 230V, 1400
rpm shunt motor so that a square pole face is obtained. The average gap density
is 0.5 Wb/m2 and the ampere conductors per metre are 22000. The ratio of pole
arc to pole pitch is 0.7 and the full load efficiency is 90 percent.
Given Data
37 KWSquare pole face
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= 0.7
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230 V
1400 rpm
ac = 22000
= 90%
Soln
If poles p= 2 ,then f = PN/ 120 = 2*1400 / 120 = 23.33Hz
If polesp= 4 ,then f= 4*1400/ 120 = 46.67Hz
Power input Pi = VI*10-3KW
Power input Pi = power o/p /
I = P / V*10-3
I = 37 / 0.9*230*10-3
I = 178.74A
Ia = I = 178.74A
Armature current is less than 200A,hence the current per parallel path will not
exceed the upper limit of 200A.
When p=4,the frequency f=46Hz,which lies in the range of 25 to 50Hz
Hence p = 4 is the best choice.
o/p co efficient Co = 2Bavac*10-3
Co = 2*0.5*22000*10-3
Co = 108.57 KW / m3-rps
Then Pa = CoD2Ln
D2L = Pa / Co*n
D2L = 37 / 108.57 *(1400/60)
D2L = 0.0146m3
Pole arc / pole pitch = 0.7 ( for square pole flux)
Length / pole pitch = L / = 0.7
L= 0.7
L= 0.7( *D) / p
= 0.7**D / 4
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L= 0.5498D
D2L = 0.0146
D2(0.5498D) = 0.0146
D3(0.5498) = 0.0146
D= (0.0146 / 0.5498 )1/3
D= 0.3m
L = 0.5498D
L = 0.5498 * 0.3
L = 0.165m
Result
Number of poles, p = 4
Diameter of armature, D = 0.3 m
Length of armature, L = 0.165 m
-------------------------*---------------------------------P3) Calculate the main dimensions of a 20Hp, 1000 rpm, 400V, dc motor. Given
that bav = 0.37 Wb/m2 and ac = 16000 amp.cond./m. Assume an efficiency of
90%.
Given Data
P=20 Hp = 20 * 0.746 = 14.92KW
Bav = 0.37 Wb/m2
N = 1000 rpm = 1000/60
n =16.66rpm
V=400 V
ac = 16000 amp.cond./m
= 90%
Formula
Pa = Co = D2Ln KW
Power i/p Pi = P /
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Pi = 14.92 / 0.9
Pi = 16.57KW
Also Pi = VI *10-3
Load current I = Pi / V*10-3
I = 16.57 / 400*10-3
I = 41.45A
Ia = I = 41.45A
Let
P=2 ; f= N*p / 120 = 2*1000 / 120 = 16.67Hz
P=4; f= N*p / 120 = 4*1000 / 120 = 33.33Hz
P=6 ; f= N*p / 120 = 6*1000 / 120 = 50Hz
Frequency lie in the range of 25 to 50Hz for minimum cost the highest possible choice
of poles should be chosen.
Hence p=6
Output co efficient
Co = 2Bavac*10-3
Co = 2*0.37*16000*10-3
Co = 58.428 KW / m3-rps
Power developed in armature
Pa = CoD2Ln
D2L = Pa / Co*n
D2L = 14.92 / 58.428*16.66
D2L = 0.0153m3
Square pole face
L / = 0.7
L= 0.7( *D) / p
= 0.7**D / 6
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L= 0.3665D
D2L = 0.0153
D2 (0.3665D) = 0.0153
D30.3665 = 0.0153
D = (0.0153 / 0.3665 )
1/3
D = 0.34m
L= 0.3665D
L = 0.3665*0.34
L= 0.127m
Result
Diameter of armature, D = 0.35 m
Length of armature, L = 0.128 m
..
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Airgap
Armature teeth and armature core.
