Chapter 09 Air and Gas Drilling

Chapter 9
A IR AND G AS D RILLING
INTRODUCTION
Air and gas drilling is a technique in which the more common circulating fluids, water or mud,
are replaced by highly compressible air or gas. The air or gas performs most of the same
functions as a drilling mud, i.e. cool the bit and clean the hole. Unfortunately, the
compressibility makes pressure and volume requirement calculations somewhat less
straightforward than those for mud drilling.
Applicability of air drilling is limited to a specific set of lithological and pore pressure conditions.
Where applicable, significant savings of rig time and money can be achieved with these drilling
techniques, despite the need for additional equipment.
It is estimated that 10% of all wells drilled in the United States employ air drilling techniques.
There is a trend toward increasing this percentage due to the significant savings encountered.
Offshoots of air and gas drilling: mist, stable foam, and aerated mud drilling generally reflect
increasingly wet environments. As will be discussed below, they retain many of the benefits and
disadvantages of straight air drilling.
ADVANTAGES:
1. Higher penetration rates, leading to less drilling time and lower costs.
2. Minimal damage to producing formations.
3. Ability to analyze formation productivity while drilling.
4. Minimization of lost circulation.
5. More footage drilled per bit.
DISADVANTAGES:
1. Limitations of applicable lithologies.
2. Limitations of applicable pore pressure regimes.
3. Significant drill string wear.
4. No hydraulic dampening of drill string.
5. Potential for downhole fires.
Copyright 2003 OGCI/PetroSkills. All rights reserved.
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Chapter 9
ADVANTAGES
PENETRATION RATE
Drilling muds slow the penetration rates due to a chip hold down effect as indicated by Figure
9-1. The degree to which drilling is slowed is a function of the differential pressure, Pm Pf .
This differential slows drilling by inhibiting dislodgment of the chip and by acting as a confining
pressure and strengthening the rock. Pm will be shown to be almost negligible in air drilling.
Figure 9-1. Chip Hold Down Effect Associated with Differential Pressure
A prime attraction to an operator is this increase in drilling rate. An example of how this can be
translated into saved days is given in Figure 9-2, a graphic representation of three wells from
the Arkoma Basin of eastern Arkansas in the US Brief well histories are as follows:
9-2
Well I.
Drilled on air to TD.
Well II.
Drilled on air to point A, then mudded up and mud drilled to TD.
Well III.
Drilled on mud to TD.
Copyright 2003 OGCI/PetroSkills. All rights reserved
Drilling Practices
Air and Gas Drilling
Figure 9-2. Depth versus days for Air and Mud Drilling
FORMATION DAMAGE
Mud filtrates can damage permeable formations by several mechanisms:
1. Swelling of formation clays.
2. Emulsion blocks.
3. Plugging of permeability with spurt solids.
The conditions necessary for filtration are not present in an air drilled hole. That does not mean
that air drilling does not damage the formation. Damage can occur, but it is usually less than
the damage caused by mud.
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Chapter 9
PRODUCTIVITY EVALUATION
In mud drilling with hydrostatic pressure greater than formation pressure (overbalance), a filter
cake is quickly established across permeable zones, preventing influx of formation fluids. In an
underbalance situation, a quantitative evaluation of invading formation fluid is made difficult by:
1. Initial damage to zone from invasion of filtrate,
2. Unknown differential pressure across zone, and
3. Varying efficiency of gas/mud separation equipment, as a function of mud properties.
Air drilling, on the other hand, provides a continuous "drill stem test". Wellbore pressure is
almost always lower than formation pressure and the well flows while drilling.
MINIMIZING LOST CIRCULATION

Lost circulation is a result of induced fractures caused by hydrostatic pressure in excess of a
rock's matrix strength, or in the case of an existing fracture, hydrostatic pressure in excess of
pore pressure. The former condition can be aggravated by high gel strengths and viscosities
which cause relatively higher surge pressures. Pressures exerted by a column of air are orders
of magnitude less than those exerted by a column of mud; 0.0005 psi/ft for air at sea level
versus 0.433 psi/ft for fresh water.
INCREASED FOOTAGE PER BIT

Due to the factors mentioned above under "penetration rates", acceptable drilling rates can be
achieved with lower bit weights and rotary speeds than necessary with mud drilling. Since bit
life is largely a function of these two variables, bits can be expected to last longer with air. With
comparable bit weights and rotary speeds, a bit will drill faster for the same number of hours.
Therefore, more footage is drilled per bit resulting in fewer bits used per well. The specific
design of air bits will be treated in detail later.
DISADVANTAGES
LITHOLOGICAL LIMITATIONS
Lithologies suitable for air drilling are limited by two factors:
1. Competence
2. Water Production
The hydrostatic pressure of a mud is transferred across a filter cake to aid borehole stability by
replacing some of the stresses relieved by drilling. The gradients noted above indicate how
trivial a factor this would be in an air filled hole. Some formations will slough when drilled with
air because they are not competent enough.
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Drilling Practices
Air has a limited capacity to carry out produced water, beyond which it must be supplemented
by mist or foam, and ultimately the hole must be mudded up. Air drilling is therefore limited to
lithologies with either little water or low permeability.
The produced water or water used with mist or foam can cause the formations to become
unstable. Even a little water can cause hole stability problems with some shales while some
formations are relatively unaffected by water.
LIMITATIONS OF PORE PRESSURE REGIMES

Air drilling is limited to formations of low pore pressure, where high mud weights are not needed
to control blowouts. Air drilling can be used in higher pressure areas where control is more
difficult. Air drilling has also been used in wells below 20,000 feet.
DRILL STRING WEAR

Drill string wear can be significantly more severe for air drilling than for mud drilling over a
comparable period of time. This is related to both the severity of the corrosive environment,
when using mist or foam, and to a "sandblasting effect" in the annular flow stream. The tool
joints tend to wear faster because there is no lubricating fluid between the drill pipe and the
borehole wall.
HYDRAULIC DAMPENING OF DRILL STRING

Mud tends to act as a dampener for the string while drilling. The lack of dampening with air
tends to increase the severity of such problems as twist-offs and normal vibration while drilling.
DOWNHOLE FIRES AND EXPLOSIONS

Downhole fires can be a problem in air drilling though they are rare. When air drilling into a
producing formation the three necessary ingredients for a downhole fire or explosion are
present:
1. Air,
2. Hydrocarbons, and
3. Ignition
AIR VERSUS MUD DRILLING PERFORMANCE CURVES FROM FIELD DATA

Rate of penetration increases, with consequent savings of time and money, is the prime
attraction to an operator considering employing air and gas drilling. The following figures are
from actual field applications and compare air and mud drilling within various drilling
parameters.
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Chapter 9
A summary of these figures are as follows:

Figure 9-3:
feet.
Drill off test showing penetration rate versus bit weight while air drilling at 6,492
Figure 9-4:
feet.
Drill off test showing penetration rate versus rotary RPM while air drilling at 7,103
Figure 9-5 through Figure 9-7:

Figure 9-8:
Typical Drilling performance curves for an air drilled hole.
Typical drilling performance curve for a mud drilled hole.
Figure 9-9 and Figure 9-10: Comparison of air and/or mud drilled holes for various drilling
parameters.
Figure 9-11:
penetrated.
Three curves showing drilling rate versus air pump rate for various formations
Figure 9-3. Bit Weight Drill-Off Test with Air
Figure 9-4. Rotary Drill-Off Test with Air
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Drilling Practices
Figure 9-5. Typical Air Drilling Performance in the Arkoma Basin
9-7
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Chapter 9
Figure 9-8. Typical Drilling Performance Curve for a Mud Drilled Hole
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Figure 9-9. Comparison of Air and/or Mud Drilled Holes for various Drilling Parameters
Figure 9-10. Comparison of Air and/or Mud Drilled Holes for Various Drilling Parameters
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Chapter 9
Figure 9-11. Three Curves Showing Drilling Rate versus Air Pump Rate for various Formations
AIR DRILLING EQUIPMENT

