Sand casting

Sand casting is defined as pouring of molten metal into a sand mold (molds are generally
provided with a cavity of the shape to be made) and allowing it to solidify inside the mould.
Various patterns are used to create cavity in the molds wherein, pattern can be said as the
replica of the final object to be made with some modifications. Depending on production
quantities, different pattern materials namely wood, aluminum, ferrous metals are used in
practice. These materials are used for low, moderate and high production quantities
respectively. Figure M2.1.1 shows a typical mould arrangement for a sand mold casting.
Pouring cup
Cope
Down sprue
Riser
Cast metal in
cavity
Core

Drag

Figure M2.1.1: Typical mould arrangement for a sand mold casting

The composition of sand refractory is usually a mixture of high purity silica sand, bentonite
clay, organic additives, and water. The cavity is formed by packing the moulding sand around
a pattern by ramming and squeezing. Holes and internal cavities in the casting are produced
by placing an accurate strong component called cores. After the refractory has compacted or
chemically hardened, the mould is opened at the parting line and pattern is removed. The two
halves of the mould are placed together by using a pin called dowel pins. Metal is poured in
to the mould cavity through a previously prepared opening called pouring cup.

Table M2.1.1: Metal commonly used in sand casting (Source: Design for Manufacturability
Handbook by James G Bralla, 2nd Ed)
Common metals and alloys

Cast iron G1800

Tensile
strength,
MPa
124

Remarks

Cast iron G2500

172

Ductile iron (60-40-18)

410

Magnesium AZ63A

200

Copper alloys (Leaded semi

red)

235

Leaded red brass

255

Good general-purpose casting alloy; used

forfire-equipment fittings, small gears,
small pumpparts;

Aluminum (C355.0)

248

Crankcases, gear housings air compressors,

fittings

Stainless steel (CF-8M)

550

Similar to wrought 316; used for aircraft

parts,chemical processing, electronics,
nuclear equipment, food processing,
mining, fertilizer equipment, missiles

Nickel CZ-100 alloy

345

Standard grade nickel casting alloy with

excellent castability; used for pressure tight
components, pumps, valves, equipment for
processing caustics at elevated temperatures

Used where high strength is not a

requirement; best machinability, damping
properties, and resistance to thermal stress
Used for small cylinder blocks, pistons,
gear boxes, clutch plates, and light-duty
brake drums
Used for auto crankshafts, hubs, parts
requiring shock resistance
Good castability; general casting alloy
having good strength, ductility, and
toughness
For low-pressure valves and fittings,
hardware parts, brass plumbing fixtures;

Typical characteristics of a sand cast part

Complex castings can be produced by the use of sand moulds. For example: Intricate
shapes (under cuts, complex contours), both internal and external can be made in the
above method which is generally difficult to machine for achieving such shape.

The metals those can be melted can be used for casting in this method. Table M2.1.1
shows the list of metal commonly casted in the sand molding process.

Further, casting of any size and weight even as high as 200 Tons can be made in the
above method.

Cast components are usually stable, rigid and strong as compared to products which
are produced in other manufacturing process.

Generally sand mold casted products are somewhat irregular and grainy surfaces and
hence machining is required to get a better surface finish product.

Sand casting processes are used in cylinder blocks, machine tool beds, pistons, water
supply pipes, bells etc.

Design considerations and recommendations

The following important recommendations are need to be considered while designing the
sand casted products.

Shrinkage: As the molten metal cools and solidifies in the mould, the natural shrinkage
occurs. The dimension of the casted product gets reduced as compared with the mold
cavity. The amount of shrinkage depends upon the type of metal. In order to compensate
the shrinkage allowance for outer dimension, the size of the pattern is made over size
and for inner dimension like hole; the pattern is made under size. It has been observed
that shrinkage happens towards the material side. Table M2.1.2 shows shrinkage of
various metals commonly cast in sand mould.
Table M2.1.2: Shrinkage Allowance for Metals used in Sand Moulds (Source: Design
for Manufacturability Handbook by James G Bralla, 2nd Ed)
Metal
Gray cast iron
White cast iron
Ductile cast iron
Malleable cast iron
Aluminum alloys
Yellow brass
Gunmetal bronze
Phosphor bronze
Aluminum bronze
Manganese bronze

Allowance (%)
0.83-1.3
2.1
0.83-1.0
0.78-1.0
1.3
1.3-1.6
1.0-1.6
1.0-1.6
2.1
2.1

Parting line: The parting line is a continuous line around a part that separates two
halves of the mould. Straight parting lines are more economical than the stepped parting
lines as shown in the Figure M2.1.2.

Not recommended

Straight parting line

Recommended

Figure M2.1.2: Recommended straight parting line

Draft: For easy removal of pattern from the moulding sand, some degree of taper or
drafts are provided. With the provision of little or no draft, there are chances that the
pattern may damage the mould rather than slipping out smoothly. Various factors
responsible for selecting the proper drafts are: method of moulding and drawing of the
pattern, pattern material, surface smoothness and degree of precision. Table M2.1.3
summarizes the recommended draft angles for outside surface of the sand moulded
casting. Often risers are provided to compensate the shrinkage. Figure M2.1.3

Pattern

Taper surface

Pattern

Figure M2.1.3: (a) Pattern withdrawal problem for no draft (b) smooth withdrawal of pattern
from Mould

Table: M2.1.3 Draft angle for outside surface for sand molded casting (Source:
Design for Manufacturability Handbook by James G Bralla, 2nd Ed)
Pattern material
Wood

Aluminum

Ferrous

Pattern-quality level
Ramming method Normal High Normal High Normal High
Hand
Squeezer
Automatic
Shell molding
Cold cure

5
3
-

3
2
-

4
3
2

3
2
1

1
1
-

Placement of risers: Risers are generally attached to the heaviest section. Heavier
sections are closer to the riser and the thinnest sections are farthest from the risers due to
faster solidification in thinner section. This minimizes the chances of getting voids.
(Refer Figure M2.1.4.)

Not this
Risers

Not this

This
Risers

This

Figure M2.1.4: Incorrect and correct designs of castings and riser location

Ribs and webs: In case of heavier sections, rib intersection with the casting wall can
cause hot spot shrinks. The number of intersecting ribs should be minimized to avoid
hot spot shrinks. Whenever it is necessary to bring all the ribs to a single point, a cored
hole would help in faster solidification, thereby avoiding hot spot shrinks. (Figure
M2.1.5. to M2.1.7.)

This

Not this

Figure M2.1.5: Incorrect and correct casting-rib design.

Poor

Much Improved

Much Improved

Figure M2.1.6: Reduce the number of reinforcing ribs that intersect at one point

Poor

Better

Best

Figure M2.1.7: Design alternatives to prevent hot-spot voids at rib and casting wall
intersections.

 Corners and angles: Hot spot are most common defect in corners and angles of
casting design. Use rounded corners having same radius for both internal and external
corner. Again too much rounding promote shrink defect in the corner. In particular, in
case of T sections, larger inside radius can be used to minimize stress concentration and
hot spots. Use of dished contours one on each side of the center legs are also affective.
Further, intersection of two walls of the casting should be at right angles to each other if
possible to minimize heat concentration. This feature is clearly shown in Figure M2.1.8
& Figure M2.1.9.

Figure M2.1.8: Sharp corners cause uneven cooling

Sharp
Corner

Void

Cold spot
Severe hot spot

Not this

This

Figure M2.1.9: Avoid sharp-corner and acute angles that cause areas of uneven cooling

Wall thickness: If the metal is flowing for a longer distance in the mould, then the
section should be heavier. But heavier sections also cause problem with voids and
porosity. Keep the wall thickness as uniform as possible (Figure M2.1.10).