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(ii)Retarted commutation
(iii)Accelerated commutation
(iv)Sinusoidal commutation
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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tb=15.6mm
width of brush Wb = ab / tb
ab = current carried by each brush / current density in brush
ab = 44.2 / 75*10-3
ab = 590mm2
Wb= 589.3 / 15.6
Wb = 37.77mm
Length of commutator Lc= nb(Wb+Cb)+C1+C2
Cb = 5mm
C1 = 20mm
C2 = 20mm
Lc= 6(38+5)+20+20
Lc= 298mm
Lc= 0.298m
Result
Number of commutator segments
288
Diameter of commutator
0.48 m
5.2 mm
Number of brushes
Thickness of brush
15.6 mm
Width of brush
38 mm
Length of commutator
0.3 m
P5)
Draw the winding diagram in the developed form for a 4-pole, 12 slots
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Soln
Number of coils = number of commutator segments
No of commutator segments = 12
Pole =4
No of coils C= 12
No of coil sides = 2C= 2*12 = 24
Coil sides per slot = no of coil sides / no of slots
= 24 / 12
Coil sides per slots = 2
Step I
Representation of poles
Step II
Representation of coil sides
Top coil sides represented by odd number
Bottom side represented by even number
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Step III
Representation of direction of current
Under north pole marked - upwards
Under south pole marked - downward
Winding pitches
Lap winding
Back pitch Yb = 2C
+K
P
Yb=(2*12 / 4) +K = 6+K
Let K= 1;Yb = 6+1 = 7 coil sides
Winding pitch
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20-5=15
15+7=22
22-5=17
17+7=24
24-5=19
19+7=26-24=2
26-5=21
21+7=28-24=4
28-5=23
23+7=30-24=6
6-5=1
Back connection
1
10
12
14
16
11
18
13
20
15
22
17
24
19
21
23
4
6
Front connection
8
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10
12
14
16
11
18
13
20
15
22
17
24
19
21
23
Winding table
1
11
19
3
18
2
10
13
21
5
20
4
12
15
23
14
22
6
9
17
16
24
lap winding
no of brush = no of poles
In this winding there will be four brushes and in this four brushes two will be
positive and two will be negative.
On observing the currents entering at the commutator segments we can place positive
brushes at segments 4 and 10
In segments 4 and 10 the current enter the commutator segments.
In segments 1 and 7 the current leaves the commutator segments .hence negative
brushes can be placed at segments 1 and 7.
+ve
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place of ve brush
.
P6) Draw the winding diagram for a 4-pole, 13 slots, simplex wave connected dc
generator with a commutator having 13 segments. The number of coil sides per
slot is 2. Indicate the position of brushes.
Number of coils = number of commutator segments
No of commutator segments = 13
Pole =4
No of coils C= 13
No of coil sides = 2C= 2*13 = 26
Coil sides per slot = no of coil sides / no of slots
= 26 / 13
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Step II
Representation of coil sides
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Winding pitches
Back pitch Yb = 2C
+K
P
= (2*13/4) +K = 6.5K
Let K = 0.5
Yb = 6.5+0.5 = 7 coil sides
Commutator pitch
Yc= C+1 / (p/2) = 13+1 / (4/2) = 7
Winding pitch
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Y = 2Yc ; Y = Yb+Yf
Front pitch Yf = Y Yb
= 2Yc-Yb = 2*7-7
Yf = 7
Bottom coil side of the first coil (back connection) =top coil side of first coil +back
pitch
= 1+Yb = 1+7 = 8
Top coil side of the coil lying one pole pitch from first coil (front connection) = bottom
coil side of first coil + front pitch
= 8+Yf
= 8+7 = 15
Winding calculations
1+7= 8
8+7=15
15+7=22
22+7=29-26=3
3+7=10
10+7=17
17+7=24
24+7=31-26=5
5+7=12
12+7=19
19+7=26
26+7=33-26=7
7+7=14
14+7=21
21+7=28-26=2
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2+7=9
9+7=16
16+7=23
23+7=30-26=4
4+7=11
11+7=18
18+7=25
25+7=32-26=6
6+7=13
13+7=20
20+7=27-26=1
Back connection
front connection
15
15
22
22
10
10
17
17
24
24
12
12
19
19
26
26
14
14
21
21
16
16
23
23
14
11
11
18
18
25
13
20
20
25
13
1
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UNIT III
TRANSFORMER
Constructional details-Classification output equation - Core section - Window
dimensions - Yoke dimension - Overall dimension - Determination of number of
turns and length of mean turns of windings- Resistance of windings- Leakage
reactance- No load current calculation Regulation, losses and efficiency.
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----------------------------------------------------(1)
------------------------------------------------------(2)
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--------------------------------------------------(5)
*area of cross
section of sy wdg
= Tpap+Tsas
= Tp Ip /
+ Ts Is /
= 1 / ( TpIp+TsIs)
= 1/ ( AT+AT)
Ac
= 2AT / ---------------------------(7)
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Et = 4.44fm
AT = KwAw / 2
Q = 4.44 fmKwAw / 2 *10-3
Q = 2.22 f mKwAw*10-3
Q = 2.22 f BmAiKwAw*10-3
----------------------------------------------------(1)
------------------------------------------------------(2)
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ap=Ip / -----------------------------------------------------(4)
Area of cross section of secondary conductor
as=Is /
--------------------------------------------------(5)
*area of cross
section of sy wdg
=2 Tpap+2Tsas
= 2Tp Ip /
+ 2Ts Is /
= 2 / ( TpIp+TsIs)
= 2/ ( AT+AT)
Ac
= 4AT / ---------------------------(7)
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Rectangular
(ii)
Square
(iii) Stepped
For shell type transformer
The cross section may be rectangular ,when rectangular cores are used the coils are also
rectangular in shape .
In core type transformer with rectangular core the
Ratio of depth / width = 1.4 to 2
In shell type transformer
Rectangular cores the width of the central limb is 2 to 3 times the depth of the core.