COMPRESSORS AND BOOSTERS
The equipment needed to provide required
air are compressors and boosters. The
compressors take ambient air at a specific
rate, compress it to required pressure or to
the limit of the unit, and deliver the
compressed air to the standpipe and
downhole.
Boosters
are
positive
displacement compressors that take the
output of the compressors and compress it
to a higher pressure, if needed.
Compressors are divided into two general
categories:
1. Positive displacement, and
2. Dynamic.
The various classifications of compressors
are given in Figure 9-12.1
9-10
Figure 9-12. Classification of Compressors1
Drilling Practices
In general terms, positive displacement compressors can be compared to mud slush pumps,
while dynamic compressors are similar in principle to centrifugal pumps. Most compressors for
oilfield use produce in the range of 500 to 1,200 SCFM (standard cubic feet per minute) at a
maximum pressure of approximately 300 psi. They are either one, two or three stage.
Compressor requirements are determined after downhole air and gas requirements are
determined, as detailed elsewhere. Compressor output ratings are generally given at standard
atmospheric and temperature conditions, and must be corrected for actual ambient conditions.
The importance of this correction can be seen through an analysis of the equation for the
density of air:
a =
Ma P
zRT
Equation 9-1
The standard conditions are defined as: 14.696 psi (101.3 kPa) atmospheric pressure and 60F
(15.5C). Therefore:
a =
(28.95 )(14.696 )(144 )

(1.0 )(1,545 )(520 )
a = 0.0763 lb/ft3
Atmospheric pressure decreases at approximately 0.5 psi/1,000 feet (10.5 kPa/100m). At an
elevation of 7,000 feet (2,149 m), the air density is decreased by approximately 24 percent, as
follows:
a =
(28.95 )(11.2)(144 )
(1.0 )(1,545 )(520 )
a = 0.0581 lb/ft3
Changes in temperature from the standard 60F are also significant. At an ambient temperature
of 95F (35C) density is decreased by approximately 6 percent as follows:
a =
(28.95 )(14.696 )(144 )

(1.0 )(1,545 )(555 )
a = 0.0715 lb/ft3
Compressor ratings are generally given at standard conditions. The above illustrates the
magnitude of error possible within common operating conditions, and why corrections cannot be
ignored. The rating is also the inlet volume and not the outlet volume. On average, air drilling
equipment only delivers 70% of the rated capacity to the standpipe. The actual volume will
depend upon the condition of the compressors and boosters.
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Chapter 9
Boosters are positive displacement compressors that take the exit volume of the compressors
and compress it to a higher pressure. Boosters generally can increase pressure from 100 psi to
as much as 1,500 psi. The capacity and pressure rating of the booster is a function of the inlet
pressure. As the inlet pressure increases, the volume through the booster increases and the
outlet pressure will increase without excessive heat.
Besides compressors and boosters, an air drilling operation demands specialized equipment
not employed in mud drilling. These items will be discussed in two broad categories:
1. Surface equipment, and
2. Downhole equipment; drill string components.
SURFACE EQUIPMENT
Mist Unit
Immediately downstream from the compressors and boosters is the mist pump, as shown
schematically in Figure 9-13. It is generally a small positive displacement, triplex pump with a
10 to 20 barrel suction tank. It is used for the injection of water, foamer, and corrosion inhibitor.
Normal capacity of the pump is on the order of 30 to 50 gallons per minute. The small volume
of the suction tank allows for accurate measurement of fluids added.
Figure 9-13. Air Drilling Equipment Plan2
Soap Pump
In foam drilling operations a soap pump, a small air operated chemical injection pump, is
employed. This allows for the accurate measurement of volumes on the order of 10 to 20
gallons per hour.
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Drilling Practices
The mist pump and soap pump are equipped with both check valves and gate valves for
isolation.
Standpipe Manifold
Some additions to the standard mud drilling standpipe arrangement are needed in air drilling for
bleed-off and bypass. These are detailed in Figure 9-14.
Figure 9-14. Standpipe Manifold3
Bleed-Off Lines are installed above the main standpipe valve. These are to bleed off the
pressure trapped between the upper drill string float valve and the main standpipe valve prior to
a connection.
Bypass Lines are below the main standpipe valve. These allow for a connection without the
compressors being shut down. Although most compressor units have their own bypass, the
advantage of one easily accessible to the rig floor is that it minimizes communication necessary
between the rig crew and the compressor crew, therefore minimizing time needed for
connections.
Rotating Head, or Rotating Kelly Packer

Rotating heads are used to pack off the annulus, diverting the air/gas flow down the blooie line.
Many adequate rotating heads are on the market. The newer generation tends to have sealed
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Drilling Practices
Chapter 9
bearings rather than the older external oilers. Most are driven by a "kelly driver" which attaches
to the kelly and is mated to a machined piece on top of the bearing assembly, which rotates with
the kelly.
Hexagonal kellys allow for a better seal than square, and should always be used in air drilling.
The life of the sealing element will be lengthened by proper lubrication and minimal tripping
through it.
The rotating head is only a diverter and must not be thought of as a replacement for a properly
designed blowout preventer stack. Pressures on the sealing element should be kept to a
minimum.
Blooie or Blooey Line

The blooie line serves to carry the circulating fluid, either air or gas, away from the rig. It must
allow for catching of drill cuttings to aid formation evaluation and provide for burning of gas.
The design of the blooie line must be such that it carries the stream to a safe distance from the
rig, generally 100 to 300 feet (30 to 90 meters). The length of the blooie line depends upon the
anticipated volume of hydrocarbons. It should be straight, or if curves are absolutely necessary,
they should be gentle (no 90 turns unless targeted). The line should be securely staked down.
If possible, the line should be at least 10 percent greater in cross-sectional area than the upper
portion of the annulus:
Dbl = (1.1)
2
(D
2
ic
Dp
or
[ (
Dbl 1.1 Dic D p
)]
0 .5
Equation 9-2
The end of the blooie line should be in the predominantly downwind direction from the rig.
Sample Catcher
The sample catcher is a device set in the blooie line to facilitate recovering viewable-size rocks
for geological evaluation (see Figure 9-15). It basically consists of a piece of angle-iron (or tong
die) set at an angle against the flow, deflecting rocks for recovery. A valve acts to seal the
blooie line between sampling. The practice of attempting to catch samples at the end of the
blooie line is not recommended due to danger from their velocity.
De-Duster
The de-duster is a device to wet the air stream as it exits the blooie line, thereby lowering the
dust. These are generally employed to keep dust away from the rig, where the particulate
matter would be dangerous to working parts due to abrasion. It also minimizes the amount of
dust in the air and on the ground near the rig. Nearby residences do not appreciate dust
covering their house.
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Drilling Practices
The device consists basically of a pump, water lines and baffles to produce spray. In areas
where toxic H2S is drilled, causticized water may be introduced into the stream through the deduster to neutralize the gas or the gas can be burned at the end of the blooie line.
Figure 9-15. Burn Pit, Reserve Pit and Blooie Line Layout4
Pilot Light
A flame should be provided at the end of the blooie line to ignite gas, preventing the buildup of
an explosive mixture. The flame ideally is provided by a small gas line, either diverted from the
downhole stream in gas drilling or from a propane tank when drilling with air. More
sophisticated igniters are now available. The old practice of filling a five gallon bucket with LCM
and diesel and lighting it should only be done with great care as it is potentially hazardous.
Burn Pit
A pit should be dug at the end of the blooie line, away from the main reserve pit. This pit will
contain any liquid hydrocarbons, keeping them away from the main reserve pit and hence away
from the rig. A possible configuration for a blooie line and burn and reserve pits is given in
Figure 9-15. There are many configurations that are acceptable.
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Chapter 9
DOWNHOLE EQUIPMENT
Float Valves
There are two types of float valves typically used in the air drilling industry. They are a flapper
and dart type. String floats, generally flapper type, are placed in the upper portion of the drill
string, usually in specially bored float subs, to minimize connection time. If they are not
employed, time must be spent waiting for the air between the bit and the surface to bleed off
prior to the connection, and again waiting to re-pressure this interval after the connection.
Dart-type floats are employed immediately above the bit. They are held in specially bored subs,
bottomhole collars, and stabilizers. These floats are designed to prevent gas and cuttings influx
into the drill string during trips and connections.
A point to remember with respect to string floats is that wireline work cannot be done through
them. This limits their use in directional drilling and would necessitate blowing them out in the
event of a fishing job. Generally speaking, flapper-types are more readily blown out than darttypes.
Bottomhole Assemblies
Generally speaking, the same bottomhole assemblies applicable for mud drilling are applicable
for air and gas drilling. Due to the types of lithologies suitable for air drilling, however, which are
often geologically old and hard, deviation control can be a problem. Over the eons, these
formations were subjected to tectonic forces which caused folding and faulting. The severe bed
dips associated with tectonic activity are a prime cause of deviation problems.
The fact that light bit weights can still produce reasonable rates of penetration often leads
operators to drilling with pendulum type assemblies. This compromise cannot always be
justified, and penetration rates must be analyzed.
Another approach is the use of "Packed-hole" assemblies. A final approach is the use of a
square drill collar.
Drill Bits
There are a number of basic design differences between air bits and conventional mud bits,
which reflect the different environments encountered in both types of drilling. Not all air bits are
manufactured the same. The specific design parameters of the bit are a function of the specific
manufacturer.
The differences can be best illustrated by a comparison between a soft-formation and a hardformation mud bit to demonstrate the available design parameters; then to compare an air and
mud bit of the same hardness to see which characteristics of each are employed. Figure 9-16
shows a typical tungsten carbide insert bit.
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Drilling Practices
Figure 9-16. Bit Design Parameters
The nomenclature in Figure 9-16 is as follows:

Projection
degree to which insert projects beyond cone shell.
Intermesh
degree of intrusion of inserts of a given cone into the plane of the

adjacent cone.
Heel Angle
angle machined into cone heel.
Inner Angle
angle machined into inner cone. The cone tries to rotate about the apex
of both of these angles.
Offset Angle
angle between line bisecting a cone and true center of a bit.
The differences in design are related to the cutting action of the respective bits. In soft
formation mud drilling, such as would be appropriate for the 517 code bit (see Table 9-1), the bit
cuts by a dragging and scraping action. This action is generated by the cone angle and bit
offset, which do not allow the bit to roll on bottom. This scraping action is necessary for soft
formations that tend to fail plastically. For harder formations which tend to fail brittlely; however,
cutting is achieved by a crushing action from more of a point of contact than from a gouge. A
drag would tend to, at worst, break off inserts and, at best, to abrade them.
Since air drilling operations do not subject the formations to any confining pressures from the
hydrostatic column, air drilled rocks tend to fail in the brittle mode, for which a scraping and
gouging action of drilling is not as efficient as point contact. Generally speaking, mud bits need
to drag in IADC code drilling from 437 to approximately 627 and need to crush from 737 to 837.
9-17
Drilling Practices
Chapter 9
Air bits need to crush in all hardness ranges. To achieve this end, some air bits of all hardness
are designed with no offset and little difference between heel and inner cone angle. Some bits
designed for air have offset depending upon the manufacturer.
Table 9-1. IADC Code
DESIGN PARAMETER
517
837
Delta Heel vs. Conical Angle
Large
Small
Intermesh
Deep
Shallow
Insert Projection
Great
Little
Offset
Great
None
Number of Buttons
Less
More
Number of Rows
Less
More
Abrasion is a more severe problem in air drilling for two reasons. The first relates to the type of
lithologies suitable for air drilling; they are necessarily hard and hence tend to be more abrasive.
The second reason seems related to the cushioning effect of a film of water and mud which
tends to retard abrasion.
A comparison of bearing life for standard ball and roller bearings generally yields longer life in
an air environment than in mud. This stems from the absence of abrasive material in the air
stream, compared to the high volume percentage of solids in a mud. There are no elastomer
components in this type bearing that would be damaged by the higher temperatures
encountered in air drilling.
A comparison of bearing life for journal bearings is not so straightforward. The higher
temperatures of air drilling do relatively more damage to the seals of these bits. Opposed to this
is the fact that the pressure environment in an air hole is less severe by orders of magnitude,
with no hydrostatic and surge pressures. Journal bearings bits are routinely used in air drilling
operations with no detrimental effects.
DOWNHOLE AIR AND GAS REQUIREMENTS

The circulation rate plays a critical role in the success or failure of an air or gas drilling
operation. The volume requirements for any given application will be dependent upon a number
of parameters present in the wellbore. Included in these parameters are the drilling depth, the
penetration rate, the drill pipe and hole sizes, and the type of fluid being used (i.e. air or gas).
Also, the type of formation being penetrated and the size of the cutting are important when
determining the lifting capacity.
The primary functions of compressed air in a rotary drilling system are basically the same as
those of mud in a mud drilling operation. These primary functions include:
9-18
Cool the bit components.
Drilling Practices
Clear cuttings from the bottom of the hole.
Adequately remove the cuttings from the wellbore.
The performance of an air drilling operation is dependent upon how well the functions above are
carried out. Contained in this chapter are alternate methods used to calculate the volume of
gas required to successfully drill with air or gas.
LIFTING CAPACITY
The lifting capacity of air or gas must be great enough to adequately transport all cuttings from
the bit to the surface. Historically, the industry has accepted minimum values of fluid velocities
to obtain the minimum lift required. The most widely used minimum annular velocity for gas is
3,000 ft/min of air at standard conditions. This value, based on that used in quarry mining and
under normal operating conditions, has proved to be fairly reliable.
Before showing the methods for determining the exact amount of air required for minimal lift,
several basic concepts should be considered. With a compressible mixture as the lifting
medium, the actual design for volume requirements should be based on the area in the annulus
where the lift is most difficult. The flow rate of air must exceed the sinking rate or slip velocity of
the cuttings or the cuttings will never be removed from the hole. The slip-velocity equation for a
spherical particle is shown in Equation 9-3.
) 1/ 2
4gd p p a
vs =
3C D a
Equation 9-3
Since the density of air, a , is negligible compared to the density of a particle, p , it can be
removed from Equation 9-3 to result in Equation 9-4.
4gd p p
vs =
3C D a
1/ 2
Equation 9-4
Multiplying both sides of Equation 9-4 by a Aa and substituting for density in terms of pressure
and temperature results in a standard force balance equation for one particle shown in Equation
9-5.
4gd p p SP
G = Aa
(3 )(53.3 )C D T
1/ 2
Equation 9-5
Using a constant drag coefficient and an average annulus temperature, an acceptable practice,
it can be seen that the mass of gas, G , required to lift a given size particle goes up as the
pressure goes up. This idea assumes that the annulus size remains constant. Because the
annulus between the drill collars and hole is much smaller than that between the drill pipe and
hole, one can quickly see that the point of most difficult lift would be the area just above the drill
9-19
Drilling Practices
Chapter 9
collars. The size of the particles in the drill pipe - hole annulus will be larger at this point than
any other point higher in the annulus. The reason for this statement is that the particle size will
become smaller through repeated collisions with other particles and with the pipe as they move
up the hole.
Particle lift is a very important concept since it illustrates the primary reason particles
accumulate on top of the drill collars. Excessive accumulation of cuttings on top of the drill
collars will result in excessive fill during trips and connections and could eventually cause stuck
drill pipe.
DETERMINING AIR AND GAS VOLUME REQUIREMENTS

