MOOCS AND APPLIED LEARNING THEORIES

MOOCSandAppliedLearningTheories

MatthewMarsaglia
WilliamKemp
SamuelJefferson
ClaireBradley
EvanSilberman

MOOCS AND APPLIED LEARNING THEORIES

EmergingLearningTheoriesandMOOCS:SocialConstructivismtoConnectivismEvan
Silberman

AprecursortoMOOCSisonlinelearning.Onlinelearningiseducationinwhich"Theteacher
andthestudentareseparatedgeographicallysothatfacetofacecommunicationisabsent
communicationisaccomplishedinsteadbyoneormoretechnologicalmedia,mostoften
electronic"(Guthrie,2003).Thereisdifferenttypesofonlinelearningfromthetraditionalclassroom
withsupplementary,webbased,materialonline,toahybridcoursewheresomelearningisdigital
andsomeisphysicallylocated,tofullyonlinecourseswithnophysicalclassroomtospeakof.
OnlinelearningisanappropriateplacetostartthediscussionaboutMOOCsandSocial
Constructivism,becausethegenesisofMOOCSisdistanceeducation,andaniterationofonline
learningistheMOOC.Infact,manyMOOCplatformshavesimilarfunctionalityatleastfromthe
studentperspectiveasatraditionallearningmanagementsystem.Toolssuchasdiscussion
forums,instantmessaging,videos,andotherinteractivetoolsarecommon.SomeMOOCfeatures
arealsoreminiscentofWeb2.0environmentsthatarethefoundationofmanyelearningsystems.
Technologycontinuestopushelearningandhighereducationboundariesfurtheras
computerandinternetaccessexpandsglobally,highernetworkbandwidthenablesricher
educationalexperiences,andtheemergenceofsocialnetworkingintroducesgreaterengagement
amongcourseparticipants.AnoutgrowthoftheseadvancementsistheMOOC,anemergingmodel
fordeliveringlearningcontentonlinetoanunlimitednumberofstudents(Pirani,2013).The
transformationofelearning,theshiftfromresidentialtodigitalcampuses,andtheemergenceofthe
digitalnetworksareimportantfactorsforMOOCs.TheMOOCprovidesawayforUniversitiesto
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MOOCS AND APPLIED LEARNING THEORIES

extendtheirreach,whileeducatinghundredsofthousands.IfMOOCSareatransformationin
elearning,howhasonpedagogyandlearningtheorieschangedtokeeppace?Whatlearning
theoryismostapplicabletotheMOOC,andwhat,ifanylearningtheoryisemergingasaresult.
TherearetwolearningtheorieswhosecharacteristicsmatchtheMOOCenvironment,Points
ofViewingTheory,andConstructivism,especiallySocialConstructivism.Boththeoriessharethe
commonalitylearningwithothers,andthroughthelensofothers.
SocialConstructivismisatheoryinwhichgroupsconstructknowledgefromoneanother,
collaborativelycreatingasmallcultureofsharedartifactswithsharedmeanings.Itisbornfrom
constructivism,atheoryoflearningwhereknowledgeisconstructedbythelearner.Thebasicidea
isthatproblemsolvingisattheheartoflearning,thinking,anddevelopment.Aspeoplesolve
problemsanddiscovertheconsequencesoftheiractionsthroughreflectingonpastand
immediateexperiencestheyconstructtheirownunderstanding.Learningisthusanactiveprocess
thatrequiresachangeinthelearner.Thisisachievedthroughtheactivitiesthelearnerengagesin,
includingtheconsequencesofthoseactivities,andthroughreflection.Peopleonlydeeply
understandwhattheyhaveconstructed(Guthrie,2003).OneofthekeycontributorstoSocial
ConstructivismisVygotsky.OneofVygotskycoreconceptsistheZoneofProximalDevelopment
(ZPD).Inbrief,theZPD,arethelimitsoflearningthatanindividualiscapableofwiththehelpof
others.Itisthejoboftheinstructorfacilitatortostandinthegapthezoneofproximaldevelopment
andtocreateasocialcontextthatwillpullstudents...totheirpotential(Asin...Angela,2013).
Dulen,inherarticleSocialConstructivismandOnlineLearningEnvironments,talksaboutthe
limitationsofonlinelearningenvironmentstosupportSocialConstructivism.Herargumentisthat
socialconnection,andsociallearningismostlybodylanguage,whichisdifficulttofacilitateonline,