Square core
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Height of window(Hw)
(ii)
A.MUMTHAJ,AP/EEE
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
height of yoke(Hy)
depth of yoke(Dy)
(vi)
(vii)
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Fig (3.7 ) Over All Dimension Of single phase core type The
Transformer
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The choice of current density() depends on the allowable temperature rise , copper
loss,method of cooling .
for various types of T/F
=1.1 to 2.2 A/mm2 for distribution T/F
= 1.1 to 2.2 A/mm2 for small power T/F with self oil cooling.
=2.2 to 3.2 A/mm2 for large power transformer with self oil cooling or air blast .
=5.4 to 6.2 A/mm2 for large power T/F with forced circulation of oil or with water
cooling coils.
Area of cross section of primary winding conductor ap=Ip /
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The transformers are provided with cooling tubes to increase the heat
dissipating area. The tubes are mounted on the vertical sides of the
transformer tank. But the increase in dissipation of heat is not proportional
increase in area, because the tubes would screen some of the tank surface
preventing radiations from the screened surface. On the other hand the tubes
will improve the circulation of oil. This improves the dissipation of loss by
convection. The circulation of oil is due to more effective pressure heads
produced by columns of oil in tubes.
Natural cooling is suitable up to 10MVA
Forced oil and air circulation are employed for transformers of capacities 30MVA
Forced oil and water is used for T/F designed for power plants .
W/m2-C
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=Pi+Pc / 12.5St
Pi= Iron loss
Pc=copper loss
St -heat dissipating surface of the tank
------------------------------------*_---------------------------------------------------3.10 DESIGN OF TANK WITH COOLING TUBES
Functions of cooling tubes
Cooling tubes used to increase the heat dissipating area
Tubes are mounted on the vertical sides of the T/F tank
Tubes will improve the circulation of oil
Let
The dissipating surface of the tank = St
The dissipating surface of the tubes =XSt
Loss dissipated by surface of the tank by radiation and convection = (6+6.5)St
=12.5 St
Loss dissipated by tubes by convection
= 12.5 St +8.8 X St
= (12.5+8.8X) St
= St+XSt
= St(1+X)
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= Pi+Pc / St(12.5+8.8X)
(or)
12.5+8.8X
X
Total area of cooling tubes
= Pi+Pc / St
=XSt
= (1/8.8) [Pi+Pc / St - 12.5 ]St
= (1/8.8) [Pi+Pc / - 12.5St ]
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KVA rating
C1
C2
C3
C4
Up to 11KV
<1000 KVA
40
50
75
375
UP TO 11KV
70
90
100
400
11KV TO 33KV
75
100
75
450
11KV TO 33KV
85
125
100
475
------------------------------------*-------------------------------------------------------
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PROBLEMS
P1 ) Calculate the core and window areas required for a 1000 KVA, 6600/400 V,
50 Hz, and single phase core type transformer. Assume a maximum flux density
of 1.25 Wb/m2 and a current density of 2.5 A/mm2.
Voltage/turn = 30 V.
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Ai = m / Bm = 0.1351 / 1.25
Net area of cross section of core Ai = 0.108m2 = 0.108*106mm2
To find Aw
Aw = Q / 2.22f Bm Ai Kw *10-3
= 1000 / 2.22*50*1.25*0.108*0.32*2.5*106*10-3
Aw = 0.0834m2
Window area ,Aw = 0.0834*106mm2
Result
Net core Area, Ai = 0.108 m2 = 0.108 x 106 mm2
Window Area, Aw = 0.0834 m2 = 0.0834 x 106 mm2
.
P2) Estimate the main dimensions including winding conductor area of a
3=phase, -y core type transformer rated at 300 KVA, 6600/440 V, 50 Hz.
suitable core with 3-steps having a circumscribing circle of 0.25 m diameter and
a leg spacing of 0.4 m is available.