As noted previously, the circulating rate plays an important role in the success of an air or gas
drilling operation. Many equations and techniques have been developed over the years in an
attempt to predict the volume of air or gas required to adequately clean the hole. Two of these
methods will be presented here. One method by Angel5 has been widely used in the industry;
however, this method makes assumptions which would not be valid in some applications. A
second method that will be presented is the approach taken by Cole and Moore.6 Cole and
Moore extended the work of Angel to include parameters that were either assumed or ignored
by Angel. Both of these methods have their strong and weak points, and it will eventually be the
decision of the drilling engineer as to which method best suits his drilling situation.
Angel's Method
Angel made some important basic assumptions in his calculations which include:
1. Flow conditions through the annulus of the system are steady.
2. The formation cuttings move up the annulus at the same velocity as the air (or gas)
in a homogeneous mixture. Energy losses between the air and particles are ignored.
The slip velocity is zero.
3. The minimum kinetic energy in the annulus (at the bottom of the annulus) is
equivalent to air at standard conditions moving at a velocity of 3,000 ft/min.
Angel applied the Weymouth equation to vertical gas flow up an annulus and two equations
were developed for determining the annulus pressure at any point in the well. The calculations
become complicated because the pressure, temperature and density of the air changes at every
depth in the well. The equation that Angel eventually ended up with is Equation 9-6. This
equation must be solved by trial and error to determine the minimum volumetric flow rate Q.
The left and right side of Equation 9-6 are both equal to the bottomhole pressure.
6.61S Ts + Gg h Q 2
(D
2
h
Dp
)v
2 2
min
2ah
2
2 Tav
2
= Ps + bTav e
bTav
0.5
Equation 9-6
Where:
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Drilling Practices
a=
b=
SQ + 28.8KD h
53.3Q
Equation 9-7
(1.625 10 )Q
6
(Dh D p )
1.333
(D
2
h
Dp
Equation 9-8
2 2
The above equation was derived using atmospheric conditions at sea level (14.7 psia and
60F). Since the solution to Equation 9-6 required iteration, some computer generated solutions
for various drilling situations are presented in graphic form under Section Air Volume Charts, at
the end of the Chapter. These curves were developed using gas gravitys of 1.0 (air) and 0.6.
Circulation rates for gravitys other than these two gravitys can be determined by interpolation.
When using the curves, the following conditions must be assumed:
Ts = 80 o F
Gg = 0.01o R/ft
vmin = 3,000ft/min
Elevation = Sea Level
The curves can be used with ease to determine Q for given air drilling conditions. The rate, Q,
can then be used to solve the right half of Equation 9-6 in order to determine the bottomhole
annulus pressure, Pb .
Cole and Moore Method

The same approach used by Angel was also used by Cole and Moore but more emphasis was
placed on rigorous solutions. In other words:
1. The solid-gas mixture will not be considered homogeneous when determining
annulus pressures.
2. The standard minimum air velocity will not be assumed.
3. The design point will be selected just above the drill collars.
Eventually, they derived Equation 9-9 for the minimum air volume requirements.
(7.52 x10 )C
5
(D
2
h
D T av Q
2
D p 2 Sd p
2 a '
a'
= Ps + e 2 b 'h
b'
b'
0 .5
Equation 9-9
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Drilling Practices
Chapter 9
(7.84 10 )SQT
3
Where: a' =
(D
2
h
Dp
) (D
2 2
av f
Dp
Mp
S1 + 2
Mg
b' =
53.3Tav
Equation 9-10
Equation 9-11
Equation 9-9 contains the unknown quantity, Q , on both sides of the equation. Due to the
degree of the equation, it is much easier to solve by trial and error rather than solving for Q
directly. Depending upon the particle diameter, the Cole and Moore equations will yield lower
air volumes than the Angel equations. Most people involved in air drilling operations use the
Angel method to calculate the minimum air volume requirements.
DIAGNOSTICS OF DRILLING PROBLEMS

