CHAPTER V

Mechanical Modification

Methods of Compaction
Laboratory Procedure
Shallow Surface Compaction
Deep Compaction Techniques
Hydromechanical Compaction

SOIL COMPACTION
It is the most obvious and simple way of
increasing the stability and supporting
capacity of soil (improving the physical
properties of soil)
Soil compaction is the process of increasing
the unit weight of soil by forcing solids into a
tighter state and reducing air.
This is accomplished by applying static or
dynamic loads to the soil.

Soil densification include compaction and

consolidation.
Compaction is one kind of densification that is
realized by rearrangement of soil particles
without outflow of water.
Soil is compacted by removing air and water
from its pore space. There exists a certain
amount of moisture that a soil can have
where a maximum unit weight is obtained.
It does not involve fluid flow, but with moisture
changing.

Consolidation is another kind of densification

with fluid flow away.
Consolidation is primarily for clayey
soils.
Water is squeezed out from its pores under
load.

Types of Action
* Ramming
* Vibration
* Static Rollers

Ramming
Rammers have a low frequency (800
blows/minute), and a higher stroke (1.5"
to 3.5 height).
As the machine operates the ramming
action breaks down the soil, pushes the
particles closer together, and forces air
out of the voids.

Vibration
Vibratory machines are distinguished by
their high frequency (2,000 to 6,000
blows/minute) and a low amplitude.
The vibratory action sets the soil particles
in motion, which rearranges them into a
denser packing.

Compaction improves characteristics of soils:

1- Increases Strength
2- Decreases permeability
3- Reduces settlement of foundation
4- Increases slope stability of
embankments

Soil Compaction can be achieved either

by static or dynamic loading

Laboratory Procedure
Generally before any soil compaction occurs,
various samples of the proposed embankment
or fill are analyzed in the Lab.
One such lab test is Proctor compaction test.
The Proctor compaction test is a test that
compacts the soil material at various moisture
contents.
There are two Proctor tests that are defined by
the American Association of Highway Officials
and American Standard Testing Material:

Laboratory Proctor Compaction

Test
The Standard Proctor test (ASTM D-698,
AASHTO T-99), and
The Modified Proctor test (ASTM D-1557 and
AASHTO T-180).

The Standard Proctor Test is generally used for

fills requiring the minimal sub-grade
compaction, such as
small parking lots, and
building structures.
While the Modified Proctor is generally used
for fills that will support large loads, such as:
Roadways,
Airport Runways, and
Concrete Parking Aprons.

Relative Compaction or Degree of

Compaction
Relative Compaction= d(field)/d(max)lab

d(field): Dry density achieved in the field.

d(max)lab: Max. dry density (from a Proctor compaction test)

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Generally a contractor is given a percentage of

optimum compaction that must be attained in
the field.
This is referred to as the Relative Compaction,
R(%) or Degree of Compaction.
Relative compaction generally range from 90% 95% as compared to the modified proctor
and 95% - 100% as compared to the standard
Proctor.
Generally granular fills are required to be
compacted to 95% - 100% in the field.

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NUCLEAR DENSITY TEST

It consists of a special device that send out
gamma rays and detects how they travel
through the soil.
The amount of gamma rays received back into
the device correlates with the unit weight of
the soil.
It also measures the moisture content of the
soil in a similar way using alpha particles.

Shallow Surface Compaction

Shallow compaction in the field is
accomplished by rolling or
vibrating.
Field compaction of soils is mainly
done with various types of rollers.

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The four most common types of rollers are:

1. Sheepsfoot rollers, used mainly for
Clayey and Silty Soils.
2. Smooth-drum rollers, Used primarily for
Granular Soils.
3. Vibratory Rollers, Used primarily for
Granular Soils.
4.

Pneumatic Rubber-tired rollers for clay soil.

Sheepsfoot Roller
This roller compacts all fine-grained materials,
including materials that will break down or
degrade under the roller feet,
but it will not compact cohesionless granular
materials.

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The number of passes necessary for this type

of roller to obtain the required densities must
be determined for each type of soil
encountered.
The roller compacts from the bottom up and is
used especially for plastic materials.
The lift thickness for sheepsfoot rollers is
limited to 6 inches (15cm) in compacted
depth.

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Steel-Wheeled Roller
Although extensively used, it is normally
operated in conjunction with one of the other
three types of compaction rollers.
It is used for compacting granular materials in
thin lifts.
Probably its most effective use in subgrade work
is in the final finish of a surface,
following immediately behind the blade,
forming a dense and watertight surface.

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Steel-Wheeled Roller

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Rubber Tired Rollers

Tamping-Foot Roller
A tamping-foot roller is a modification of
the sheepsfoot roller. The tamping feet
are trapezoidal pads attached to a drum.
Tamping-foot rollers are normally selfpropelled,
and the drum may be capable of
vibrating.
The tamping-foot roller is suitable for
use with a wide range of soil types.

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TampingTamping-Foot Roller

Pneumatic rubber-tired roller

For compacting clay soil.
Clays are more difficult to compact than
sands and gravels, because they must be
brought to the right range of water
content before they can be compacted to
high densities.
Static pressure, as exerted by the wheels
of this rubber-tired roller, compacts clays
well.

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Pneumatic rubber-tired roller

Vibratory Plates are designed for consistent compaction performance.

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Rammers

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SOME SIMPLE RULES ON COMPACTION AND

CONSOLIDATION
If your fill is a cohesive / clay soil, it must NOT
be too wet, and it must NOT be too dry, a
reasonable "rule of thumb" for cohesive (clay)
soils is the moisture content range +/- 2% of
the Plastic Limit.
Lay soil fills in thin layers, maximum 200mm,
compact each fully before placing next layer.
Granular fills must be well graded, particle size
well distributed through the range of the
material.
Not single sized particles.

Consult appropriate specification to choose

compaction plant and numbers of passes /
blows.
Ensure correct compaction plant is on site.
When compacting bituminous materials ensure
they are above minimum rolling temperatures.
Maximum thickness of 40mm nominal size
bituminous roadbase is 150mm, (with a BIG
roller).
Do not trust any testing apparatus that requires
calibration, satisfy yourself it is working
correctly by using other testing methods
alongside the instruments that need calibration.

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