MOOCS AND APPLIED LEARNING THEORIES

especiallyforcoursesdesignedwithoutintenttowardSocialConstructivism.Theresponseisto
createhybridorblendedlearninginwhichlearningispartlyonlineandpartiallyfacetoface.
Infact,DulensarticlewasoneofveryfewthatexaminedonlinelearningfromaSocial
Constructivistperspective.TheconclusionisthatSocialConstructivismisalensthroughwhichone
canviewonlinelearning.Thecontentofthearticlesuggestthatonlinelearningisntnecessary
constructivist.Rather,howthecourseisdesignmakesitso.
InPointsofViewTheory(POVT),Learnersactivelylayertheirviewpointsandtheir
interpretationstoelicitpatterns,themes,andgroupsofideasthatleadtoadeepunderstandingof
thecontentunderinvestigation...(Goldman,Black,Maxwell,Plass,&Keitges,2012).Inother
words,POVTaddressesthechallengesofaglobalsocietybyhelpingindividualscapitalizeon
othersperspectives.POVTiswidelyapplicabletolearningmedia.Inparticular,Goldman,etal.
discussperspectivitytechnologiesthatprovideaplaceandspaceforbuildingculturesor
communitiesofpracticewhereonecatchessightoftheotherwhileparticipatinginlearning.
POVTinessenceisaboutsharedlearning.
MOOCSareanecosystemthatpromotessharedlearninginamassiveform.
AlthoughSocialConstructivismandPOVTholdsomeapplicabilitytoMOOCSbasedontheir
generaldefinition,anddefiningcharacteristics,thereislimitedresearchtosupporthowapplicable
thesetheoriesaretoMOOCS.Infact,inaSystematicStudyofMOOCliteraturefrom20082012,
themajorityofarticleswereprimarilyconcernedwiththeconceptofMOOCS,discussing
challengesandtrends,whileotherthemesgenerallyappearedwithinonlyonepaperexceptforthe
conceptofconnectivismanditsimplications(Liyanagunawardena,Adams,&Williams,2013).In
theresearchforthissectionofthepaper,theexperiencewassimilar.Withtheexceptionofone

MOOCS AND APPLIED LEARNING THEORIES

article,therewaslimitedinformationaboutlearningtheoriesandMOOCS,again,exceptfor
connectivism.ThediscussionaboutMOOCsappearstobefocusedonanunderstandingof
MOOCS,andtheimpactonhighereducation.Therecurrenceofconnectivismsuggestsanew
learningtheoryisemergingforMOOCSworthexploring.
First,itisimportanttonotethatconnectivismappliestooneofseveraltypesofMOOCS,the
cMOOC.OtherMOOCtypes,suchasthexMOOCarewithoutapedagogicaltreatment.The
cMOOCisaresultofConnectivism.ConnectivismisanewlearningtheoryintroducedbyGeorge
Siemensin2004inordertocopewiththeincreasingcomplexityandfastpacedchangeofthenew
knowledgeera(Chatti,Jarke,&Quix,2010).ThemostcommonexampleofacMOOCisthefirst
MOOCevercreatedbySiemensandhiscolleagueStephenDownescalledConnectivismand
ConnectedKnowledge2008(CCK08).IncMOOCs,thelearnerstakeagreaterroleinshaping
theirlearningexperiencesthaninatraditionalonlinecourses.,whilefacilitatorsfocusonfosteringa
spaceforlearningconnectionstooccur(Milligan,Littlejohn,&Margaryan,2013).
ConnectivismwascreatedbySiemensbasedofthebeliefthatcurrentlearningtheories
didntaddressthecharacteristicsofWeb2.0.ThatisTherapidgrowthofknowledge,whichmakes
knowledgeitselfadynamicphenomenonthenewkindsofproductionandexternalizationof
knowledge,whichmultiplytheperspectivesembeddedinknowledge(Milligan,etal.2013).
Connectivismcontrastbehaviorism,cognitivism,andconstructivism,whichoperateonthepremise
thatknowledgeisconstruction,andobjectstothinkwitharecreatedasanoutcomeofconstructing
thought.InConstructivism,thereisnoartifactperse,andknowledgeisdynamic.
Siemens(2005,2006)andDownes(2005,2012)summarizedtheexisting
learningtheoriesinthreetheoreticalpositions:behaviorism,cognitivismand