Internal porous area

Preferred Design

Original Design

Figure M2.1.10: Keeping wall thicknesses uniform promotes sounder castings

Table M2.1.4: Recommended wall thickness. (Source: Design for Manufacturability

Handbook by James G Bralla, 2nd Ed)
Section length

To 300 mm To 1.2 m To 3.6 m

Aluminum

3-5 mm

8 mm

16 mm

Ductile iron

5 mm

13 mm

19 mm

Gray iron, low strength

3 mm

Gray iron, 138-Mpa

4 mm

10 mm

Gray iron, 207-Mpa

5 mm

10 mm

19 mm

Gray iron, 276-Mpa

tensile strength

6 mm

13 mm

25 mm

Gray iron, 345-Mpa

tensile strength

10 mm

16 mm

25 mm

Magnesium alloys

4 mm

8 mm

16 mm

Malleable iron

3 mm

6 mm

Steel

8 mm

13 mm

25 mm

White iron

3 mm

13 mm

19 mm

Section changes: Abrupt changes in the section must be avoided. The relative thickness
of the adjoining section should be less than 2:1. If heavy section is unavoidable then a
taper of 4:1 is advisable.(Figure M2.1.11)

Bad

Good

>2t

<2t
Bad

Good
T

L= 4 (T-t)

>2t
If heavy section is unavoidable use 4:1 taper
Figure M2.1.11: Design rules for areas where section thickness must change

Interior wall and sections: These members should be 20% thinner than the outside
members, since they cool more slowly. ( Refer Figure M2.1.12)

Not this

This

Figure M2.1.12: Design for interior walls (20 % thinner than exterior walls)

Lightener holes: To reduce the weight in low stressed area, lightener holes can be
added.

Holes and pockets: The draft on the inside of a pocket must be twice as on the
surrounding outside surface. The depth of hole or pocket should not be more than 1.5
times its narrowest dimension if it is in the drag half of the mould and this depth should

be no more than the narrowest dimension if the hole or pocket is in the cope half of the
mould.(Figure M2.1.13 to M2.1.14)

Figure M2.1.13: Recommended hole drilling after casting (diameter less than 19 mm)

Figure M2.1.14: Extra material around the hole as reinforcement in a highly stressed section.
Bosses and pads Bosses: pads and lugs should be minimized as it creates voids and
hot spots.(Figure M2.1.15)

Figure M2.1.15: Design suggestions for minimizing material thickness at bosses

Cores: It is recommended to avoid the use of cores as it is expensive to make and
handle. Often use of cores are unavoidable and are used to make holes. In such case,
the core diameter should have at least equal to the surrounding wall thickness and
preferable twice the wall thickness or more. If possible, side bosses and undercuts
should be avoided. In case internal cores are used, addition of venting holes are

required for removing the gases that are generated while the core comes in contact
with the molten metal.(Figure M2.1.16 to Figure M2.1.18)

Figure M2.1.16: Minimize the need for cores as much as possible by eliminating
undercuts.

Figure M2.1.18: Avoid small cored hole

Incorrect

Correct

Figure M2.1.19: Internal pockets in castings to facilitate cleaning after casting.

Gears, pulleys, and wheels: To minimize the stress proper balance between the section sizes
of the rim, spokes and hub must be attempted. It is recommended to have odd number of
spokes with curved in shape. Excessive surface variation is to be avoided.(Figure M2.1.20
to M2.1.21)

Figure M2.1.20: Incorrect and correct proportions of elements of pulleys and gear blanks.

Figure M2.1.21: An odd number of curved wheel spokes to dissipate cast-in stresses.

Lettering and other data: Any lettering should be parallel to the parting plane. These
data need to be placed in such a way that these will not interfere with the machining.
These can be either sunken or raised above the surface.

Weight reduction: Casting weight is minimized by removing the metal from low
stress region and adding to high stress area by the use of simple inexpensive pattern
change.(Figure M2.1.21)

Insert of different metals: It is sometime desirable in casting to incorporate a section

of different material either harder or softer than the base metal depending on the
purpose and is proves to be economical.(Figure M2.1.22)

Aluminum casting

Cast iron insert

Figure M2.1.22: A cast-iron wear-surface insert in an aluminium aircraft-brake casting.

Design to facilitate machining: Sharp corners and edges are avoided by making
sufficiently rounding edges and corners.

Machining allowance: After casting, machining is required to achieve better surface

finish. Table M2.1.5 provides the guidelines about the machining allowance.

Table M2.1.5: Guidelines for machining allowance (Source: Design for Manufacturability
Handbook by James G Bralla, 2nd Ed)
Allowance(mm)
Casting size (overall casting length),
mm
Up to 150
150-300
300-600
600-900
900-1500
1500-2100
2100-3000

Drag and sides

Cope surface

2.3
3
5
6
8
10
11

3
4
6
8
10
13
16

Cast steel

Up to 150
150-300
300-600
600-900
900-1500
1500-2100
2100-3000

3
5
6
8
10
11
13

6
6
8
10
13
14
19

Ductile iron

Up to 150
150-300
300-600
600-900
900-1500
1500-2100
2100-3000

2.3
3
5
6
8
10
11

6
10
19
19
25
28
32

Nonferrous
metals

Up to 150
150-300
300-600
600-900

1.6
2.3
3
4

2.3
3
4
5

Gray iron

Dimensional factors and tolerance recommendation: Different factors which

influence the variation of dimension of cast pieces are: use of different methods,
pattern inaccuracies and difference in mould hardness, internal stress and many more.
Table M2.1.6 provides the guidelines about various tolerances.

Table M2.1.6: Recommended tolerances are provided in under average condition. (Source:
Design for Manufacturability Handbook by James G Bralla, 2nd Ed)
Location
One side of parting line

Dimension

Tolerance

0-25 mm
25-75 mm
75-150 mm
150-230 mm
230-300 mm
300-400 mm
400-500 mm
500-600 mm
600-760 mm
760-900 mm

0.6 mm
0.8 mm
1.2 mm
1.5 mm
2.3 mm
2.6 mm
2.9 mm
3.2 mm
3.5 mm
3.8 mm

6-65 cm
65-320 cm
320-650 cm
650-1600 cm
1600-4000 cm
4000-6500 cm

0.5 mm
0.9 mm
1.0 mm
1.3 mm
1.5 mm
2.0 mm

0-75 mm
75-150 mm
150-230 mm
230-600 mm
600-1500 mm
Over 1500 mm

0.8 mm
1.5 mm
2.3 mm
3.0 mm
4.5 mm
6.3 mm

Area at parting line

Additional tolerance for
dimensions across
parting line
(tolerance to be
added to that above)

Dimension
Between two cores

Cores: shell, hot-box,

cold-cure, etc. (one side
of core box)

0-25 mm
25-50 mm
50-75 mm
75-150 mm
150-230 mm
230-300 mm
Over 300 mm (over 12 in)

0.15 mm
0.30 mm
0.45 mm
0.75 mm
1.0 mm
1.3 mm
1.3 mm plus 0.2%

Shift, mold or core; largest

casting dimension A
greater than smallest B

0-200 mm
200-450 mm
450-900 mm
900-1500 mm

2 mm
3 mm
5 mm
6 mm

Investment Casting
Introduction
Investment casting uses a piece of ceramic mould. The mould is prepared by surrounding the
ceramic material over the wax or plastic pattern. Once the ceramic material solidifies, the
wax replica is melted and drained out from the mould and the metal is poured into the mould
cavity.

Figure M2.2.1: Steps in investment casting

There are two types of investment casting process namely - solid mould and ceramic shell
mould. These two processes differ primarily the way in which the mould is prepared or
formed. In the solid mould process the pattern is placed into a container and mould material
poured around the pattern and allowed to solidify to make the solid block. On the other hand,
in case of ceramic shell mould, the pattern is dipped into ceramic slurry. Pattern is taken out
from the slurry and rotated to produce a uniform coating. Further, the coating is allowed to
dry and the dipping process repeated over several times. As a result, multiple coat forms a

hard ceramic shell mould. The mould is again placed in an oven to drain out the wax so as to
create the mould cavity.