The ability to foresee potential problems downhole would be a very desirable asset to the
drilling engineer. In air drilling operations, this ability is very realistic. Since there is no
hydrostatic pressure, any adverse condition developing in the flow stream should be noticeable
at the surface. The extent to which a problem could be recognized from surface conditions
would be proportional to the depth of the problem and its severity. Some potential problems
that may exist in the air drilling operation which could be detected at the surface might include:
1. Twisted off or parted drill pipe,
2. Washouts in the pipe,
3. Stuck pipe,
4. Torquing problems,
5. Plugging at the bit,
6. Hole cleaning problems,
7. Surface or downhole equipment failure,
8. Bit wear, and
9. Well kicks.
An early detection of any one of these potential problems could help avoid an expensive fishing
operation which could possibly result in the loss of the well.
All of the potential problems listed above are "pressure sensitive." For example, if the drill string
were to part during a drilling operation, the circulating pressure as seen at the surface would be
reduced by some amount, P , the amount of which would be a function of the depth at which
the pipe parted, the pump rate, and the type of fluid being pumped. In a mud drilling operation,
9-22
Drilling Practices
the reduction in circulating pressure may or may not be significantly high enough to produce
noticeable changes at the surface which would alarm the drilling engineer. The pressure
reduction may not even be noticeable at all until after the pipe is fully parted at which time a
fishing operation would be inevitable. In an air drilling operation, these minute changes in
circulating pressure are more easily recognized since there is no hydrostatic cushion between
the problem area and the surface. Also, circulating pressures encountered during an air drilling
operation are significantly lower than those encountered in a mud drilling operation. An
increase or decrease in circulating pressure of 20 psi might be very significant in an air drilling
operation yet insignificant in a mud drilling operation.
These ideas and concepts were utilized in air drilling operations as early as 1964. Upon
attempting to apply these concepts, it was quickly seen that changes in surface pressures could
be a result of variations in the compressor output. Early pioneers found that if a two pen orifice
meter were placed downstream of the compressor, not only could the compressor output be
measured, but the changes in pump pressure due to potential drilling problems could be easily
seen. Some typical meter charts seen during air drilling operations in eastern Oklahoma are
shown in Figure 9-17 through Figure 9-22.
Figure 9-17. Meter Chart of "ABC # 1" Drilled in Eastern Oklahoma. Drill-Pipe Twisted off while Drilling with Air at
3,798 feet. The Break Occurred 600 ft from the Surface at 4:00pm.
9-23
Drilling Practices
Chapter 9
Figure 9-17 shows a meter chart taken from well ABC #1 while drilling a 7 inch hole with air.
The meter ranges are 250 pound pressure and 100 inch differential. The operator was
experiencing some compressor problems during the time interval from 11:30 p.m. to 6:15 a.m.
as shown on the chart as "unstabilized readings". The time interval from 6:15 a.m. to 1:00 p.m.
illustrates smooth operations with both a steady pressure curve and differential curve. The
spikes shown approximately 1 hours apart represent pipe connections. At approximately 1:00
p.m., the pressure starts to drop off and the differential starts to increase. By 3:00 p.m., the
pressure has fallen from 118 to 112 pounds (at 1:00 p.m.) and the differential has increased
from 43 to 45 inches (at 1:00 p.m.). At 4:00 p.m., while drilling at 3,798 feet, the drill pipe
twisted off approximately 600 feet from the surface. By 4:00 p.m., the pressure had decreased
to 75 pounds and the differential had increased to 68 inches. The compressor output never
changed during this three hour period, only the pump pressure changed. This decrease in
pressure occurring from 1:00 p.m. to 4:00 p.m. was indicative of a hole or break in the drill pipe
which was growing in size. This example is probably exaggerated due to the shallow depth;
however, it is a very good illustration showing how problems can be detected while air drilling.
Figure 9-18. Meter Chart off well XYZ # 1 Drilled in Eastern Oklahoma. The Unstabilized Chart Readings are due to
Excess Compressor Vibrations and Hammer Tools Malfunctions while Drilling with Air at 3,185 to 3,385 feet
9-24
Drilling Practices
Figure 9-18 shows a meter chart taken from well XYZ #1 while drilling with air at a depth of
3,185 to 3,385 feet. The meter ranges are also 250 pound pressure and 100 inch differential.
The purpose of this figure is to illustrate the chart response to compressor variations and
hammer tool malfunctions. The drilling engineer needs to be very familiar with the air
compressor system and should be very cautious when interpreting the chart so as not to
mistake compressor problems for hole problems. Unless adjusted, the compressor output
should remain constant during the drilling operation; therefore, a change in the compressor
output would indicate compressor problems.
Figure 9-19 illustrates the chart response to stuck pipe during an air drilling operation. Well
XYZ #2 was being drilled with air at a depth of +10,000 feet. The pressure range on this meter
is 500 pounds thus the variations are not as exaggerated as they were with a 250 pound
pressure element. The differential range is 100 inches water. At approximately 1:10 p.m., the
compressor output was increased which resulted in an increase in pressure from 125 to 140
pounds and an increase in differential from 66 to 75 inches. At 9:45 p.m., the pressure started
to increase while the differential started to decrease. By 3:00 a.m., the pressure had increased
to 150 pounds and the differential had decreased to 64 inches. By 3:45 a.m., the pressure had
increased to 162 pounds and the differential had decreased to 60 inches and the drill pipe was
stuck at 10,854 feet. There were six hours between the time that the pressure started to
increase and the time that the drill pipe was stuck.
Figure 9-19. Meter Chart off well XYZ # 2 Drilled in Eastern Oklahoma. Stuck Drill Pipe Occurred at 3:45 am while
Drilling with Air at 10,854 feet
9-25
Drilling Practices
Chapter 9
Figure 9-20 is a good illustration of how torquing appears on a meter chart. Well ABC #2 was
being drilled with air at a depth of 10,871 feet when it started experiencing some torquing
problems. The problems lasted from 12:30 a.m. to 3:30 a.m. which is clearly indicated on the
meter chart. The meter ranges are 500 pound pressure and 100 inch water differential.
Figure 9-20. Meter Chart off well ABC # 2 Drilled in Eastern Oklahoma. The Chart Illustrates Torquing Problems
while Drilling with Air at 10,871 feet. (12:30 am to 3:30 am)
Another chart recorded while drilling well ABC #2 is shown in Figure 9-21. This chart illustrates
another good example of stuck pipe. At 7:45 a.m., the pressure started increasing and the
differential started decreasing. By 9:00 a.m., they still had good circulation; however, the pipe
was stuck at 10,886 feet. The pressure and differential ranges were still 500 pound and 100
inch water respectively. The length of time between the first pressure increase (at 7:45 a.m.)
and the time of stuck pipe (at 9:00 a.m.) was not long compared to the previous examples
shown. However, the change in pressure was more significant than that seen in the previous
examples. At 7:45 a.m., the pressure was 277 pounds and by 8:30 a.m. the pressure had
9-26
Drilling Practices
increased substantially to 400 pounds. A change in pressure of this magnitude would definitely
be alarming whereas a change of 10 psi might not be as critical.
Figure 9-21. Meter Chart off well ABC # 2 Drilled in Eastern Oklahoma. Stuck Drill Pipe Occurred at 9:00 am while
Drilling with Air at 10,886 feet
The operator of well ABC #3 was experiencing hole sloughing problems while drilling with air. A
meter chart recorded for this well is shown in Figure 9-22, which illustrates some of the
problems incurred. As noted on the chart at 5:00 p.m., the pressure was 150 pounds and the
differential was 32 inches. By 7:30 p.m., the pressure had increased to 170 pounds and the
differential had decreased to 28 inches. The pipe was stuck. They were able to work the pipe
free; however, they continued having sloughing problems as indicated by the small pressure
spikes between 9:00 p.m. and 12:45 a.m. At 1:00 a.m., the pressure started building fast and
by 1:20 a.m. the pipe was stuck again with no circulation. In order to help prevent hole
sloughing, the operator elected to mud up the hole.
9-27
Drilling Practices
Chapter 9
Figure 9-22. Meter Chart off well ABC # 3 Drilled in Eastern Oklahoma. The Operator was Experiencing Sloughing
Problems while Drilling with Air as indicted by the Meter Chart from 5:00 pm to 1:20 am.
As seen in the previous examples and figures, a two pen orifice meter can prove to be a very
useful tool in an air drilling operation. With some experience, the drilling engineer and rig
personnel should be able to use the orifice meter chart with a high degree of accuracy to
describe adverse drilling conditions that may exist while drilling with air. The quality of the tool,
however, is dependent upon the quality of the interpretation.
MIST DRILLING
When formation water is encountered, "dusting", or dry air drilling, can become "slug drilling";
intermittent slugs of water and air move up the hole. If the hole cannot be dried up, "mist
drilling" should be instituted. As water influx increases, a number of warning signs are
observable at the surface:
1. Loss of returns due to the wellbore loading up.
9-28
Drilling Practices
2. Pressure buildup due to the development of a mud ring or increased annular

hydrostatic.
3. Slugs of fluid at blooie line.
Representative pressure curves for the various sets of conditions are given in Figure 9-23.
To ignore these signs can lead to severe problems. As fluid builds up in the annulus, it can wet
water sensitive shales, leading to stuck pipe. Large slugs of water can cut out surface pits. The
surges can also have a destabilizing effect on the walls of the borehole.
If a small quantity of water is encountered, a mud ring can develop. A mud ring is a build up of
cuttings at the top of the drill collars which restricts the flow path. The cuttings are only slightly
wet and will stick together. If the cuttings are saturated, they will not stick together and a mud
ring will not form.
The restriction causes an increase in bottomhole pressure and can eventually stick the drill
string. Usually, the drill string becomes stuck when the pipe is pulled up into the mud ring. The
best way to remove a mud ring is by pumping enough water to completely saturate the cuttings
and dissolving the mud ring. Saturating the cutting with mist will prevent the formation of a mud
ring.
Figure 9-23. Meter Chart Showing Representative Curves for Air, Mist and Slug Drilling
9-29
Drilling Practices
Chapter 9
UNLOADING THE HOLE

When air drilling is first started after running casing, the hole must be unloaded. There are
several ways to unload the hole depending upon the wellbore configuration and the available
surface equipment. One recommended approach is as follows:
1. Run to bottom.
2. Bring pumps on line @ 1.5-2 barrels per minute. This low rate reduces friction
pressures to a minimum to facilitate air injection at the standpipe. Circulation
pressures can be calculated from standard hydraulics equations.
3. Bring one compressor and booster on line @ 100-150 scfm/barrel of fluid.
4. Run mist pump and soap injection pump at 10-12 barrels per hour and 2-3 barrels
per hour, respectively.
If pressures exceed the compressor/booster limitation, less air or less mud can be pumped to
lower the system pressure. Standpipe pressure will gradually decrease as the system becomes
aerated, and more compressors can be brought on line until the hole is unloaded.
Another way is to stage into the hole, blowing the fluid out at various depths. Care should be
taken with this process. As the air travels around the bit, it will rise in the annulus and expand
rapidly. Flow rates out the blooie line will be substantial which can cause the blooie line to part
or the pit wall to cut out. If this method is used, the blooie line should be securely anchored.
1. Trip part way into the hole. The hydrostatic of the fluid cannot exceed the pressure
rating of the booster.
2. Place one compressor and booster on the hole.
3. Run mist pump and soap injection pump at 10-12 barrels per hour and 2-3 barrels
per hour, respectively.
4. As the flow diminishes, add more compressors as required.
5. Repeat steps 1 to 4 until the bit reaches bottom.
ATTEMPT TO DRY THE HOLE