6600/440V
50 Hz
Et = 8.5 V
= 2.5 A/mm2
d = 0.25m
Kw = 0.28
leg spacing = 0.4 m ; Sf = 0.9
To find
Main dimensions (Tp,Ts) , (ap,as),Ai,Aw,Hw,Ww
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Formula
Number of secondary turns per phase Ts = Es / Et
Number of primary turns per phase Tp = Ts *(Vp / Vs)
To find number of secondary turns per phase
Here secondary is star connected
Secondary voltage per phase Vs = 440 / 3
Vs = 254V
Es~Vs
No of secondary turns per phase
Ts = Es / Et = 254/8.5
Ts = 29.8 ~30 turns
No of primary turns per phase
Tp = Ts*(Vp/Vs)
Tp = 30 * (6600 / 254)
Tp = 779.5~780 turns
The area of cross section of primary conductor ap = Ip /
Primary is delta connected
The phase current on primary
Ip = ILP / 3
KVA rating of transformer Q= 3VLPILP*10-3 --------------(1)
Q = 3VLSILS*10-3 ------------(2)
VLP Line voltage on primary
VLS Line voltage on secondary
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Ac = 2(apTp+asTs)
Ac = 2(6.06*780+157.5*30)
Ac = 18903.6mm2
Aw = 18903.6 / 0.28
Aw = 67512.86mm2 = 67512.8*10-6m
Net core area Ai
Ai = Sf*Agi
For 3 stepped core,the ratio = gross core area / area of circumscribing circle = 0.84
Area of circumscribing circle = d2 / 4
= *(0.25)2 / 4
= 0.049m2
Gross core area Agi = 0.84*0.049
Agi =0.041m2
Ai = Sf*Agi
Ai = 0.9 *0.041
Ai = 0.0369m2
Ai = 0.037*106mm2
Given that ,leg spacing =0.45m
Leg spacing = width of window
Width of window Ww = 0.45m
Height of window
Hw = Aw / Ww
Hw = 67512.86*10-6 / 0.45
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Hw = 0.15m
Result
Number of primary turns/phase,
Tp= 776
Ts= 30
Ai= 0.0369 m2
Window area,
Aw= 0.067 m2
Height of window,
Hw= 0.15 m
Width of window,
Ww= 0.45 m
.
P3) Determine the dimensions of core and window for a 5 KVA, 50 Hz, 1-phase,
core type transformer. A rectangular core is used with long side twice as long as
short side. The window height is 3 times the width. Voltage per turn = 1.8 V.
Space factor = 0.2, = 1.8 A/mm2, Bm = 1 Wb/m2
Given data
Q = 5KVA ,1-phase core type Rectangular core
f=50Hz
long side = 2*short side
Hw= 3Ww
Et = 1.8V
Kw = 0.2
=1.8A/mm2
Bm=1wb/m2
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To find
Dimension of the core axb = ?
Dimension of the window HwxWw=?
Soln
Hw
Ww
a
Et= 4.44fm
m = Et / 4.44f
= 1.8 / 4.44*50
m= 0.0081wb
Net core area = Ai = m / Bm
Ai = 0.0081 /1
Ai = 0.0081m2
Cross section of the core is rectangle
Agi = length *breath
Agi = a*b
Gross core area Agi = Ai / Sf
[ Ai = Sf*Agi , Agi = Ai / Sf]
Agi = 0.0081 / 0.9
Agi = 0.009m2
Agi = axb given that a= 2b
Agi = 2bxb
Agi = 2b2
b2=Agi/ 2
b= 0.067m
a = 2b = 2*0.067 = 0.134m
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Result
The net core area, At
= 0.0081 m2
= 0.0154 m2
= 0.2148 x0.0716 m
.
P4) The tank of 1250 KVA, natural oil cooled transformer has the dimensions
length, width and height as 0.65 x 1.55 x 1.85 m respectively. The full load loss
= 13.1 KW, loss dissipation due to radiations = 6 W/m2-0C, loss dissipation due to
convection = 6.5 W/m2-0C, Improvement in convection due to provision to tubes
= 40 %, Temperature rise = 400C, Length of each tube = 1 m, Diameter of tube =
50 mm.
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= 9.1XSt
Total loss dissipated by tank and tubes = 12.5St+9.1XSt
= St(12.5+9.1X)
Temperature rise in transformer with cooling tubes = total loss / total loss dissipated
Total loss = Ploss = 13.1KW = 13.1*103W
= 13.1*103 / St(12.5+9.1X)
12.5+9.1X = 13.1*103 / St
X = 1 / 9.1 [13.1*103/St 12.5]
X = 1/9.1[13.1*103/40*8.14-12.5]
X = 3.0476
Total area of tubes XSt
= XSt
= 3.04*8.14
Total area of tubes
= 24.8075m2
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On length of the tank is 650mm,if we leave 62.5mm on either sides then we can
arrange 8 tubes with same spacing
Plan of the cooling tubes
lc
ly
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lc
lc
ly
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--------------------------------*-------------------------------------------------------------------
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UNIT - IV
INDUCTION MOTORS
Three phase Induction Motor: Constructional details - Output equation - Choice
of specific loadings - Design of stator, squirrel cage rotor, windings and
slots - Calculation of circuit parameters - No load current - efficiency and
temperature rise from design data. Single phase Induction Motor: Design of
running and starting windings for capacitor start induction motor.
Consists of
-
Construction
Output equation
Choice of loadings
Main dimensions
Stator winding
Stator core
Length of airgap
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= 1.5 to 2
= 1.0 to 1.25
= 1.5
= 1.0
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1. copper loss
2. Temperature rise
3. Voltage rating
4. Overload capacity
Choice of specific magnetic loading depends on
1. Power factor
2. iron loss
3. overload capacity
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The main dimensions of induction motor are the diameter of stator bore,D & the
length of stator core,L.