MOOCS AND APPLIED LEARNING THEORIES

constructivism.Theyassumedthatthesethreepositionssharetwokeyattributes:(a)
knowledgeresidesintheindividualand(b)knowledgeisathingarepresentationthat
peoplecreateorappropriate.SiemensandDownesarguedthatthesetwoattributesarenot
compatiblewiththecharacteristicsofknowledgeinWeb2.0.Intheirview,thedynamismof
knowledgeinWeb2.0contradictsthethingnessofknowledgeassumedbytheexisting
learningtheories,andthemultiplicityofperspectivesembeddedinknowledgeinWeb2.0
contradictstheindividuallocationofknowledgeassumedbytheexistinglearningtheories
(Milligan,etal.,2013,p.130).

Therefore,ConnectivismaddressesthechallengesposedbyWeb2.0forlearning,andisadopted
tothecMOOCbasedonfourlearningactivities:aggregation(sometimesreferredtoascuration,
accomplishedthroughaninitiallistofresourcesontheMOOCwebsiteandthenaddedtothrougha
dailynewslettersenttoallparticipants)remixing(wheretheconnectionsaremadeand
documentedthroughblogging,socialbookmarking,ortweeting)repurposing(oftenreferredtoas
constructivism,inwhichlearnersthencreatetheirowninternalconnections)andfeedingforward
(thatis,sharingnewconnectionswithothers)(Yeager,HurleyDasgupta,&Bliss,2013).Inother
words,learningincMOOCsisbasedonnetworks.InthetruesenseofMOOCsitisdesignedfor
anyonewhoisinterestedinlearningaboutsomethingnew.Unlikethetraditionalschoolmodelofan
instructorinthefrontoftheclassroom,knowledgeisshared.TheMOOCactsasanenvironmentin
whichnewformsofdistribution,storage,archiving,andretrievalofferthepotentialforthe
developmentofsharedknowledgeandformsofdistributedcognition(Yeager,etal.)

MOOCS AND APPLIED LEARNING THEORIES

However,isConnectivismenoughtosupporttherapidadoptionofMOOCs?Doesasingle
learningtheorydefinethefutureoftheMOOC?Willneweducationaltheories,andpedagogical
approachesemerge?Connectivismaddressesthechallengesposedbyweb2.0forlearning,but
thepracticeofConnectivismhasfrictionwithitsonlinecounterparts,ourcultureandtendenciesof
Internetuse,andprinciplesadvancingwebUXdesignandthetranslatingConnectivisminto
successfuldesign.InthenextsectionofthepaperMOOCS,Connectivism,andUXdesignis
explored,especiallyinthecontextofgames,whichweposithavesuccessfullyimplementedUX.
MOOCs,andarestillanewconcept,andtheevolutionoftheMOOCisunclear.Whatis
clear,isthatadditionalresearchisnecessaryabouteducationaltheoryandMOOcs.Itisnotenough
toaspects,concepts,examples,ortechnologyofaMOOC.ForMOOCsbeeffectiveforlearning,a
betterunderstandingofhoweducationaltheoriesandtheirapplicabilitytoMOOCsisneeded.Or,
similartoConnectivism,anewparadigmisrequired.Thesilverlining,eitherway,isthatthepower
liesinthehandsoftheeducator,technologist,andevenstudentinfluenceanewpathwayfor
learninginaMOOC.