The hole has to be dried out before the well can be dusted. Even when small quantities of
formation water are encountered, the well can sometimes be dried out and dusting continued. It
is often possible to "mud off" the fluid producing zone with cuttings.
The first step in drying out a well is to blow all the water out of the well. Usually a good slug of
soap (surfactant) will remove most of the water. Blow the hole with air until the well quits
making water. Or in the case where formation water is encountered, the well is making very
little water.
Blowing air through the hole will never completely dry out a well. Moisture clings to the drill
string and the borehole walls. A drying agent must be used to absorb this water and bring it out
of the hole. Drill cuttings are one of the most economical and effective drying agents.
9-30
Drilling Practices
Intermittently drill and blow, for instance to drill 3-4 feet and then circulate for bottoms-up plus
50%. The minimal amount of drilling provides sufficient solids to absorb the moisture or to "mud
off" the water producing formation without generating enough to form mud a ring. If drying out a
well without a small water flow, the well should be dusting after drilling less than 30 feet of hole.
If it does not start dusting before drilling 30 feet, something is probably wrong.
In wells with a small water flow, it may take considerably more drilling to dry the well out
especially with long sections of open hole. Care should be taken to prevent the formation of a
mud ring and to keep from getting the drill string stuck.
If the hole can be unloaded, but not dried, mist drilling should commence. The principle of mist
drilling is to add enough water to the stream so that it and the cuttings in the wellbore becomes
saturated. This allows produced water to be carried out as particles and keeps the drill cuttings
from forming a mud ring. In determining the proper amount of water and soap to be injected,
several rules of thumb are helpful.
1. Air volumes tend to be greater by 20-40% for mist drilling over air drilling.
2. Pressures generally run at 200-400 psi for mist as opposed to 100-300 psi for air
drilling.
3. Insufficient air/soap additions lead to slugging, with attendant pressure surges.
Effectiveness of a mist drilling operation can be judged by watching returns at the blooie line.
Minimum additions of soap and water should be added to achieve:
1. a relatively continuous flow of mist and cuttings.
2. separation of the cuttings (not stuck together).
Proper amount of water and soap is a trial and error process. Good starting points are 6-12
barrels per hour water and 1-2 quarts to 3-4 gallons per hour soap. The requirements are a
function of type and volume of influx water. For instance, many produced brines are effective
defoamers, necessitating the use of additional soap. Produced oil requires a special type of
soap. A corrosion inhibitor should always be run in a mist system.
INHIBITION
Inhibition should be considered in areas of water sensitive shales. The injected water can be
treated with KCl in concentrations of 1-3% to prevent hydration of the shales with subsequent
sloughing. Other inhibitors such as polymers can also be used.
STIFF FOAM
Stiff or stable foam is defined as a "multi-phase, metastable, compressible, non-Newtonian
fluid". It has superior fluid and cuttings carrying capacity compared to mist and requires
significantly less horsepower. Flow models for foam systems are suitable for computer
applications, being too complex for treatment here. Stable foam is a mixture of:
1. fresh water
9-31
Drilling Practices
Chapter 9
2. detergent
3. chemical additives
4. compressed gas; i.e. nitrogen, carbon dioxide, natural gas and air
Stable foam is mixed at the surface, preformed, and circulated a single time through the hole.
This preforming eliminates problems with contamination. Salt water, oil, sulfides, and steam
have all been successfully handled with this system. It readily separates into its gas and liquid
components at the surface pit.
MIXING
The configuration shown in Figure 9-24 has proven effective to mix stable foams. Compressed
air or gas is fed through the foam generator. The water/detergent solution is prepared in the
blender within a general range of 0.1-1.0 parts foaming agent to 100 parts of solution. The
actual foam is formed by pumping the water/detergent solution through a venturi tube into the
air gas steam. The preferable range of gas to liquid ratio is 3-50 cu.ft./gal. This is adjusted
according to downhole requirements.
Figure 9-24. Stable Foam Mixing System
If too much air is used with the foam, then the well is still being misted with foam products. A
foam quality greater than 96% is generally considered to be mist and not foam. A quality of
96% means that the mixture is 96% gas and 4% liquid. When using foam, the air rate must be
significantly lower than when drilling with mist; otherwise, it is not foam drilling.
The following comparison of circulating parameters, from two offset wells drilled with foam and
mist, point out the differences between the two systems.
Foam
Drilling depth:
1,000 feet (305 meters)
Air:
950 scfm
Water:
Chemicals:
9-32
15 barrels per hour

pound per barrel polymer
Drilling Practices
% by volume foamer
2% by volume KCl and 1 gallon per 15 barrels corrosion inhibitor
Standpipe pressure: 250 psi
AV at DC:
100 feet per minute
Cost
Chemicals:
$4.50/bbl x 15 BPH = $67.50/hr
1 Compressor and Mist Pump:
$33.00/hr
Diesel Fuel:
$20.00/hr
Total:
$120.50/hr
Mist
Drilling depth:
1,000 feet (305 meters)
Air:
5,500 scfm
Water:
20 barrels per hour
Chemicals:
2% foamer
2% KCl
1 gallon per 15 barrels. corrosion inhibitor
Standpipe Pressure: 300 psi

AV to DC:
2,500 feet per minute
Cost
Chemicals:
$6.00/bbl. x 20 BPH = $120.00/hr
6 Compressors and Mist Pump:
$130.00/hr
Diesel Fuel:
$85.00/hr
Total:
$335.00/hr
Points to consider in the comparison of the two systems include the generally higher energy
levels of the mist system. In certain formations where a lighter than mud system is needed for
low fracture gradients, the erosion from the high annular velocities of the mist system could
prohibit its use.
9-33
Drilling Practices
Chapter 9
The ability of the stiff foam to remove produced water is greater than that of mist. However,
disposal of large quantities of water at the surface can be very expensive.
Assuming comparable stability, and all other drilling factors being equal, the decision becomes
a rather straightforward economic one. The cost differential in the above example reduces to
$5,148/day (Delta cost per hour x 24). Drill rate must be sufficiently improved to justify mist.
However, foam systems are more difficult to use than mist. A computer program is required on
location just to adjust the foam parameters.
BACK PRESSURE VALVE

A valve is generally installed in the blooie line immediately downstream from the rotating head.
During connections the valve is shut, acting as a choke, and preventing separation of foam. If
separation does occur, it will show symptoms similar to slug drilling.
The back pressure valve is also used to keep pressure on the annulus near the surface while
circulating. Some pressure is required on the annulus to keep the foam system from turning to
mist. If the foam turns to mist near the surface, the lifting capacity significantly decreases.
EXCESSIVE CUTTINGS
If too many cuttings are present in the annulus, either due to sloughing or too high a rate of
penetration, the foam structure can collapse. The symptoms of this condition are also similar to
slug drilling, with returns of alternately water and air. This condition necessitates stiffer foam.
AERATED MUD
Aerated mud, air injected mud, is employed when water influx is too great to be removed by
mist or foam techniques. The injected air maintains the hydrostatic at some value less than a
full column of fluid. These systems retain many benefits of a mud system minimizing chances
of lost circulation. Some benefits are:
1. Hole stability; hole support with air systems is negligible,
2. Less sandblasting of drill string,
3. Effective hydraulic dampening of drill string, and
4. No potential of downhole fires.
Some potential problems with aerated mud are:
1. Erosion from high annular velocity near the top of the hole,
2. Severe corrosion problems, and
3. Slower rate of penetration than with air, mist, or foam.
To be suitable for aeration, a mud should follow some basic guidelines:
9-34
Drilling Practices
1. Low gel strengths, to facilitate breaking out of the air,