Pattern materials
Patterns used for investment casting are injection moulded of either wax or plastic. Paraffin
and microcrystalline waxes are the most common base material for patterns.

Typical characteristics and applications

Investment casting is practiced when the following characteristics features are strictly
involved:

Intricate shape

Close tolerances

Small size

High strength alloys

Investment casting is preferred in the places with parts involving contoured surfaces,
undercuts, other intricate shapes, places where machining is difficult or unfeasible. Typical
examples of such mechanical components are: sewing machines, firearms, surgical and dental
devices, turbine blades, gear impeller, hand tools, cranks and levers.
General design considerations
Since patterns are injection moulded, a good practice must be followed for injection moulded
parts. These include the use of a well located pattern, straight parting line, adequate draft and
avoidance of undercuts, generous radii and fillets.
Suitable material for investment casting
A wide variety of materials such as both ferrous and non-ferrous can be used in investment
casting. Any metal that can be melted in standard induction furnace or vacuum furnace can be
considered for this case. Difficult to machine materials are also good candidate for
investment casting. Comprehensive list of materials that can be used in investment casting are
given in Table M2.2.1.

Table

M2.2.1:

Suitable

material

for

investment

casting.

(Source:

Design

for

Manufacturability Handbook by James G Bralla, 2nd Ed)

Material

Fluidity Shrinkage

Resistance

Castability

to hot tearing
Carbon steels
1040 (G10400)
1050 (G10500)
Alloy steels
2345 (G23450)
4130 (G41300)
Nickel alloys
Monel (QQ-N-288-A) (N04020)
Inconel 600 (AMS 5665) (N06600)
Cobalt alloys
Cobalt 21 (R30021)
Cobalt 31 (R30031)
Aluminum alloys
A 356 (A13560)
C 355 (A33550)
Tool steels
A-2 (T30102)
H-13 (T20813)
Copper alloys
Gunmetal (C90500)
Beryllium copper 10C (C82000)
A -Excellent; B - good; C- poor

rating

B
B

B
B

B
B

B+
B+

B
B

B
B

B
B

AA-

A
A

B
B

B
B

B+
B+

A
A

A
A

B
B

AA-

A
A

A
A

A
A

A+
A

B
B

B
B

B
B

B+
B+

A
A

C
A

A
A

B+
A

Detail design recommendations

The following important design guidelines are recommended for investment casting.

Minimum wall thickness: The minimum thickness of casting wall is primarily

dependent upon the fluidity of the metal to cast and the length of the section involved.
If the section is long, heavier wall may be required. Suggested wall thickness for
various metals is shown in the Table M2.2.2.

Table M2.2.2: Suggested Minimum Wall Thickness for Various Investment-Casting

Metals. (Source: Design for Manufacturability Handbook by James G Bralla, 2nd Ed)
Metal

Minimum wall thickness(mm)

Ferrous metals
Low-carbon steel
1.8
High-carbon steel
1.5
Low-alloy steel
1.5
Stainless steel, 300 Series
1.0
Stainless steel, 400 Series
1.5
Cobalt-base alloys
0.75
Nonferrous metals
Aluminum
1.0
Beryllium copper
0.75
Brass
1.0
Bronze
1.5

Flatness and straightness: Deviations from flatness andstraightness can be minimized

by incorporatingribs and gussets in the parts. Also, due to occurrence of shrinkage
there is a tendency to develop adish (concave) shape instead of flat surface. This
can be minimized by designing parts with uniform wall thickness.(Figure M2.2.2)

Figure M2.2.2: Keep walls uniformly thin to avoid dishing.

Radii: Even though use of sharp corners is possible by this method, generous radii are
preferred. Better quality and more accurate parts can be produced by providing ample
fillets and radii. A minimum of 0.75mm fillet radius need to be furnished. However, a
radius of 1.5 to 3 mm is preferable.(Figure M2.2.3)

Figure M2.2.3:Use generous fillets and radii.

Curved surfaces: Both concave and convex surfaces are possible to cast in this
category. Generally concave surfaces can be cast with greater accuracy.

Parallel sections: Parallel sections can be classified into two geometric categories
namely: forks or yokes and clamp or pinch collars. In case of fork, as the thickness t
increases, the width of the opening w also must increase (Refer Figure M2.2.4).

Figure M2.2.4: Forks and yokes have minimum practical slot widths.

The recommended minimum slot width w for clamps with ferrous and nonferrous
metals are 1.5, and 1 mm respectively. ( See Figure M2.2.5)

Figure M2.2.5: Recommended minimum slot widths W for clamps and pinch collars
are 1.5 mm for ferrous metals and 1.0 mm for non-ferrous metals.

Keys and key ways: The ratio of width (W) to depth (D) for ease of casting of keys
and keyways are kept 1 or more. Recommended minimum key width which can be
cast is 2.3mm and 1.5mm for ferrous and non-ferrous metals respectively.(Refer
Figure 2.2.6)

Figure M2.2.6: Keys and keyways should have a widthto-depth ratio of 1:1 or more.

Holes: Whenever holes are to be incorporated a minimum size (diameter) must be

greater than or equal to 1.5mm and 2.2 mm for nonferrous and ferrous alloys
respectively are to be used.

Blindholes: In general, blind holes are not recommended for casting. If it is inevitable,
the depth of the hole should not exceed the diameter.

Through holes: Tolerances for blind holes and through holes are same. L/D ratio
should not exceed 4:1 and 5:1 for ferrous and copper & aluminum respectively.

Ceramic cores: In the design of pattern mould, if any intricate internal configuration
(example internal thread) has to be made with a ceramic core then provision must be
provided in the mould to support the ceramic core the time of wax injection.

Draft:To remove wax pattern from the mould a small amount of draft is provided to
the pattern. The recommended values lie in the range between 1/4 to 1/8 .(Refer
Figure M2.2.7)

Figure M2.2.7: A small amount of draft is necessary for the removal of patterns from the
moulding die.

Screw threads: Both internal and external threads can be investment casted. But it is
not a usual recommended practice.

Undercuts: Even though undercuts doesnt create any problem to the casting
operation but has significant effect in pattern moulding operation and hence this has
to be avoided.

Dimensional factors:The most significant factor influencing the dimensional accuracy

of investment casting is the shrinkage of the materials used. Some degrees of
shrinkage are there in all levels: wax pattern, investment material and cast material.
The normal shrinkage allowance provided for shell mould and flask mould method
are 1.6 to 1.7 % and 1.1% respectively. Other factors adversely affecting dimensional
control are
Temperature variations in pouring
Fluidity of the metal used
Pattern and pattern-mould dimensional variations
Pattern distortion during handling
Investment-mould cracks and other variations
Wax shrinkage and sag over a period of time

Recommended tolerances for variousangles, general dimensions, roundness and flatness are
provided in Figure M2.2.8.

Figure M2.2.8: Recommended tolerances for angles: (a) angular openings as A (1.5); (b)
angular shapes as B (0.5); (c) parallelism (2.0).
Table M2.2.3: Recommended tolerances for angles (Source: Design for Manufacturability
Handbook by James G Bralla, 2nd Ed)
Dimension(mm)

Recommended tolerances(mm)
Normal

Tight

Up to 6

0.4

0.08

613

0.4

0.10

1325

0.4

0.13

2550

0.4

0.18

50100

0.8

0.40

100150

1.1

0.60

Over 150

1.5

0.80

Die casting
Die casting is a moulding process in which the molten metal is injected under high pressure and
velocity into a split mould die. It is also called pressure die casting. The split mould used under
this type of casting is reusable. Die casting is categorized two types namely- hot chamber and cold
chamber as shown in Figure M2.3.1. Metals like Zinc, tin and lead alloys are casted in hot chamber
die casting having melting point below 3900C whereas aluminum alloys are casted in cold chamber
die casting machine. Aluminum dissolves ferrous parts in the die chamber and hence preferred to
be used in cold chamber die casting. Continuous contact of molten metal is avoided by using a
ladle for introducing molten metal directly to the machine.
.