In induction motors most of the operating characteristics are decided by L/ ratio of
the Motor.
L/ ratio
1.5 to 2
1 to 1.25
1.5
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ds = 4as /
s current density in stator conductors
as Area of cross section of stator conductor
ds diameter of stator conductors
if the diameter is more than 2 or 3mm bar or strip conductors are used.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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When open slots are used the winding coils can be formed and fully insulated before
installing & it is easier to replace the individual coils. Another advantage is that we
can avoid excessive slot leakage thereby reducing the leakage reactance
When semienclosed slots are used the coils must be taped & insulated after they are
placed in the slots. The advantages of semienclosed slots are less airgap contraction
factor giving a small value of magnetising current, low tooth pulsation loss & much
quieter operation.
In small motors round conductors are used and in large & medium size motors strip
conductors are used
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Step (4)
the best choice of stator slots is given by the value of slots in the list
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For small IM
lg=0.2+2DL in mm
lg=0.125+0.35D+L+0.015Va mm
lg=0.2+D in mm
lg=1.6D-0.25 mm
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------4.16 CHOICE OF ROTOR SLOTS
With certain combination of stator and rotor slots, the following problems may develop
in the induction motor.
1.The motor may refuse to start
2.The motor may crawl at some subsynchronous speed
3.Severe vibrations are developed & so the noise will be excessive
The above effects are due to harmonic magnetic fields
developed in the machine. The harmonic fields are due to
1.winding
2.slotting
3.saturation
4.irregularities in air gap
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The harmonic fields are superposed upon the fundamental sinewave field & induce
emfs in the rotor windings & thus circulate harmonic currents. These harmonic
currents in turn interact with the harmonic fields to produce harmonic torques.
Harmonic induction torque
Harmonic induction torqueses are torques produced by harmonic fields due to stator
winding and slots.
Harmonic synchronous torque
Harmonic synchronous torque are torques produced by the combined effect of same
order of stator & rotor harmonic fields.
Crawling
Crawling is a phenomenon in which the induction motor runs at a speed lesser than
subsynchronous speed.
Cogging
Cogging is a phenomenon in which the induction motor refuses to start.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
It consists of
1.laminated core
2.Rotor bars
3.End rings
The teeth being cantilevers respond to varying forces and set into vibrations. Thus
noise is produced.
Diameter of rotor,Dr=D-2lg;
lg-length of air gap
Design of rotor bars & slots
Rotor bar current is given by Ib=(6*Is*Ts*Kws*Cos)/Sr
Area of each rotor bar is given by ab = Ib/b in mm2
1. Low reluctance
2. Less magnetising current
3. Queiter operation
4. Large leakage reactance & so starting current is limited
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Rotor windings
For small motors mush windings are employed.
For large motors double layer bar type wave windings are employed.
Number of rotor turns
Number of rotor turns can be calculated by
Number of rotor turns,Tr = (Kws*Ts*Er)/(Kwr*Es)
Ts- Number of stator turns
Rotor current , Ir = (0.85*Is*Ts)/Tr
Area of rotor conductor,ar = Ir/r
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We know that
6Tph = Z
Q = 1.11 p Iz Z ns Kws * 10-3
Q = 1.11* DL Bav *Dac *ns * Kws * 10-3
Q = 1.11 2 Bav ac Kws * 10-3 * D2 L ns
Q = 11 Bav ac Kws *10-3 * D2 L ns
Where
Co = 11 Bav ac Kws *10-3
Q =Co D2 L ns
PROBLEMS
P1) Determine the approximate diameter and length of stator core, the number
of stator slots
1425 rpm, delta connected induction motor. Bav = 0.45 Wb/m2, ac=23000 amp.
Cond/m, full load efficiency = 0.85, pf = 0.88, L/ = 1. The stator employs a
double layer winding.