2. Low viscosity (a/a), and
3. Good corrosion control characteristics.
Air can be injected either through an injection manifold upstream from the standpipe or through
a small string running down the surface casing annulus. The second method is preferable for
two reasons:
1. The full standpipe pressure does not have to be overcome for injection, allowing for
less horsepower.
2. At depth, air does little to reduce hydrostatic pressure due to compression.
Figure 9-25, from Poettman and Bergman, gives a means to graphically determine air
requirements per barrel of mud to lower hydrostatic pressure. An example is worked out on the
figure.
Figure 9-25. Volume Requirements to Aerate Mud from Poettman and Bergman
9-35
Drilling Practices
Chapter 9
AIR VOLUME CHARTS

4 3/4" HOLE BY 2 7/8" PIPE
SG =1.0
1200
120'/hr
1000
90'/hr
60'/hr
30'/hr
VOLUME, (scfm)
800
0'/hr
600
400
200
0
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
16000
DEPHT, (feet)
6 1/2" HOLE BY 3 1/2" PIPE

SG =1.0
1800
120'/hr
1600
90'/hr
60'/hr
1400
30'/hr
VOLUME, (scfm)
1200
0'/hr
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
16000
DEPHT, (feet)
9-36
Drilling Practices
7 7/8" HOLE BY 4 1/2" PIPE

SG =1.0
2500
120'/hr
90'/hr
2000
60'/hr
VOLUME, (scfm)
30'/hr
1500
0'/hr
1000
500
0
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
16000
DEPHT, (feet)
8 3/4" HOLE BY 3 1/2" PIPE

SG =1.0
2800
120'/hr
2600
90'/hr
2400
60'/hr
VOLUME, (scfm)
2200
30'/hr
2000
1800
0'/hr
1600
1400
1200
1000
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
16000
DEPHT, (feet)
9-37
Drilling Practices
Chapter 9
8 3/4" HOLE BY 4 1/2" PIPE

SG =1.0
3000
120'/hr
2500
90'/hr
VOLUME, (scfm)
60'/hr
30'/hr
2000
0'/hr
1500
1000
500
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
16000
DEPHT, (feet)
10 5/8" HOLE BY 4 1/2" PIPE

SG =1.0
4000
120'/hr
3500
90'/hr
60'/hr
VOLUME, (scfm)
3000
30'/hr
2500
0'/hr
2000
1500
1000
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
16000
DEPHT, (feet)
9-38
Drilling Practices
12 1/4" HOLE BY 4 1/2" PIPE

SG =1.0
5000
120'/hr
4500
90'/hr
VOLUME, (scfm)
4000
60'/hr
30'/hr
3500
0'/hr
3000
2500
2000
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
16000
DEPHT, (feet)
14 3/4" HOLE BY 4 1/2" PIPE

SG =1.0
6000
90'/hr
5500
60'/hr
VOLUME, (scfm)
5000
30'/hr
4500
0'/hr
4000
3500
3000
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
16000
DEPHT, (feet)
9-39
Drilling Practices
Chapter 9
17 1/2" HOLE BY 4 1/2" PIPE

SG =1.0
8500
8000
90'/hr
7500
60'/hr
VOLUME, (scfm)
7000
30'/hr
6500
0'/hr
6000
5500
5000
4500
4000
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
16000
DEPHT, (feet)
4 3/4" HOLE BY 2 7/8" PIPE

SG =0.6
1400
120'/hr
1200
90'/hr
60'/hr
1000
VOLUME, (scfm)
30'/hr
0'/hr
800
600
400
200
0
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
16000
DEPHT, (feet)
9-40
Drilling Practices
6 1/2" HOLE BY 3 1/2" PIPE

SG =0.6
2100
120'/hr
1900
90'/hr
VOLUME, (scfm)
1700
60'/hr
30'/hr
1500
0'/hr
1300
1100
900
700
500
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
16000
DEPHT, (feet)
7 7/8" HOLE BY 4 1/2" PIPE

SG =0.6
3000
120'/hr
2500
90'/hr
VOLUME, (scfm)
60'/hr
30'/hr
2000
0'/hr
1500
1000
500
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
16000
DEPHT, (feet)
9-41
Drilling Practices
Chapter 9
8 3/4" HOLE BY 3 1/2" PIPE

SG =0.6
3500
120'/hr
3000
90'/hr
VOLUME, (scfm)
60'/hr
2500
30'/hr
0'/hr
2000
1500
1000
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
16000
DEPHT, (feet)
8 3/4" HOLE BY 4 1/2" PIPE

SG =0.6
3500
120'/hr
3000
90'/hr
60'/hr
VOLUME, (scfm)
2500
30'/hr
0'/hr
2000
1500
1000
500
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
16000
DEPHT, (feet)
9-42
Drilling Practices
10 5/8" HOLE BY 4 1/2" PIPE

SG =0.6
4500
120'/hr
4000
90'/hr
60'/hr
3500
VOLUME, (scfm)
30'/hr
3000
0'/hr
2500
2000
1500
1000
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
16000
DEPHT, (feet)
12 1/4" HOLE BY 4 1/2" PIPE

SG =0.6
6000
5500
120'/hr
90'/hr
VOLUME, (scfm)
5000
60'/hr
4500
30'/hr
4000
0'/hr
3500
3000
2500
2000
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
16000
DEPHT, (feet)
9-43
Drilling Practices
Chapter 9
14 3/4" HOLE BY 4 1/2" PIPE

SG =0.6
7000
90'/hr
6500
60'/hr
VOLUME, (scfm)
6000
30'/hr
5500
0'/hr
5000
4500
4000
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
16000
DEPHT, (feet)
17 1/2" HOLE BY 4 1/2" PIPE

SG =0.6
10000
90'/hr
9000
60'/hr
VOLUME, (scfm)
8000
30'/hr
0'/hr
7000
6000
5000
4000
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
16000
DEPHT, (feet)
9-44
Drilling Practices
AIR VOLUME CHARTS IN SI UNITS

121 mm HOLE BY 73 mm PIPE
SG =1.0
35
30
37
27 m/hr
18 m/hr
25
VOLUME, (scm/min)
9 m/hr
0 m/hr
20
15
10
0
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
DEPTH, (meters)

SG =1.0
50
37 m/hr
45
27 m/hr
18 m/hr
40
VOLUME, (scm/min)
9 m/hr
35
0 m/hr
30
25
20
15
10
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
DEPTH, (meters)
9-45
Drilling Practices
Chapter 9

SG =1.0
70
37 m/hr
60
27 m/hr
18 m/hr
VOLUME, (scm/min)
50
9 m/hr
0 m/hr
40
30
20
10
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
DEPTH, (meters)

SG =1.0
80
37 m/hr
27 m/hr
70
18 m/hr
VOLUME, (scm/min)
60
9 m/hr
0 m/hr
50
40
30
20
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
DEPTH, (meters)
9-46
Drilling Practices

SG =1.0
80
37 m/hr
70
27 m/hr
18 m/hr
VOLUME, (scm/min)
60
9 m/hr
50
0 m/hr
40
30
20
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
DEPTH, (meters)

SG =1.0
110
37 m/hr
100
27 m/hr
90
VOLUME, (scm/min)
18 m/hr
80
9 m/hr
70
0 m/hr
60
50
40
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
DEPTH, (meters)
9-47
Drilling Practices
Chapter 9

SG =1.0
140
37 m/hr
130
27 m/hr
120
18 m/hr
VOLUME, (scm/min)
110
9 m/hr
100
90
0 m/hr
80
70
60
50
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
DEPTH, (meters)

SG =1.0
170
27 m/hr
160
18 m/hr
150
9 m/hr
VOLUME, (scm/min)
140
130
0 m/hr
120
110
100
90
80
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
DEPTH, (meters)
9-48
Drilling Practices

SG =1.0
240
27 m/hr
220
18 m/hr
VOLUME, (scm/min)
200
9 m/hr
180
0 m/hr
160
140
120
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
DEPTH, (meter)