Asapproachestoeducationshift,studentsarerelyingmoreontheInternet,notonlyfor
informationforcoursework,butfortheirsocialcommunication,culturalknowledge,andmodesof
expression.Alloftheseinteractionsinfluencethewayeachstudentapproachestheeducational
environment,whichislargelyatoddswithitsonlinecounterpart.
LiviaVeneziano,UXDesigner

UXAffordancestoInformHybridMOOCDesign
TheInternationalOrganizationforStandardizationdefinesuserexperienceas"aperson's

MOOCS AND APPLIED LEARNING THEORIES

perceptionsandresponsesthatresultfromtheuseoranticipateduseofaproduct,systemor
service."Thefieldofuserexperience(UX)isrootedinthebehavioralsciencesespecially
ergonomics,psychology,andhumanfactorsandconsidersallaspectsoftheenduser's
interactionwithaproduct,serviceand/orbrand.Increasinglycompetitivemediaandecommerce
industrieshaveemphasizedaneedfordigitalenvironmentsthatencourageuseradoptionand
profitablebehaviors.AmajorityofUXprofessionalsareactiveinthissegment,and,consequently,
UXprinciples,whichfocusonutility,consistency,efficiency,easeofuse,andemotionalresponse,
havelargelyevolvedoutofbestpracticesinthecommercialsector(Disaboto,2012).
Aconsiderablechallengetheseprinciplesareappliedtoistranslatingcomplexprocesses
intohospitableonlineinteractionsmovingtowardatransaction.Theseexperiencesareoften
presentedbyreducingcognitiveloadtoenablefrictionlessconsumption.Criticalthinking,forthe
mostpart,isnotencouraged.Twotopsellingbooksonusability,DontMakeMeThinkand
RocketScienceMadeEasy,illustrateapreoccupationwithsimplicity.MassivelyOpenOnline
Courses(MOOCs),whichofferhighereducationcoursestotensandhundredsofthousandsof
onlineparticipantsfromdifferentlocationsandvaryingbackgrounds,isacomplexoperationthat
canbenefitfromUXprinciples.However,deeplearning,wherelearnersareengagedattheouter
edgeoftheircompetenceisnoticeablyatoddswithUXprinciplesofsimplicity,efficiencyand
easeofuse.Learningissometimesnotsimpleorstreamlinedsometimesitisastruggle.In
comparison,videogames,MOOCscohortineducationalmedia,strivetomakegamesthatare
pleasantlyfrustrating,nottooeasyastoboretheplayerandnottoodifficultastogeneratefeelings
ofincompetence.Injuxtaposition,itisdifficulttoimaginewebenvironmentsencouragingpleasantly
frustratingthroughUXdesign.Nevertheless,perhapstheBrowserhassomethingtolearnfromthe

MOOCS AND APPLIED LEARNING THEORIES

Boss.IfMOOCsaretodevelopintoeffectiveconduitsforlearningandfavorablyseparate
themselvesfromaconsumptionheavyonlineculture,wheredoesUXandgamedesignfitin?
InthischapterIhypothesizethatxMOOCshaverealizedgreateruseradoptionandfunding
becausetheUXprinciplestheyupholdnamelypathlengthandguidancepresentmorefeasible,
scalableandindemandoptionsthancMOOCs.IalsoarguethatxMOOCshaveleveraged
behaviorismsfundamentalbeliefinuniversaltruthstoincorporateelementsofgamedesign(most
notablyWellOrderedProblemsandCyclesofExpertise)inawaythatcMOOCshaveyettoadopt
intheirownterms.Ultimately,thischapterisinanefforttoconsidereffectivexMOOCpracticesin
contrasttocMOOCssoastoinformthedesignofahybridMOOCthataccommodatesalarger
audienceandprovidesanengaginglearningexperienceonthelevelofcurrentvideogamesfor
learning.TobetterunderstandthetwoMOOCvarieties,acomparisonofcMOOCsandxMOOCs
willbeginthechapterandwillbefollowedbyanidentificationofUXprinciplesinxMOOCsandtheir
relationtolearningprinciplesaffordedbyvideogames.Lastly,thechapterwillconcludewithalook
atconnectivismssocialfocus,andhowitstroubletranslatingtoanadoptedpracticepresents
opportunitiesforUXandgamedesignsolutions.