Given Data
KVA INPUT = 11 KW
delta connected
doublelayerwinding
N= 1425 rpm
Bav = 0.45 Wb/m2
p=4-pole
ac = 23000 amp.cond/m
V=400 V
= 0.85
pf = 0.88
L/ = 1
To find
Diameter and length of stator core (D,L)
The no of stator slots (Ss)
The no of conductors (Zss)
Soln
KVA input = output / *pf
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= 11 / 0.85*0.88
KVA input = 14.7 KVA
Synchronous speed ns =2f / p
ns=2*50 / 4
ns=25rps
Kws = 0.955
To find D and L
KVA input = CoD2Lns
D2L = KVA i/p / Co*ns
Co = 11 Bav ac Kws *10-3
Co = 11 *0.955 *0.45 *23000*10-3
Co = 108.7268KVA/m3-rps
D2L = Q / Co*ns = 14.7 / 108.72*25
D2L = 0.0054m3 ----------------------------------------------(1)
Given that
=1
L = = 1 = D /p = D / 4
L = 0.1494D ---------------------------------------------------(2)
Substitute eqn (2) in eqn (1)
D2*0.1494D
= 0.0054
0.1494 D3 = 0.0054
D = 0.1902m
Eqn (2) becomes L = 0.1494*D
L = 0.1494*0.1902
L = 0.15m
To find
Stator slot Ss = no of phases *poles*q
For q = 2, Ss = 3*4*2 = 24
q=3, Ss = 3*4*3 = 36
q=4, Ss = 3*4*4 = 48
stator slot pitch should lie between 15mm to 25mm
stator slot pitch Yss = D / Ss
when Ss = 36, Yss = *0.19*103 / 36 = 16.58mm
when Ss = 36, Yss lies between 15mm to 25mm ,hence the stator slot pitch can be 36
Ss = 36
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To find Ts
The stator is delta connected ,the line voltage is same as phase voltage VL= Vph,
VL= Vph, = 400V
Bav = p / DL
= Bav*DL / p
= 0.45**0.19*0.15 / 4
m = 0.01wb
Es = 4.44fmKwsTs
Ts = Es / 4.44fmKws
Ts = 400 / 4.44*50*0.01*0.955
Ts = 188
To find conductor per slot (Zss)
Zss = 6Ts / Ss
Zss = 6*188 / 36
Zss = 31.33 (Zss should be even integer for double layer wdg so it is 30 or 32
Let Zss = 32
Total stator conductor = Ss*Zss
= 36*32
= 1152
New value of turns per phase Ts = Zss *Ss / 6
Ts = 32 *36 / 6
Ts = 192
Result
Diameter of stator
= 0.19 m
Length of stator
= 0.15 m
= 36
= 1080 or 1152
...
and no of stator
conductors per slots for a 100KW,3300V,50Hz,12 pole ,star connected slip ring
induction motor,Bav = 0.4wb/m2.ac= 25000amp-cond/m,=0.9,pf = 0.9,choose
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main dimensions to give best power factor .the slot loading should not exceed
500amp.cond, = 0.18L.
Given data
Q = 100KW, f=50Hz , star connected slip ring ,V = 3300V, p=12pole , IM
Bav = 0.4wb/m2
ac=25000ampcond/m
= 0.9 , pf = 0.9
slot loading should not exceed 500 amp cond
to find
stator core dimension (D and L)
Ss = ?
No of stator conductor per slot?
Soln
KVA input Q= output / *pf
= 100 / 0.9*0.9 = 123.457KVA
ns=2f / p = 2*50 / 12 =8.33rps
KVA input = Co D2Lns
Co = 11 Bav ac Kws *10-3
Co = 11 *0.4 *0.96 *25000*10-3
[ Kws = 0.96]
Co = 105.6KVA/m3-rps
KVA input = CoD2Lns
D2L = KVA i/p / Co*ns
D2L = 123.4 / 105.6*8.33
D2L = 0.1403m3
-------------------------------(1)
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L = 0.23m
D2 = 2.6262L
D = 2.6262*0.23
D = 0.78m
Stator in star connection
Es = EL / 3 = 3300 / 3 = 1905.2V
Flux per pole
Bav = p / DL
= Bav*DL / p
= 0.4**0.78*0.23/ 12
= 0.018wb
Es = 4.44 fmKwsTs
Stator turns per phase
Ts = Es / 4.44 fmKws
Ts = 1905.25 / 4.44*50*0.0188*0.96
Ts = 478
Stator slot pitch should lie between 15mm to 25mm
Stator slot Ss = D / Yss
Yss = 15mm
Yss = 25mm
Ss = *0.78 / 15*10-3
Ss = *0.78 / 25*10-3
Ss = 163
Ss = 98
Ss = 144
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Zss = 26.5
Zss = 19.9~20
= 26*21.6
= 561.6 amp.cond
Slot loading doesnot exceed 500ampcond
Hence 144 slots is suitable for the machine
Zss = 20 , Ss = 144
Total stator conductor = Zss*Ss
= 144*20 = 2880
New value of turns per phase Ts = ZssSs / 6
= 20*144 / 6
Ts = 480
.
P3) Determine the D and L of a 70 Hp, 415V, 3-phase, 50-Hz, star connected, 6
pole induction motor for which ac = 30000 amp.cond/m and Bav = 0.51 wb/m2.
Take = 90 % and pf = 0.91.
conductors required for a winding in which the conduxtors are connected in 2parallel paths. Choose a suitable number of conductors/ slots, so that the slot
loading does not exceed 750 amp. cond.