SG =0.6
40
37 m/hr
35
27 m/hr
30
18 m/hr
VOLUME, (scm/min)
9 m/hr
25
0 m/hr
20
15
10
0
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
DEPTH, (meters)
9-49
Drilling Practices
Chapter 9

SG =0.6
60
37 m/hr
55
27 m/hr
50
18 m/hr
VOLUME, (scm/min)
45
9 m/hr
40
0 m/hr
35
30
25
20
15
10
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
DEPTH, (meters)

SG =0.6
80
37 m/hr
70
27 m/hr
18 m/hr
VOLUME, (scm/min)
60
9 m/hr
50
0 m/hr
40
30
20
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
DEPTH, (meters)
9-50
Drilling Practices

SG =0.6
100
37 m/hr
90
27 m/hr
80
VOLUME, (scm/min)
18 m/hr
70
9 m/hr
60
0 m/hr
50
40
30
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
DEPTH, (meters)

SG =0.6
100
90
37 m/hr
27 m/hr
80
VOLUME, (scm/min)
18 m/hr
70
9 m/hr
60
0 m/hr
50
40
30
20
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
DEPTH, (meters)
9-51
Drilling Practices
Chapter 9

SG =0.6
130
37 m/hr
120
27 m/hr
110
18 m/hr
VOLUME, (scm/min)
100
9 m/hr
90
0 m/hr
80
70
60
50
40
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
DEPTH, (meters)

SG =0.6
160
37 m/hr
150
27
140
18
VOLUME, (scm/min)
130
120
9 m/hr
110
0 m/hr
100
90
80
70
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
DEPTH, (meters)
9-52
Drilling Practices

SG =0.6
200
27 m/hr
190
18 m/hr
180
VOLUME, (scm/min)
170
9 m/hr
160
150
0 m/hr
140
130
120
110
100
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
DEPTH, (meters)

SG =0.6
270
27 m/hr
250
18 m/hr
VOLUME, (scm/min)
230
9 m/hr
210
0 m/hr
190
170
150
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
DEPTH, (meters)
9-53
Drilling Practices
Chapter 9
NOMENCLATURE
9-54
Intermediate calculation parameter
a'
Aa
Annular area, square feet
b'
CD
Drag coefficient, dimensionless
D bl
Internal diameter of blooie line, inches
Dh
Diameter of hole, inches
Dic
Internal diameter of casing, inches
Dp
Outside diameter of pipe, inches
dp
Diameter of particle, feet
f
g
Friction factor
acceleration of gravity, ft/sec2
Mass flow rate, pounds per second a Aa v s
Gg
Geothermal gradient, /ft
Well depth for air volume calculations, feet
Drilling rate, feet per hour
Ma
Molecular weight of air, 28.95 pounds per mole
Mg
Mass of gas or air, pounds per cubic foot
Mp
Mass of particle, pounds per cubic foot
Pressure, pounds per square foot
Volume rate of flow, standard cubic feet per minute
Universal gas constant
Specific gravity
Temperature, R
v min
Minimum annular velocity at standard conditions, feet per minute
vs
Slip velocity, feet per second
Compressibility factor
Density of air, pounds per cubic foot
Drilling Practices
density of a particle, pounds per cubic foot
av
Subscript for average well conditions
Subscript for bottomhole conditions
Subscript for surface conditions
REFERENCES
1
Gibbs, C.W.; Compressed Air and Gas Data, second edition, Ingersal Rand Company, 1971.
Mitchel, R.F.;The Simulation of Air and Mist Drilling for Geothermal Wells, SPE 10234,
October 1981.
Moore, C.L. and La Fave, V.A.; Air and Gas Drilling, Journal of Petroleum Engineering,
February, 1956.
Hook, R.A., Cooper, L.W.; Air, Mist and Foam Drilling: A Look at the Latest Techniques: Parts
I and II, World Oil, April and May, 1977.
Angel, R.R., "Volume Requirements for Air or Gas Drilling", Transaction of AIME, Vol. 210, pp.
325, 1957.
Moore, P.L. and Cole, F.W., Drilling Operation Manual, Tulsa, The Petroleum Publishing Co.,
1965.
9-55

Chapter 09 Air and Gas Drilling

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Chapter 09 Air and Gas Drilling

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Chapter 9

Copyright 2003 OGCI/PetroSkills. All rights reserved.

Drilled on air to TD.

Drilled on air to point A, then mudded up and mud drilled to TD.

Drilled on mud to TD.

Copyright 2003 OGCI/PetroSkills. All rights reserved

Copyright 2003 OGCI/PetroSkills. All rights reserved.

MINIMIZING LOST CIRCULATION

INCREASED FOOTAGE PER BIT

Copyright 2003 OGCI/PetroSkills. All rights reserved

LIMITATIONS OF PORE PRESSURE REGIMES

DRILL STRING WEAR

HYDRAULIC DAMPENING OF DRILL STRING

DOWNHOLE FIRES AND EXPLOSIONS

AIR VERSUS MUD DRILLING PERFORMANCE CURVES FROM FIELD DATA

Copyright 2003 OGCI/PetroSkills. All rights reserved.

A summary of these figures are as follows:

Figure 9-5 through Figure 9-7:

Typical Drilling performance curves for an air drilled hole.

Typical drilling performance curve for a mud drilled hole.

Figure 9-3. Bit Weight Drill-Off Test with Air

Figure 9-4. Rotary Drill-Off Test with Air

Copyright 2003 OGCI/PetroSkills. All rights reserved

Figure 9-5. Typical Air Drilling Performance in the Arkoma Basin

Figure 9-6. Typical Air Drilling Performance in the Arkoma Basin

Copyright 2003 OGCI/PetroSkills. All rights reserved.

Figure 9-7. Typical Air Drilling Performance in the Arkoma Basin

Copyright 2003 OGCI/PetroSkills. All rights reserved

Copyright 2003 OGCI/PetroSkills. All rights reserved.

AIR DRILLING EQUIPMENT

Figure 9-12. Classification of Compressors1

Copyright 2003 OGCI/PetroSkills. All rights reserved

(28.95 )(14.696 )(144 )

(28.95 )(14.696 )(144 )

Copyright 2003 OGCI/PetroSkills. All rights reserved.

Figure 9-13. Air Drilling Equipment Plan2

Copyright 2003 OGCI/PetroSkills. All rights reserved

Figure 9-14. Standpipe Manifold3

Rotating Head, or Rotating Kelly Packer

Copyright 2003 OGCI/PetroSkills. All rights reserved.

Blooie or Blooey Line

Dbl 1.1 Dic D p

Copyright 2003 OGCI/PetroSkills. All rights reserved

Copyright 2003 OGCI/PetroSkills. All rights reserved.

Copyright 2003 OGCI/PetroSkills. All rights reserved

Figure 9-16. Bit Design Parameters

The nomenclature in Figure 9-16 is as follows:

degree to which insert projects beyond cone shell.

degree of intrusion of inserts of a given cone into the plane of the

angle machined into cone heel.

angle between line bisecting a cone and true center of a bit.

Copyright 2003 OGCI/PetroSkills. All rights reserved.

Delta Heel vs. Conical Angle

DOWNHOLE AIR AND GAS REQUIREMENTS

Cool the bit components.

Copyright 2003 OGCI/PetroSkills. All rights reserved

Clear cuttings from the bottom of the hole.

Adequately remove the cuttings from the wellbore.

Copyright 2003 OGCI/PetroSkills. All rights reserved.

DETERMINING AIR AND GAS VOLUME REQUIREMENTS

Copyright 2003 OGCI/PetroSkills. All rights reserved

Cole and Moore Method

Copyright 2003 OGCI/PetroSkills. All rights reserved.

DIAGNOSTICS OF DRILLING PROBLEMS