Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Reported By :
Ali Mohammed Alkebsi
46/2007
Contents
123456789-
Abstract
Introduction and Objectives
Method and Equipment
Theory
Procedure steps
Results and calculations
Discussion
Conclusion
References
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Abstract
A tank containing water with an orifice on its vertical side and with its surface in
contact with the surrounding atmosphere will at some time be empty or the
water level will reach the bottom of the orifice because the water will seep or
discharge out. The shape and area of the orifice will decide how long it will take
the tank to be emptied. Also the shape and area of the tank as well as the
location of the orifice. Another factor is both the material of the tank and of the
fluid as they affect the viscosity along with the effects of temperature. The
objective of this experiment is to find three theoretical coefficients that relates
the factors mentioned above to our needs. These objectives (coefficients) are:
To find the coefficient of velocity for a small orifice.
To find the coefficient of discharge for a small orifice.
To find the coefficient of contraction for a .................
By implementing Bernoullis equation to a tank - with constant head having an orifice of known diameter and tracing the jetting water
trajectory; locating two points along the path.
Then collecting an amount of the jetting fluid water by a volumetric tube
during a period of time set by a stopwatch, thus attaining the flow rate.
Next we consider the case of zero inflow in which the head changes with
time, applying the conservation of mass law to deduce a formula
connecting the time, (timed by a stopwatch) a certain amount of fluid
(collected by a tube) takes to spurt out of the tank or to decrease the level
in the tank from an initial level
ho
to a final level
h2
Equipment:
The F1-10 Hydraulic Bench, and the F1-17a Orifice Discharge.
A volumetric tube and a stopwatch are needed to find the flow rate.
The F1-17a Orifice Discharge device consists mainly of a cylindrical
tank with a small orifice near the bottom of the tank. There is an
adjustable overflow pipe near the top of the tank through which the level
of water in the tank can be perfectly maintained. There are two inlet
hoses one connected to the overflow pipe and the other to the tank,
through which the tank is filled and supplied with water. The tank is
mounted on a frame F1-10 along with a recording system that is used
to measure the jet of water produced from the orifice when in use. The
recording system consists of a clipboard and adjustable pointers. The
pointers can be adjusted in height to correspond with the arc of the
water jet. Paper can be mounted against the clipboard and the position
of the tips of the pointers can be recorded on the paper.
Theory
y =+ c 1
y =g
t
y=g + c 1 t+ c 2
2
y =0
t = 0,
At
c 1=0
c 2=0
and
y=0,
we get:
. Thus
y=g
t
2
t2
2
=0
for the
x-direction
for the
y-
direction
( x 2 , y 2)
g x
2 vo
get:
( )
-----------------Eqn(1)
If a tank is partially filled with water at a level h, measured from the surface to
the axis of the vertical orifice with the surface in contact with the atmosphere,
that is a surface subjected to atmospheric pressure, then the fluid will be
discharged from the orifice with a velocity that can be related to both the head
h, of the water and to the gravity g, using the Bernoullis formula as follows:
v 21
p1 v 22
p
+z1 +
= +z2 + 2
2g
g 2g
g
-----------------Eqn(2.a)
0.
z 1z 2=h
p1= p2
.
as both the points are under atmospheric pressure.
v 22
0+h=
2g
which yields:
v 2= 2 gh
( )
dV +( A)out ( A)
cv
where:
dB
dm
is the intensive value or the amount of B per unit mass in any small
called
1
u 3
dA
A
avg
( )
v 21
p1
v 22
p2
+ z 1+
= 2
+ z 2+
2g
g
2g
g
-----------------Eqn(2.b)
v 22
p
+ z2 + 2
2g
g
p2=0
h=z2 z1=H
Which is also called Corioli coefficient is equal to one for the small area
like:
v 22
H= (1+ )
2g
Solving for v 2
v 2=
we get:
1
2 gH
1+
Let us denote
cv=
1
1+
-----------------Eqn(3)
2
g
x
x2
=
2
2 c v 2 gh
4 cv h
cv=
x
2 yh
-----------------Eqn(4)
If we have the location of two points along the parabola described in Eqn(4) and
like that in the figure we can find c v from the following expression:
cv=
x 2x 1
2 h ( y 2 y 1 )
Unfortunately we did not measure the height of the first point during the
experiment processing. Rather, what was measured is the difference in the
heights of the points that is y , thus
because it is
somewhat at the same height of the orifices axis, and the formula will look like
this:
cv=
x
2 yh
cv
simplification means this value will be overlooked during the calculations but,
at the end of this report a predicted limiting value for this deviation will be
presented in the error analysis in the discussion section.