Figure M2.3.1: Die casting process

Advantages of the die casting process

1. High production rate.
2. High accuracy in part dimensions.
3. Smooth surface finish for minimum mechanical finishing.
4. Ability to make many intricate parts such as hole opening slot trademark number etc.
5. Much thinner wall sections can be produced which cant be produced by other casting
methods.
6. Varieties of alloys can be used as per design requirements. For example zinc can be used
for intricate forms and plasticity, aluminum for higher structural strength, rigidity and light
weight.
7. Ability to cast inserts such as pins studs shafts, fasteners etc.

Disadvantages of the die casting process

1. Microporosityinthe die casting products is a common problem because of faster
solidification, trapped air and vaporized die lubricants.
2. Undercuts cannot be found in simple two piece dies.
3. Hollow shapes are not readily casted because of the high metal pressure.
4. Limited sizes of the products can be produced based on the availability of the equipment
5. High melting temperature alloys are practically not die casted
6. Flash is present except for very small zinc die casting.

Applications
Die casting process is preferred for nonferrous metal parts of intricate shapes. Examples of
products are automobiles appliances, hand tools, computer peripherals, toys, optical and
photographic equipment etc.

Suitable material consideration

Since dies are made from tool steel, for die casting products lower melting point nonferrous
materials are used. Popular among them are aluminum and zinc alloys. In recent days, ferrous
metal die casting is carried out on an experimental basis. Also on limited production basis, dies
with refractory material are used for materials having high melting temperature of about 17000C.
Different material properties of various types of alloys are shown in Table M2.3.1.
Table M2.3.1: Various types of alloys recommended for die casting (Source: Design for
Manufacturability Handbook by James G Bralla, 2nd Ed)
Material

Commercial
alloy name

Melting
point, C

380

593

Ultimate
tensile
strength,
kPa
317,000

Castability

360

596

303,000

Good

387

283,000

Excellent

Excellent

Aluminum

Zinc

AG40A
(Zamak No. 3)

Magnesium

AZ91B

596

234,000

Excellent

Brass

858

899

379,000

Fair

Remarks

Most popular aluminum

alloy; best combination
of properties and ease of
use
Used when better
corrosion resistance and
ductility are required
Used for the majority of
commercial applications
for thin walls and good
platability
Used for the majority of
commercial applications
for lightness with
strength
Used when high
strength, elongation, and
corrosion resistance are
required

General design consideration

The following design guidelines need to be followed for die casting:

1. Identify the possibility of incorporating several functions in to one die casting. Full
advantages must be taken for the reduction of machining that die casting can afford.
2. Before the design and construction of die begin the designer should finalize the design of
die casted product and its producibility. Dies after machined undergo heat treatment for
hardening.
3. The designer must consult die cater about the location of the ejector pin as early as possible
in the product design stage itself. If the impression left by the pins are not tolerable or cant
be cored out, as an alternative solution rings or sleeve ejection can be opted.
4. Abrupt section changes, sharp corners and wall at an acute angle to one another need to be
avoided. These features disturb the continuity of metal flow and lead to form a porous
structure and surface irregularities. Therefore, it is recommended to provide radii as
generous as possible with differing sections blending into one another.
5. Blind recesses are needed to be provided in the die to form bosses. Due to trapped air
subsurface porosity is developed and this causes the drills to wander and taps to break in
secondary machining and hence recommended to be avoided.

Specific design recommendation

Wall thickness: Sharp changes in sectional area and heavy sections over 6 mm thickness should
be avoided if possible. Uniform wall thickness need to be maintained so as to achieve a minimum
porous die casted product. The injected liquid metal cools rapidly on contact with the die casting
surface resulting in a fine grained dense structure (the surface is termed as skin) generally devoid
of porosity and is considered to be the strongest region of the die casted product. Depending upon
the casting size, the recommended skin measures between 0.38 and 0.63 as mentioned in the Table
M2.3.2.

Table M2.3.2: Recommended wall thickness (mm) (Source: Design for Manufacturability
Handbook by James G Bralla, 2nd Ed)
Surface
area(cm2)

Zinc alloys

Aluminum and
magnesium alloys

Copper alloys

Up to 25

0.380.75

0.751.3

1.52.0

25100

0.751.3

1.31.8

2.02.5

100500

1.31.8

1.82.2

2.53.0

5002000

1.82.2

2.22.8

20005000

2.24.6

2.86.3

Figure M2.3.2: To avoid surface shrinks, connect the boss to the wall with a short rib.

During cooling process, due to shrinkage in the metal inside the boss even after the cooling of the
adjacent walls, bosses behind the surface can cause visible sinks on decorative parts having flat,
expansive areas. Sink effects are magnified in thinner walls. To avoid such surface shrinks the
bosses are relocated and connected to the wall with a short rib as shown in Figure M2.3.2.

Ribs and fillets: Ribs are provided for structural reinforcing. It must be perpendicular to the parting
line so as to allow the removal of casting from the die. In order to avoid sink, it is recommended
that the width of the rib should not exceed the wall thickness of the casting. The minimum distance
between the two adjacent ribs must be the sum of their heights. Sufficient (at least 20 per side)
drafts should be provided to help in ejection. Ribs and fillets are also used to improve the rigidity
and strength of the standing bosses. Ribs can be designed on both the halves of the die instead of
providing on one side of the wall, thereby strengthening it avoiding local thickening effect. In
case, ribs are designed to cross, they should do so at right angles. Acute angle intersections are
avoided because it causes the die to overheat in the area between the ribs. (Figure M2.3.3 to
M2.3.6)

Undesirable

Desirable

Figure M2.3.3: Incorporating internal ribs for Box-shaped components and provide radius for
corners

Undesirable

Desirable

Figure M2.3.4: Introduction of further coring for heavy section

Undesirable

Desirable

Figure M2.3.5: Avoid external-wall undercuts

Figure M2.3.6: Kissing cores in opposite die halves.

Draft: The side wall of the die casting and other features perpendicular to the parting line must be
tapered or drafted as much as possible to easy removal from the die. Draft angles depend upon the
type of alloy is used and draft requirements have been provided in Table M2.3.3. For the case of
outside wall, the recommended draft angel should be the half of the draft angle used in the inside
wall.

Table M2.3.3: The recommended draft angel for inside wall (in degree)
Draft angle for inside wall(in degree)
Depth of wall Copper alloys

Aluminum alloys Magnesium alloys

Zinc alloys

(mm )
0.250.50

18

16

13

10

0.501.0

14

12

10

1.02.0

10

2.03.8

3.5

3.87.5

3.5

2.5

7.515

3.5

2.5

1.8

1525

2.5

2.2

1.5

2550

1.5

1.5

50100

1.3

0.7

100175

0.7

0.5

175250

0.7

0.6

0.5

Radii: Sharp internal corners in die casting are to be avoided. The various reasons for avoiding sharp
corners are: stress concentration at the corner, subsurface porosity due to abrupt change in metal
flow direction during injection, and premature erosion of the die material because of heat
concentration at sharp corners. It is recommended that radii and fillets should be 1.5 times the wall
thickness for both inside and outside radii. (See Figure M2.3.7)

Figure M2.3.7: Allow generous radii at internal and external corners.