MOOCVarieties
MOOCshavepredominantlybeenpresentedintwoforms:xMOOCsandcMOOCs.George
Siemens,apioneerofconnectivistlearning,summarizesthepolarity:cMOOCsfocuson
knowledgecreationandgeneration,whereasxMOOCsfocusonknowledgeduplication
(Mackness,2010).cMOOCsaregroundedintheconnectivistlearningtheory,whichpositsthat
learningistheresultofmakingconnectionsatthesocial,conceptual,andneurallevel.cMOOCsare

MOOCS AND APPLIED LEARNING THEORIES

characterizedbyalackofstructureandfocusonlearnersexploringawideswathofmaterialontheir
own(Kopetal,2011).Conversely,xMOOCsaregroundedinbehavioristlearningtheoriesandare
highlystructured,focusingoninformationtransmission(Clow,2013).
Thetwomodesdifferfurtherbyhowtheircurriculumandassessmentispresented.xMOOC
curriculumislinear,andcoursecontentisdeliveredthroughvideolecturesandcomputergraded
assignments.Assessmentistypicallypresentedintheformofmultiplechoice,matching,and
fillintheblankquestionsthatinterjectalectureorstandaloneasaquiz/exam.
AlthoughsomecMOOCsoffervideolectures,amajorityofcMOOCsareproducedbyindividuals
andgroupsthatcannotaffordvideoproductioncosts(xMOOCs,suchasCourseraandUdacityare
forprofitcompaniesfundedbyventurecapitalists,AndressenHorrowitzandCharlesRiverVenture,
respectivelyEdXissupportedbyHarvardandMITscombined$43Bendowment).cMOOC
learningresourcesaretypicallyonlineessays,articlesandblogpoststhatarepresentedwithout
guidingprompts,ineffect,fosteringaspaceforlearningconnectiontooccur,andrelyingonthe
learnertotakeagreaterroleinshapingtheirlearningexperiences(Milligan,2013).Assessment,if
enacted,istypicallyconductedbypeersorcoursemoderators.
WhilecMOOCsseelearningasanopenendedprocessthatisexperienceddifferentlyby
eachperson,highvalueisplacedoncontributingtoadomainsongoingglobaldialogue.
Connectivismseestheevolutionofadomainasdirectedbyconversationsonthemattercurrent
domainknowledge,then,isanunderstandingofbothadomainscurrentstateanditsprojected
trajectory.Theseobservationsandforesightsrequireactivelisteningtoandmeaningmakingof
theseconversations.Althoughresearchhasshownthatthetypeofcollaborativemethodsof
instructionenactedbycMOOCsaremoresupportiveoflearning,thesignificantproduction,

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MOOCS AND APPLIED LEARNING THEORIES

useradoptionandfinancialsupportrealizedbyxMOOCsappearstorepresentaninstructional
preferencebacktobehaviorism.MOOCsarearelativelynascentlearningplatform(thefirstMOOC
washostedin2008),andsuchashiftmayrepresentapreferencenotforbehavioristinstruction,
behindthexMOOCplatform,buttheuserfamiliarityandfeasibilitytheframeprovides.

Paths,Flow&FeedbackUX&GameDesignAspectsAffordedinxMOOCs
Theseriesofactionsausertakestoaccomplishataskonlineisconsideredonepathofthetotal
pathsviablebyawebsitesmechanicsandpotentialusecases.Theeasier(quicker,lesschoice
involved)thepath,themorelikelytheuseristonotonlybesatisfiedwiththeirexperience,butto
alsoreturntothesiteforsimilaranddifferenttasks,becauseofanestablishedconfidenceinthe
sitesmechanicsandnavigability(Disaboto,2012).Whendesigningonlineenvironments,thereisa
UXefforttolimitthenumberandlengthofpaths,becauseiftherearemanywaystobeginan
interaction,thenyouautomaticallyhavetosupport,andaccountfor,thosemanydifferentuse
cases.Itmakessensetosimplifythenumberofpathsasmuchaspossible,sotheproductiseasy
foruserstolearn,andforyoutomaintain(Disaboto,2012).xMOOCsfoundationinbehaviorism,
whichvaluesinstructionaldesignthatidentifiesthecorrectsequenceoflearningexperiencesand
howtheyshouldbeorganizedtomaximizelearningforthelargestnumberofstudents,alignswell
withUXconsiderationsthataresimilarlyutilitarian.ConsideringaMOOCsaudiencesize,diversity,
viableinstructionalapproachesandattenuatedstaff,behavioristdecisiontreesappearamore
feasibleandscalableapproachwhencomparedwithpathconsiderationsincMOOCs,where
contentisformedasaclusterofresourcesaroundasubjectarea,ratherthanalinearsetof
materialsthatallstudentsmustfollow...andparticipantscreatetheirownmaterials,[and]samplethe