10
Attention to be drawn to the fact, that velocity does not depend on the
dimensions of the orifice.
cv
only.
Flow rate may be expressed as:
Q= A c v
Ac
A c =cc A
Where
cc
If we put c c c v =c d
Q
A 2 gh
cc=
cd
cv
we will get:
cc
cv
and
cd
depend on
the inertial forces and viscous forces present at the section or the point of
interest, in earthly words they are dependent on the Reynolds number.
Relationship of these coefficients with Re for small round orifice, in vertical wall
of the reservoir far from bottom and other walls is shown on this figure.
11
If there was no inflow to the tank the level surface of the fluid discharging from
an orifice will descent with time. Appling conservation of mass to a control
volume yields:
m
i m
o= m
cv
But
d mo
=v A c
dt
with
m
i=0
m
o=m
cv
mcv=h A tank
12
c d A orifice 2 gh=
Thus
d
( h A tank )
dt
we will get:
A2tank
( )
dt=
2
o
h h2
t= o
c d g /2
cd
dh
c d 2 gh
A 2tank
( )
h h2
= o
t g/2
A tank =
=constant
A 2o
solving for c d
A 2tank
( )
A 2o
V gathered
h
13
then
Procedure Steps
For constant head
1. After initiating the flow and adjusting, raising the overflow handle to
maximum, fill the tank to the overflow level and turn off the inlet (using
the knob on the bench).
2. Start the stopwatch when the water level reaches a convenient initial head
ho
.
3. Stop it when the water level reaches a convenient final head h2 .
4. Record the time taken along with the chosen convenient values of
h2
ho
and
.
5. Repeat the steps 1 to 4 many times with other heads.
6. During one of the measurements collect the water discharged with the
volumetric tube to obtain the area of the tank.
14
h mm
371
351
330
310
290
cv=
mm
250
250
250
250
250
mm
56
63
67
73
77
x
2 yh
Q=
V ml
370
405
385
365
355
V
t
cv
Q cm3
12.4161
1
13.3399
2
12.6811
6
0.8672195
2
0.8405937
95
0.8406508
22
0.8309363
08
0.8364994
34
d=3m
m
3 10 m
cd =
Q 106
A 2 gh 103
cc=
cd
cv
12.0901
11.7045
8
2
A= d =
4
t sec
29.8
30.36
30.36
30.19
30.33
7.06858E-06
m2
cd
cc
0.6510534
02
0.7191472
19
0.7050502
97
0.6935328
11
0.6941847
0.75073
7
0.85552
3
0.83869
6
0.83464
0.82986
15
22
16
h2
mm
360
320
280
300
280
360
340
320
300
Do =
3mm
Ao =
7.06858E-06
m2
A tank
=
34.5
cm 2
t sec
9.33
10.72
h
11.03
28.5
0.04
32.02
5.2
5.47
5.66
5.901
Vml
138
Cd
0.766
61
0.705
425
0.729
966
0.655
201
0.710
998
0.696
791
0.681
068
0.677
866
0.670
837
17
Discussion
h mm
1. Coefficient of velocity.
Apparently
cv
371
351
330
310
290
cv
0.867219
52
0.840593
795
0.840650
822
0.830936
308
0.836499
434
Cv
vs
0.88
0.87
0.86
0.85
coefficient of velocity
0.84
0.83
0.82
0.81
280 290 300 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380
head
18
cv
Error analysis of
assumed
x , y ,h
2
2
cv
cv
cv
. u x +
. u y +
.u
x
y
h h
) (
)(
if we divide by c v we get:
uc
=
cv
v
cv
cv
cv
x
y
h
.u x +
. u y +
.u h
cv
cv
cv
cv
x
1
=
cv
x
)(
)( )
cv
y
1
=
cv
2 y
cv
h 1
=
cv
2h
Thus
uc
=
cv
v
u x 2 u y 2 u h
+
+
x
2 y
2h
)( )( )
It is apparent that the smaller the head h, the higher is the error
resulted, which is the reason of the absurd reading at h=290mm.