Holes: The die-casting process uses cores to produce holes or openings. However, the cores used to
create hole are to be placed at right angles to the parting line and there are core length limits that
should not be exceeded depending upon the diameter. Sufficient draft should be provided to the
cores to ensure longevity (Refer Table M2.3.4 & Table M2.3.5). (Figure M2.3.8 to M2.3.9)
Table M2.3.4: Draft provided for different material a/c to diameter of hole.
Diameter of hole (mm)
3

10

Alloy

13

16

19

25

Maximum depth(mm)

Zinc 10

14 19

25

38

50

80

115 150

Aluminum

13 16

25

38

50

80

115 150

Magnesium

25 16

25

38

50

80

115 150

13

25

32

50

90 125

Copper

Undesirable

Desirable

Figure M2.3.8: Countersink on both sides to avoid a deburring operation.

Undesirable

Desirable

Figure M2.3.9: Core slides can be avoided by using this hole design.
Table M2.3.5: Draft Requirements for Cored Holes in Die Castings
Draft,
Depth of hole, mm Copper alloys Aluminum alloys

Magnesium
alloys

Zinc alloys

1.52.5

11

10

2.55

4.5

510

1020

3.5

2.5

2038

3.5

2.5

1.8

3875

1.8

1.3

75150

1.5

0.9

Core slides: Avoid designing for core slides that must fit accurately through both die halves. Drill
holes in internal ribs. (Figure M2.3.10)

Undesirable

Desirable

Figure M2.3.10: Avoid drill holes in internal ribs.

Threads: External screw threads can be formed on die casting but not for a precision fit. Production
of threads by machining is recommended for precision type of fit. The most practical way to cut the
threads are between the die halves and eject the part in normal manner. Due to accuracy reasons,
pitches finer than 24 threads per inch for Aluminum and Magnesium and 32 threads per inch for
Zinc are not recommended. In fact, it is possible to die cast internal threads either by unscrewing the
casting from the threaded core or rotating the core out of the casting during ejection. Zinc is
recommended for this type of design since other alloys shrink more tightly onto the core.
Inserts: Inserts can be incorporated into die casted parts where necessary. The most common type
of insert is the threaded stud used for assembly operation. It must be designed in such a manner that
material will shrink on to its shank with sufficient force thereby preventing the movement in use.
(Figure M2.3.11)

Figure M2.3.11: Insert designs to prevent rotation and pullout

Machining allowance: When die casting operation requires machining operation the machining
allowance (the added material need to be removed) should not exceed 0.5 mm. At the same time, the
allowance should not be less than 0.25 mm to avoid excessive tool wear. If an area is to be machined
covers ejector pin location their impressions should be left standing to 0.4 mm to make sure that they
are removed during machining. (Figure M2.3.12)

Undesirable

Desirable

Figure M2.3.12: Limit machining allowance to 0.25 to 0.50mm.

Flash and gate removal: A well-built trimming die generally removes flash almost to the most
extremely drafted point of the casting wall. In order to avoid the wear of the cutting edges certain
allowances must be provided. Commercial die castings are considered to be adequately trimmed if
flash and gates are removed to within 0.38mm of the casting wall. In case of very heavy gates having
size more than 2.2mm thick, gates are removed within 0.75mm. Angled junctions of an external wall
are avoided with parting line. It is preferable to add a minimum draft shoulder at the parting line.
(Figure M2.3.13)

Figure M2.3.13: Provide1.5-mm minimum height shoulder at parting line.

Lettering: The easy way to specify the character is that, by raising it in the casting. This can be
achieved by engraving of the die. If the character is to be depressed into the casting all the
background steel on that face of the die must be painstakingly removed around the character. Some
design rules for lettering are:
Minimum character width: 0.25mm
Character height: 0.25 to 0.5 mm
Draft for clean ejection: at least 10
Surface design: Large plain area is generally not advisable because, any slight casting imperfection
will be readily visible. Recommended option to resolve this issue is to mask irregularities by
designing in ribs, serrations or mould texturing.

Dimension and tolerances

The main cause of dimensional variation in die casting are due to the thermal expansion of both the
die and the casting. For designing die, a shrink factor of 0.6% is provided for both the contraction
and expansion mentioned above. Recommended tolerances for die casting by cavity dimensions in
either half of the die is shown in Table M2.3.6.

Table M2.3.6: Recommended tolerances for die casting by cavity dimensions in either half of the
die.
Die casting alloys
Zinc

Aluminum

Magnesium

Copper

For critical dimensions

Dimensions to 25 mm

0.08

0.10

0.10

0.18

Each additional 25 mm over 25 to 300 mm

0.025

0.038

0.038

0.05

0.025

0.025

0.025

Each additional 25 mm over 300 mm

For noncritical dimensions

Dimensions to 25 mm

0.25

0.25

0.25

0.35

Each additional 25 mm over 25 to 300 mm

0.038

0.05

0.05

0.08

Each additional 25 mm over 300 mm

0.025

0.025

0.025

Injection moulding
Introduction
Injection molding is generally used to produce thermoplastic polymers. It consists of heating
of thermo plastic materials until it melts and then injecting into the steel mould, where it
cools and solidifies to take its final shape. The plastic materials are usually received in the
granular form. It is placed in the hopper of the moulding machine from which it is fed to a
heated cylinder. Granules are heated in the cylinder to melt or plasticize. The typical melting
point is about 1800C. The melting temperature varies with the material. The mould is usually
made up of steel and it is water cooled. A plunger forces the molten plastics from the cylinder
into the mould wherein, it cools and solidifies. The mould is opened and the moulded part as
well as the attached runner is removed. Figure M2.4.1 shows the injection molding process.

Figure M2.4.1: Injection molding

Typical characteristics of injection moulded parts

Injection moulding is advantageous when it is required to produce the intricate parts in more
quantity. Apart from the above, this method also can produce one moulded part that can
replace an assembly of components. In injection moulding, parts can be often moulded
directly with color and surface finish thereby avoiding secondary finish. Injection moulded
parts are usually thin walled and heavy sections are usually not recommended. Since,
thermoplastic parts are having less strength they are preferred to be used in lower stress
application area. In the current practice, thermoplastics are reinforced with glass or other
fibers and functionally competitive with Zinc and Aluminum.

Effect of shrinkage
Shrinkage is a common phenomenon all thermoplastic materials on cooling and
solidification. Table M2.4.1 summarizes the shrinkage rate of common thermoplastic
material upon solidification. Due to shrinkage the most common defect such as sink mark or
surface depression occurs in the moulded part. The second common effect is the closing in on
a U-shaped cross-section, particularly if reinforcing ribs are present. The third common type
of effect is the occurrence of curvature on a flat surface in the direction of a boss,
protuberance or added material. (Figure M2.4.2 to M2.4.4)
Sink mark

Figure M2.4.2: Typical sink mark opposite a heavy section.

Closing in of U-shaped
sections

Figure M2.4.3: Shrinkage of plastic material on cooling

Curvature in the flat surface

Curvature in the flat surface
Figure M2.4.4: Curving of flat surfaces caused by shrinkage of material.