Given Data
70 HP
415 V
3-phase
50 Hz
ac = 30000 amp.cond/m
= 0.9
pf = 0.91
star connected
6-pole
=L
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[ Kws = 0.955]
Co = 160.72 KVA/m3-rps
D2L = Q / Co*ns
D2L = 63.76 / 160.72*16.667
D2L= 0.0238 ------------------------------(1)
Given that
=L
L = D / p = D / 6
L = 0.5236D
Sub in eqn (1)
D2L = 0.0238
D2*0.5236D = 0.0238
D = 0.36m
L = 0.5236*0.36
L = 0.186m
Total number of stator conductor
Total stator conductor =6Ts *no of parallel path ( 2Ts*no of phases)
= 6Ts*2
Total stator conductor
= 12Ts
To find Ts
Bav = p / DL
m = Bav*DL / p = 0.51**0.36*0.19 / 6
m=0.0183wb
Es = 4.44 fmKwsTs
Stator turns per phase
Ts = Es / 4.44 fmKws
Ts = (415 / 3) / 4.44*50*0.0183*0.955
Ts = 61.756 ~62
Slot pitch Yss should lie between 15mm to 25mm
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Yss = 25mm
Ss = D / Yss
Ss = D / Yss
Ss = *0.36 / 15*10-3
Ss =*0.36 / 25*10-3
Ss = 75
Ss = 45
when Ss = 72
To find Iz
Stator current per phase
Is=KVA *103 / 3VL
Is =63.76 *103 / 3 *415
Is = 88.7A
IL = Ip
Iz = Is /a
Iz =88.7 / 2
Iz = 44.35A
When Ss = 54
when Ss = 72
= 14*44.35
= 11*44.35
= 620.9amp cond
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Zss = 14
Total stator conductor
= Zss *Ss
= 14*54
= 756 conductors
Result
Diameter of stator = 0.36 m
Length of rotor
= 0.19 m
Turns / phase
= 63
= 54
Conductors / slot
= 14
.
P4) Estimate the main dimensions, air-gap length, stator slots, stator turns per
phase and cross sectional area of stator and rotor conductors for a 3-phase,
15
HP, 400 V, 6 pole, 50 Hz, 975 rpm, induction motor. The motor is suitable for
star delta starting. Bav = 0.45 Wb/m2, ac = 20000 amp.cond/m, L\ = 0.85, =
0.9, pf = 0.85
Given data
star delta starting (the motor should be designed for delta connection)
To find
Main dimension
Airgap length
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Stator slots
Rotor slots
Soln
KVA i/p = Q = HP*0.746 / *pf
= 15*0.746 / 0.9*0.85
KVA i/p Q = 14.63KVA
Synchronous speed ns=2f / p = 2*50 / 6 = 16.667rps
Q= CoD2Lns
D2L = Q / Co*ns
Co = 11 Bav ac Kws *10-3
Co = 11 *0.45 *0.955 *20000*10-3
[ Kws = 0.955]
Co = 94.545 KVA/m3-rps
D2L = Q / Co*ns
D2L = 14.63 / 94.545 *16.667 = 9.284*10-3
L / =0.85
L = 0.85 *
= 0.85*D / p
= 0.85*D / 6
L = 0.445D
D2L = 9.284*10-3
D20.445D = 9.284*10-3
D3 = 9.284*10-3
D = 0.275m
L = 0.445D = 0.445*0.275
L = 0.12m
m = Bav*DL / p
m = 0.45 **0.275*0.12 / 6
m = 7.775*10-3wb
Stator turns per phase
Ts = Es / 4.44 fmKws
Ts = 400 / 4.44*50*7.775*10-3*0.955
Ts= 242.66 ~242
Total stator conductor = 6Ts = 6*242 = 1452 conductors
Slot pitch lies between 15mm to 25mm
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Yss = 15mm
Yss= 25mm
Ss =D / Yss
Ss =D / Yss
= *0.275 / 15*10-3
= *0.275 / 25*10-3
Ss = 58
Ss = 34
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Here
Ss-Sr can be 3 , 9 , 10 , 11 , etc.
Let Ss-Sr = 3 ; Sr = Ss-3
Sr = Ss+3
Sr = Ss 3 = 36- 3 =33
Area of cross section of rotot bar ab=Ib / b
Rotor bar current Ib = 0.85*6Ts*Is / Sr
= 0.85 * 6*240 *12.183 / 33
Ib = 451.88A
b=4A/mm2 ; ab=Ib / b = 451.88 / 4
ab=112.96mm2
end ring current
Ie =SrIb / p = 33*451.88 / *6
Ie= 791.1A
Let e=4A/mm2
Area of cross section of end ring ae=Ie / e
ae=791.1 / 4
ae=197.775mm2
Result
Diameter of stator
= 0.275 m
Length of stator
= 0.12 m
Turns / phase
= 240 turns
= 36
= 33
= 4.061 mm2
= 113 mm2
= 200 mm2
P5) Design a cage rotor for a 40 HP, 3-phase, 400V,50 Hz, 6 pole, delta
connected induction motor having a full load of 87% and a full load pf of 0.85.
Take D = 33 cm and L = 17 cm. Stator slots 54, conductors/slot = 14. Assume
suitable the missing data if any.