Also it is important to mention that the smaller the head h, the higher
error in reading
y2= y ). Thus again low h greatly amplifies the error propagated to the
results.
Our simplification in the theory section of (y 1=0, y2= y ) could be
reasoned with if we take
u x
(x1,y1) to the section of the vena contract or more easily, to the orifice.
19
cv
as
calculated below:
u x =4.7 cm
u y =0.05 cm
uh=0.05 cm
y avg =6.475 cm
x avg=25 cm
havg =34.05 cm
Thus
uc
=0.188
cv
v
and thus
uc =0.16
v
uc
=0.08
20
will be:
2. Coefficient of discharge.
Apparently
cd
cd
increase with
h mm
371
351
330
310
290
cd
0.651053402
0.719147219
0.705050297
0.693532811
0.694184722
One point seeming odd is the last point in the which the results are
absurd. It will be discussed in the error analysis following.
cd
vs
0.74
0.72
0.7
0.68
coefficient of discharge
0.66
0.64
0.62
0.6
270
290
310
330
head
21
350
370
390
cd
Error analysis of
assumed
t , V ,h
2
2
cd
cd
cd
. ut +
.u y +
.u
t
V
h h
)(
)(
if we divide by c d we get:
uc
=
cd
d
2
2
cd
cd
cd
t
V
h
. ut +
. uV +
.u h
cd
cd
cd
)( )( )
cd
V 1
=
cd
V
cd
t 1
=
cd
t
cd
h 1
=
cd
2h
Thus
uc
=
cd
d
( ) (
ut 2 u V 2 uh
+
+
t
V
2h
)( )
Thus it is again apparent that the lower the head the more the error is
amplified.
Thus after neglecting the final point as it greatly deviates from the
other values the error is calculated as follows:
Human mind response in about 0.7s thus ut will be assumed to equal
0.7 2 s=1 s
ut =1 s
22
uV =5 2 ml=7.07 ml , which came from 5ml for scale uncertainty and 5ml
, as mentioned before
,
V avg=381.25 ml
t avg=30.1775 s
uc
=0.038thus uc =0.026
cd
d
c dmean
23
3. Coefficient of contraction.
The resulting graph is really unpredictable as it is not
like that predicted in the theory section
h mm
371
351
330
310
c c when h when
290
cc
0.75073
7
0.85552
3
0.83869
6
0.83464
0.82986
9
because it
Thus true c c is definitely smaller than the one acquired by our experiment.
c cave =0.88
Cc
vs
0.88
0.86
0.84
0.82
0.8
coefficient of contraction
0.78
0.76
0.74
0.72
0.7
0.68
280 290 300 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380
head
24
4.
seems to
h2
0.4
0.36
0.04
0.36
0.32
0.04
0.32
0.28
0.04
0.4
0.3
0.1
0.4
0.28
0.12
0.38
0.36
0.02
0.36
0.34
0.02
0.34
0.32
0.02
0.32
0.3
0.02
theorized pattern.
It shows some
head as apparent
h1
Cd
0.766
61
0.705
425
0.729
966
0.655
201
0.710
998
0.696
791
0.681
068
0.677
866
0.670
837
0.78
0.76
0.74
0.72
0.7
0.68
0.66
0.64
0.62
0.6
0.58
1
C d ,ave
=
0.6994
18
25
26
Conclusion
C d ,C v , and C c greatly depend on the inertial and viscous forces, in other words
depend on the section of the orifice or nozzle or the pipe under consideration or
Re, Reynolds number.
C d ,C v , and C c
Cv
= 0.97;
Cc
= 0.64 and
Cd
= 0.62.
c d =0.6922
c d =0.69942
c c =0.82
Some of these value ( c v , c d ) are somewhat close to the expected values and
some others ( c c ) are unacceptable.
Errors are greatly human errors from the calibration to the readings recording.
Another great source of error is that we only used two pointers two locate only
two points along the trajectory, if only more points were located, our results
could have been more confident than those usually used.
27
References
28