Table M2.4.1: Shrinkage rate of common thermoplastic material upon solidification

(Source: Design for Manufacturability Handbook by James G Bralla, 2nd Ed)

Thermoplastic

Percent

Acetal

2.02.5

Acrylic

0.30.8

Acrylonitrile
butadiene styrene

0.30.8

Nylon

0.31.5

Polycarbonate

0.50.7

Polyethylene

1.55.0

Polypropylene

1.02.5

Polystyrene

0.20.6

Polyvinyl chloride,
rigid

0.10.5

Polyvinyl chloride,
flexible

1.05.0

Suitable materials
Commonly used thermoplastic materials are

Polyethylene

Polypropylene

Polystyrene

Polyvinyl chloride (vinyl or PVC)

Nylon

Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS)

Acrylic

Table M2.4.2: Commonly used thermoplastic materials used for injection moulding (Source:
Design for Manufacturability Handbook by James G Bralla, 2nd Ed)
Material

Tensile
strength
(MPa)

Polystyrene

48

Maximum
Service
Temperature
(0C)
82

Specific
Gravity

Application

1.04

Toys, containers

Polypropylene

34

110

0.91

House wares

High density
Polyethylene

28

125

0.96

Refrigerator parts,
House wares

PVC

21

82

1.4

Seals,
plugs

Electrical

Design recommendations
These are the following design recommendations used for injection moulded parts:
Gate and ejector pin location: Surface finish of the part depends upon the location of gate
and ejector pin. Ejector pins are usually located on the underside of the part if it has both
underside and outside. Gates can be located in a number of locations as shown in Figure
M2.4.5.

Fan gate

Center gate

Tab gate

Edge gate
Figure M2.4.5: Various gating systems

In case of round and cylindrical parts center gating is preferred and for large area parts near
center-gating is recommended.

Not this

This

Not this

This

Figure M2.4.6: Maintain uniform wall thickness and avoid abrupt change in wall thickness
and make it gradual change

Table M2.4.3: Various wall thicknesses for different thermoplastic materials with changing
cross-section as shown in Figure M2.4.6. (Source: Design for Manufacturability Handbook by
James G Bralla, 2nd Ed)
Material

Short
sections

Small
sections

Average
sections

Large
sections

Acetal

0.6

0.9

1.9

3.24.7

Acrylic

0.6

0.9

2.3

3.26.3

Acrylonitrile butadiene
styrene

0.9

1.3

1.9

3.24.7

Cellulose acetate butyrate

0.6

1.3

1.9

3.24.7

Nylon

0.3

0.6

1.5

2.43.2

Polycarbonate

0.4

0.8

1.8

2.43.2

Low-density

0.9

1.3

1.6

2.43.2

High-density

0.9

1.3

1.9

3.24.7

Polypropylene

0.6

0.9

1.9

3.24.7

Polystyrene

0.8

1.3

1.6

3.26.3

Flexible

0.6

1.3

1.9

3.24.7

Rigid

0.9

1.6

2.4

3.24.7

Polyethylene

Polyvinyl chloride

Suggested wall thickness: Walls should be of uniform thickness as possible. When changes
in the wall thickness are unavoidable, the transition must be gradual instead of abruptly.
Thinner walls are more feasible with small parts.
Holes:

Holes are feasible in injection moulded parts, but knit or weld lines are often
developed adjacent to the holes. Flashing may occur at the edge of the hole.

The minimum spacing between the two adjacent holes or the spacing between the
edge and the hole should be one diameter(d) of the hole.(Figure M2.4.7)

Not this

This

Figure M2.4.7: Minimum spacing for holes and sidewalls.

Minimum distance between a hole and edge of the part should be three diameters(d)
or more.(See Figure M2.4.8)

Not this

This

Figure M2.4.8: Minimum spacing for holes and sidewalls.

Through hole is preferred than a blind hole

Hole in the bottom of the part is preferable than the side

Blind hole should not be more than two diameters deep. If the diameter is 1.5 mm or
less, then one diameter is recommended.(see Figure M2.4.9)

Smaller holes

Larger holes

Under 1.5 mm

Figure M2.4.9: Recommended depth limits for blind holes.

To increase the depth of a blind hole steps are used thereby enabling employment of
stronger core pin.(Figure M2.4.10)

Not this

This

Figure M2.4.10: If a blind hole must be deep, use a stepped diameter.

For through holes, cutout sections in the part can shorten the length of a smalldiameter pin.(Figure M2.4.11)

Not this

This

Figure M2.4.11: Improved design on the right provides better rigidity of the mould
core pin.

Overlapping and offset mould-cavity projections are preferred instead of core pins for
producing holes parallel to the die-parting line (perpendicular to the mould-movement
direction). This approach is explained through Figures M2.4.12 and M2.4.13 which is
applicable to injection moulding as well as to die castings.

Figure M2.4.12: A die castings wall slopes sufficiently, through holes which is
formed by using kissing cores built into opposite die halves

Undesirable

Desirable

Figure M2.4.13: Core slides can be avoided by using this hole design
Ribs:

Reinforcing ribs should be thinner than the wall they are reinforcing to avoid sink
marks. It is suggested that the rib thickness should be between 40% and 60% of wall
thickness.

In order to provide additional reinforcement, two ribs may be used if necessary and
the rib should be two or more wall thickness apart.

Ribs need to be provided perpendicular to the parting line

A generous draft of 0.5 to 1.5 per side is recommended for ribs.

There should be a radius at the base of 25% to 40% of the wall thickness as shown in
Figure M2.4.14.

Figure M2.4.14: Design rules for reinforcing ribs and solid bosses.
Bosses:
Bosses are protruding pads designed to provide mounting surfaces or reinforcements around
the hole. The above mentioned recommendations for maximum height, draft and radius of

ribs are generally applicable to solid or hollow bosses. Bosses in the upper portion of the
mould are avoided because these might trap gases. It is preferred to locate bosses in the
corners to help the material flow in filling the mould.
Undercuts:
In this process undercuts are possible but it requires sliding cores or split moulds. In fact,
external undercuts can be used at the parting line or extended to the line to obviate the need
for core pull. The requirement of core pull can be avoided by providing shallow undercuts
which often may be strippable from the mould. Furthermore, if such undercuts are strippable,
the other half of the mould needs to be removed first. Then the mould ejector pins can act to
strip the part. Figure M2.4.15 shows the average maximum strippable undercut for common
thermoplastics.

Figure M2.4.15: Allowable undercut for common materials.

Screw threads:

To mould screw thread, a core is used that can be rotated after the completion of the
moulding cycle. This basically unscrews the part and helps it to remove from mould.

Axis of the screw are put on the parting line thereby avoiding the need for a rotating
core. This method is only applicable for external threads.(see Figure M2.4.16 )

The threads are made few, shallow and of rounded forms so that the part can be
stripped from the mould without unscrewing as shown in Figure M2.4.17.

Figure M2.4.16: Axis of the screw is placed on the parting line to avoid the need of rotating
the core. (Source: Design for Manufacturability Handbook by James G Bralla, 2nd Ed)

Not this

This

Figure M2.4.17: Threads are made shallow in order to strip the part easily from the mould.
(Source: Design for Manufacturability Handbook by James G Bralla, 2nd Ed)
Inserts:
Sharp corners need to be avoided in inserts which are immersed in the thermoplastics. Knurls
on the machined inserts should be relatively coarse to permit the material to flow into the
recess. A smooth surface has to be provided where the insert exits from the plastic. Boss
generally provides supporting material for inserts and hence often inserts are incorporated in
the boss. To do so, if the outside diameter of the insert is less than 6 mm, outside diameter of
the boss should be twice that of the insert otherwise i.e. if the outside diameter of the insert is
larger than 6 mm, then wall thickness should be 50 to 100 percent of the insert diameter. As a
thumb rule the embedded length of an insert is considered to be twice its diameter. (See
Figure M2.4.18 and Figure M2.4.19)

Not this

This

Figure M2.4.18: The depth of insertion should be at least twice that of insert diameter.

Figure M2.4.19: The boss diameter is considered at least twice that of insert.

Lettering and surface decoration:

Lettering is incorporated in the mould. Lettering in a part should be raised with machined
mould. With hubbed dies it is best to have depressed letters. But in both the cases i.e. raised
as well as depressed, the letters should be perpendicular to the parting line. Cavities for filling
lettering should be sharp edged and 0.13 to 0.8mm wide as shown in Figure M2.4.20. They
should have one half as deep as wide.