Given data
Q =40HP ; f=50Hz ; delta connected 3 phase IM
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Result
Length of rotor
= 0.17 m
Diameter of rotor
= 0.3286 m
Length of air-gap
= 0.7 mm
.
P6) A three phase induction motor has 54 stator slots with 8 conductors per slot
and 72 rotor slots with 4 conductors per slots. Find the number of stator and
rotor turns. Find the voltage across the rotor slip rings, when the rotor is open
circuited and at rest. Both stator and rotor is star connected and a voltage of
400 volt is applied across the stator terminals.
Given data
Three phase IM
Ss = 54
Zss = 8
Sr = 72
Zsr = 4
V=400V
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To find
Ts and Tr
Soln
Stator conductor slots Zss = 6Ts /Ss
Ts = Zss*Ss / 6 = 8*54 / 6
Ts =72
Rotor conductor slots Zsr =6Tr /Sr
Tr = Zsr*Sr / 6
Tr = 4*72 / 6
Tr= 48
Let Kws = Kwr
Turns ratio of induction motor
=
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UNIT V
ALTERNATORS
5.1 INTRODUCTION
The synchronous machines may be classified into
(i)Salient pole machines
(ii)Cylindrical rotor machines
5.1.1 (i)Salient pole machines
These are driven by water wheels or diesel engines. They operate at low speeds and
so large number of poles is required to produce desired frequency. This type of
machine has projecting poles and field coils are mounted on the poles.
5.1.2 (ii)Cylindrical rotor machines
These are driven by steam turbines and gas turbines which run at very high
speeds. They have slots on the periphery of smooth cylindrical rotor. The field
conductors are placed on these slots.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------5.2 OUTPUT EQUATION
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50 m/sec
80 m/sec
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iii) Short circuit current : A low SCR which results in high Xd which results in low
short circuit current. But short circuit current can be limited by other means not
necessarily by keeping a low value of SCR.
iv) self excitation :Alternators feeding long transmission lines should not be
designed with small SCR as this would lead to large terminal voltage on open
circuit due to large capacitance currents.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Iron loss
Stability
Voltage rating
Transient short circuit current
Parallel operation
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Voltage rating
Synchronous reactance
Stray load losses
A high value of ac has
1. Higher copper loss
2. Lower efficiency
3. Higher temperature rise
Ac
Ac
lies in the range of 20000 to 40000 amp cond / m for salient pole machines.
Ac
lies in the range of 50000 to 75000 amp cond / m for Turbo alternator.
voltage machines;
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Therefore mmf required for air gap = 0.8 ATf0 ----------------------------- (2)
Equating (1) & (2)
800000 Bg Kg lg = 0.8 ATf0
----------------------------------(3)
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Turbo alternators are characterised with long axial length and short
diameter. The high speed of the rotor limits the diameter of the rotor to about 1.2m
giving a peripheral speed of about 175 m/sec.
In turbo alternator the diameter is limited by the maximum peripheral speed
Va.
Peripheral spped
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---------------------------- (1)
----------------------------- (2)
The armature slot, winding, turns per phase and conductor designs of turbo
alternator are same as that of salient pole alternator.
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Low cost
Hot spot temperature
Larger leakage reactance
Larger number of slots
Reduced tooth ripples and losses
Increase flux density at the teeth and hence iron loss
Stator slot pitch
values are
for low voltage machines
for 6Kv or low voltage machines
for machines upto 15Kv.
Armature conductors
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Winding depth in mm
0.1
25
0.2
35
0.4
45
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Temperature rise
=QfCf / S
The final check applied is to note the clearance between adjacent field coils from
the pole drawing .the minimum clearance between them should be 15mm.
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Add = 0.143 ac
(or)
Ad = 0.143 ac / d
Area per pole of damper pass provided
Ad = 0.2 ac / d
The current density in the damper bars is usually taken as 3 to 4A/mm2
Total area of damper wdg is distributed into smaller cross sections depending upon
the number of bars used.
The damper winding slot pitch = stator slot pitch
Pole arc = number of bars per pole *Ys *0.8
The length of each damper bar
Ld = 1.1 L for small machines
Ld = L+0.1m, for larger machines
Cross section of each damper bar,
ad=total area of bars per pole /no of damper bars per pole
ad=Ad /Nd
In case of circular bars
ad= ( /4) dd2
dd = diameter of damper bars
The area of each ring short circuiting the bars
Aring = (0.8 to 1) Ad
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------PROBLEMS
P1) For a 250KVA.1100V, 12 pole, 500 rpm, 3 phase alternator. Determine air
gap diameter, core length, number of stator conductors, number of stator
slots and cross section of stator conductors. Assuming average gap density as
0.6 wb/m2 and specific electric loading of 30000 amp. Cond/m,
.
Given data
Q = 250KVA, N = 500 rpm, ac = 30000 amp cond/m, V = 1100V
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A.MUMTHAJ,AP/EEE
poles
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Let
Current per phase,
Current density
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