Figure M2.4.20: Dimensional rules for depressed lettering. (Source: Design for
Manufacturability Handbook by James G Bralla, 2nd Ed)
Draft:
It is strongly recommended to provide a minimum draft in the side wall of the injection
moulded part to allow easy removal of the moulded parts from the mould. The recommended
drafts for some commonly used materials as shown in the Table M2.4.4.

Table M2.4.4: List of Material and corresponding draft allowance (Source: Design for
Manufacturability Handbook by James G Bralla, 2nd Ed)
Material

Draft

Polyethylene 14
Polystyrene

12

Nylon

018

Acetal

014

Acrylic

14

Corners:
Sharp corners are recommended to be avoided except at the parting line. Major problem with
sharp corners is that, these obstruct the smooth flow of material and create surface defect.
Also, sharp corners are the point of stress concentration. Hence, it is strongly recommended
to provide radii as generous as possible. A minimum of 0.5mm radius has to be provided
under any situation and 1 mm is preferable if the part permits.
Surface finish:
It is possible to achieve a high glossy surface finish, if the mould is highly polished. Even
though Painting of most thermoplastics is feasible but is not recommended if the colour can
be moulded into the parts. The latter approach is more economical and gives better results.
Parting line flash can be easily removed by giving a gap between the surface decoration
(reeds, textures & flutes) and the parting line (Figure M2.4.21)

Parting line

Not this

This

Figure M2.4.21: Easy removal of the parting line flash by giving a gap to surface decoration
from parting line.

Flat surface:
The gently curved surface is preferred than flat surface as it is more prone to the formation of
irregularities. Curved surface produces more rigid parts.
Mould parting line:
The part and the mould should be designed in such a way that the parting line occurs in such
an area so that it doesnt adversely affect the appearance or function of the part. It is preferred
to keep the parting line at the edge of the part where already a sharp edge exists. But it is
important to note that removal of parting-line flashing might destroy the sharpness of the
corner. If it is not possible to keep the parting line at the edge, a bead on the parting line
facilitates removal of the mould flash. Parting line should be straight. (Figure M2.4.22 and
Figure M2.4.23)

Not this

This

or

This

Figure M2.4.22: A bead on the parting line facilitates removal of mold flash.

Not this

This

Figure M2.4.23: Deliberately offset sidewalls help avoid appearance defects if mould halves
do not line up properly.
Dimensional factors and tolerance
Dimensions cant be achieved with close tolerance because of the following reasons

Material shrinkage

Variation of the process parameter from cycle to cycle

Position of the runner, cooling channel and gate

Different plastics materials have different tolerance capabilities. Materials having a low
shrinkage allowance can be molded with close tolerance.

The allowable dimensional tolerances increases by 5 percent for each cavity as the number of
mould cavities are more according to the thumb rule. For example, a single cavity mould with
an allowable tolerance of 0.1 mm on a particular dimension should have 0.15 mm if the
number of cavities is 10 (105 percent = 50 percent increase in tolerance).

Design for powder metal processing

Parts are produced from metal powders in a metal processing technology named as powder
metallurgy (PM). In the powder metallurgy, metal powders are compressed into a desired shape
in a die and heated to cause the bonding of the particles forming a hard rigid mass below the
melting point of the metal as shown in Figure M2.5.1. The heating process is called sintering.
Dry powder lubricants such as stearates and waxes are added to reduce the friction between the
powder particles and between the particle and the die wall. Split dies are not acceptable in this
process. After the production of parts various secondary operations namely, machining, surface
finish and heat treatment are performed on parts.

Upper Punch
Powder
Feeder

Die

Lower Punch

Stage A

Stage B

Stage C

Stage D

A) Filling the die cavity B) Initial position of punch C) Final position of punch D) Ejection
Figure M2.5.1: Powder metallurgy steps

Typical characteristics and applications

PM parts up to a length of 15 cm are common. These parts might be intricate in shape but usually
preferred to have parallel sides. PM technique is used for mass production and these parts are
usually net-shaped or near-net-shaped which do not require subsequent machining. To achieve
very high degree of surface polish through this process, metal powders are compressed in highly

polished dies manufactured from tungsten carbide. Even parts can be produced with certain level
of porosity which helps bearings and gears to be self-lubricating. Various components especially
when it is difficult in other process can be manufactured in this process. It includes cams, slide
blocks, levers, gears, bushings, ratchets, guides, spacers, splined parts, sprockets etc.

Limitations
There are certain limitations to various geometries like undercuts, cross holes and screw threads
etc. Often variation in material density throughout the part may be a problem to certain
geometries. PM parts are usually exhibit low resistance to shock loading and lower physical
properties than wrought metals.

Porosity
The volume or density of PM parts can be controlled by applying loads in a carefully control
manner. Under normal compacting loading condition, achieving 100% dense material is not
achievable resulting in a porous structure. These porous parts contain interconnected pores of
extremely small size and due to capillary action, the pores absorb liquids such as oil, grease,
waxes and act as self-lubricating bearing.

General size parameters

Density ranges from 5.8 to 7.2 g/cm3. For common usage presses up to 500 Tons capacity are
recommended and above 1000 Tons are rarely used.

Materials for PM parts

The list of materials which are used in PM parts include, both ferrous and nonferrous metals and
nonmetallic. Most commonly used combination is, Iron in combination with copper and/or nickel
and often with carbon. Recommended material for bearing and bushing is Bronze. Other
commonly used materials are aluminum and aluminum alloys, copper, copper-nickel etc.

Table M2.5.1: summarizes typical properties of common ferrous PM structural

materials.(Source: Design for Manufacturability Handbook by James G Bralla, 2nd Ed)
Material

Density
(g/cm3)

Carbon steel
Carbon steel (MPIF
F-0008)
Carbon steel
Carbon steel (MPIF
F-0008 heat-treated)
Copper steel
(MPIF FC-0208)
Copper steel
(MPIF FC-0208
heat-treated)
Nickel steel
(MPIF FN-0205)
Nickel steel
(MPIF FN-0205
heat-treated)
Infiltrated
steel(MPIF FX1005)
Infiltrated
steel(MPIF FX-1005
heat-treated)
Low-alloy
steel(MPIF FL-4605
heat-treated)

6.6
7.0

Tensile
strength
(MPa)
290
390

6.6
7.1

515
655

6.7
7.2
6.8
7.1

415
515
620
725

6.9
7.2
6.9
7.1

Stainless steel (MPIF

SS-316 N2)
Stainless steel (MPIF
SS410)

Yield
strength
(MPa)
240
275

Elongation
(%)

Hardness
(Rockwell)

1.0
1.0

60HRB
70HRB

0.5
0.5

28HRC
35HRC

380
450

1.0
1.0
0.5
0.5

73HRB
84HRB
35HRC
43HRC

345
415
825
1000

205
240

2.5
4.0
0.5
0.5

59HRB
69HRB
36HRC
40HRC

7.3

530

345

4.0

7.3

825

0.5

38HRC

6.95

895

0.5

60HRC

6.4

415

10.0

62HRB

6.5

725

0.5

23HRC

270

82HRB

Design recommendations
The following recommendations are suggested:

Draft: Draft is not desirable and creates problem in the production phase. If draft is not
avoidable, an exception is the side wall of the recesses formed by a punch entering the
top side of a part. In these cases a draft of 20 is advisable. When recesses occur in the top
of a part, 2 minimum draft assists removal of the upper punch.( Figure M2.5.2)

Figure M2.5.2: 2 degree minimum draft assists punch removal

Wall thickness: Components of extremely complicated shape in which wall thickness

varies over a very wide range is more advantageous in this process. The recommended
minimum wall thickness is 1.5mm. Similar recommendations are also applicable to the
walls between hole and outside surface of the part and the wall between two holes.
Maximum ratio of wall thickness to length is 18:1 and it can be increased to 30:1 with
special tooling. The normal maximum length of PM parts is 10 mm.( See Figure M2.5.3)

Figure M2.5.3: Minimum wall thickness should be there between cuts

Radii: Smaller radius at component corners for both internal and external can be
advantageous to tool life. Considering extremely large radius in a particular direction
may induce density variation problem. When curved surfaces adjoin one another, special
care must be taken because necessary punches might have fragile feather edges.(Figure
M2.5.4 to Figure M2.5.6)

Figure M2.5.4: Radii in P/M components.

Figure M2.5.5: Advantages of rounded corners over sharp cornersin horizontal cross
sections of P/M parts.

Figure M2.5.6: Avoidance of feather edged punches

Figure M2.5.7: Blind holes.

Figure M2.5.8: Stepped blind holes.

Holes: Holes in the direction of pressing are freely accepted but holes at right angles to
pressing are not recommended. Minimum diameter of holes should be 1.5mm. Blind
holes smaller than 6.3 mm in diameter are not recommended. Steps are recommended to
be used in case of deep blind holes. They will increase core-rod rigidity when a small
diameter is very slender. Plain diameter core rods, however a large diameter, are

preferred wherever possible. Stepped hole from top is not recommended (Refer Figure
M2.5.7 to Figure M2.5.8)

Under cuts: Undercuts are not permissible due to the problem in ejecting the component
from the die.

Screw threads: Screw threads cant be produced by PM.

Gears: Spur, helical and crown gears can be produced with close tolerance. In such case,
root diameter of gear must exceed the boss diameter to avoid severe tooling. Angular
spur gears cant be produced with direct run out. Helical gears both with and without
boss can be produced with maximum helix angle of 360. Tooling problem can be avoided
by increasing the overall length.

Inserts: The moulding of insert into the compact is not recommended.

Angled side walls: This can cause tooling problem if the angle is too small or the
intersection of the angled wall with other surface is a single edge. Design
recommendations are shown in Figure M2.5.9.

Spherical surfaces: It has similar moulding characteristics to those of tapered surfaces.

Die damage is avoided if a narrow flat is provided at the parting line (Figure M2.5.10).

Steps and recesses: It is recommended to minimize the number of steps in a part and the
depth of recess to avoid complicate tooling.

Knurls and serrations: These can be produced only in the vertical direction.

Lettering or surface marking: This can be produce only in upper and lower surface.

Figure M2.5.9: Angled sidewalls.

Figure M2.5.10: Spherical Surfaces.

Dimensional tolerances
Tolerance provided by the process falls into two distinct pattern:

Tolerances that can be maintained at the end of the sintering operation

Tolerances that can be maintained only after a repressing or calibrating operation

Table M2.5.2: Dimensional Tolerances of PM parts. (Source: Design for Manufacturability

Handbook by James G Bralla, 2nd Ed)

Tolerances (mm)
Typical dimensions (mm )

As-sintered

After repressing

Outside cross sections

13

0.04

0.013

0.04

0.013

50

0.075

0.025

40

0.075

0.025

100

0.13

0.04

Inside cross sections and holes

5

0.025

0.006

10

0.05

0.006

7.5

0.04

0.006

13

0.05

0.013

Hole, center to center

25

0.05

0.025

75

0.10

0.04

Flange thickness
4

0.075

0.05

6.3

0.075

0.05

Overall height
31

0.10

0.10

50

0.13

0.13

Other vertical dimensions

7.5

0.075

0.05

38

0.13

0.13

Sand casting
Answer the following questions
1. The dowels are
a. Wooden nails
b. Box nails
c. Wire nails
d. None of these
2. Which of the following material can be used for making patterns?
a. Aluminum
b. Wax
c. Lead
d. All of these
3. Aluminum is the best material for making patterns because it is
a. A light in weight
b. Easy to work
c. Corrosion resistant
d. All of these
4. When a pattern is made in three parts, the bottom part is known as a cope.
a. True
b. False
5. A taper provided on the pattern for its easy and clean withdrawal from the mould is
known as
a. Machining allowance
b. Draft allowance
c. Shrinkage allowance
d. Distortion allowance

6. The metal patterns as compared to wooden patterns require less

a. Shrinkage allowance
b. Machining allowance
c. Draft allowance
d. Distortion allowance

Investment Casting
Answer the following questions
1). Investment casting is preferred in the places where machining is_______________ or
_______________.
2). A wide variety of materials such as both _____________ and ____________ can be used
in investment casting.
3). Whenever holes are to be incorporated a minimum size (diameter) must be greater than or
equal to _______________ and ______________ for nonferrous and ferrous alloys
respectively are to be used.
4). In through holes L/D ratio should not exceed _____________ and ____________ for
ferrous and copper & aluminium respectively.
5). To remove wax pattern from the mould a small amount of ________________ is provided
to the pattern. The recommended values should lie in the range between 1/4 to 1/8.

Die casting
Answer the following questions:
1. In hot chamber method of die-casting
(a) Only low melting point metal can be used
(b) High melting point metal can be used
(c) Both (a)&(b)
(d) None of these

2. Die casting method is used to cast

(a) Brass
(b) Aluminium
(c) Alloy of lead tin and zinc
(d) All of the above

3.

Metallic mould is used in which of casting

(a) Investment casting
(b) Slush casting
(c) Die casting
(d) All of these

4. Why ladle is used in die casting

(a) To pour molten metal
(b) To avoid continuous contact
(c) To remove defect
(d) None of these

5. Application of die casting

(a) To make ornament
(b) To make pipes
(c) To produce bottles
(d) To produce automobile appliance

6. Limitation of die casting

(a) Not to make hollow parts

(b) Not applicable for metallic components
(c) Not applicable for intricate parts
(d) None of these

Injection moulding
Fill in the blanks

1) Injection molding is generally used to produce _____________ type of materials.

2) _____________ is the most common defect occurs in the moulded part due to shrinkage.
3) In case of round and cylindrical parts _____________gating is preferred in injection
moulding.
4) Bosses are protruding pads designed to provide _____________ around the hole.
5) _____________ is the major problem with sharp corners that affect the moulding.

Design for powder metal processing

Answer the following questions
1. What is the common length of parts manufactured by powder metallurgy?
a) 10 cm
b) 15 cm
c) 20 cm
d) Can be of any length
2. Why are highly spherical parts not manufactured in powder metallurgy?
a) Not possible to make spherical parts.
b) High tool cost.
c) Extremely difficult to make such parts
d) Finishing operations are difficult

3. What is the recommended angle for chamfers in PM?

a) 60 degree
b) 30 degree
c) minimum 45 degree
d) greater than 0 degree
4) Which of the following cannot be produced by PM?
a) Gears
b) Angled side walls
c) Knurls
d) Screw Threads
5) What is the heating processing in PM known as?
a) Annealing
b) Case Hardening
c) Sintering
d) Packing

Answers:
Sand casting
(1). Wooden nails
(2). Wax
(3). All of these
(4). False
(5). Draft allowance
(6). Draft allowance

Investment Casting
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)

Difficult, unfeasible
Ferrous, non-ferrous
1.5mm , 2.2 mm
4:1 , 5:1
(5) Draft, 1/4 to 1/8.

Die casting
(1). (a)
(2). (c)
(3). (c)
(4). (b)
(5). (d)
(6). (a)

Injection moulding
1) Thermoplastic polymers
2) Sink mark or surface depression
3) Center gating
4) Reinforcements
5) Obstruct the smooth flow of material and create surface defect.

Design for powder metal processing

(1). b
(2). c, d
(3). c
(4). d
(5). c