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MOOCS AND APPLIED LEARNING THEORIES

materials,selectingonlythosetheyfoundinterestingandrelevant,therebycreatingapersonal
perspectiveonthematerials(Downes,2009).Predicting,enablingandsupportingthisrangeof
interactionsaspathsisaconsiderabledevelopmentchallengerequiringextensivelaborandcosts
beforeitcanbescaledout.
Moreover,thistypeofselfregulatedandhighlymotivateduserbehaviorisnotrepresentative
ofasubstantialenoughpopulationofonlinelearnerstoactualizethedegreeoffundingsecuredby
xMOOCs.Insteadthisidealparticipationepitomizestheconstructivistlearninginthathecomesto
thelearningtaskalreadymotivatedandwithenoughrelevantpriorknowledgetobesuccessfulinhis
learningefforts(Driscoll,2005).AsFeltovichhasnoted,amajorityoflearnerslikestraightroads,
andshowatendency...tounderstandacomplexsubjectmattertoonarrowlytotrytoinappropriately
imposesomedominant,centralorganization(Feltovichetal,.1996).AlthoughFeltovich
acknowledgesthisneedasinappropriate,itrepresentsacomfortthat,ifnotaffordedindesign,can
disenchantvisitorsfavoringinstructionandwebdesignthatholdsyourhandandleadstheway.In
summation,betterrepresentingtheonlinelearningdemandsofthemajorityandaddressingthe
concernsofpragmaticinvestorsareperhapsafewofthereasonsxMOOCshavereceivedmore
useradoptionandfundingthusfar.

Flow&FeedbackasExamplesofWellOrderedProblemsandCyclesofExpertise
Flowisapsychologicalstateoffeelingfullyimmersedinanactivity.Interfacedesign,afieldunder
theUXumbrella,makesanefforttoinduceflowsothatitkeepsvisitorsonasite,undistractedby
externalstimuliandfocusedtowardanendgoal.Onecommonstrategytoinduceflowinanonline
environmentisbyprovid[ing]awaytorepeatsimilartasksefficiently,leadingtheusertoadopta

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MOOCS AND APPLIED LEARNING THEORIES

rhythm(Disaboto,2012).Anefforttoinduceflowissimilarlyseeninvideogames,wheredesigners
makeanefforttofosterasenseofsuspendeddisbeliefandprovideplayerswithasenseof
immersiveengagementinthegameplayenvironment,(Dickey,2005).Oneaffordanceofgames
forlearningisthatgoodgamescreateandsupportthecycleofexpertise...asformedinanyareaby
repeatedcyclesoflearnerspracticingskillsuntiltheyarenearlyautomatic(Gee,2005).
InxMOOCsandsimilarlybehavioristonlinelearningmediumssuchasKhanAcademy,
skillanddrillassignmentsoftenfolloworinterjectavideolecture.Therepetitive,rapidfirenatureof
theseassignmentsencouragesmastery,orthesuccessfulreplicationofappliedthinking
encouragedbyasystem.InKhanAcademy,forexample,learnerscanadvancetothenextlevelonly
whentheycorrectlyanswersevenquestionsconsecutively.Mastery,inthisexample,isabyproduct
offlow,andarguablymorefeasibleinbehavioristonlinelearningwhereabeliefinuniversaltruthsis
supported.Thisbeliefaffordsassessmentthatcannotonlyinduceflow,butprovidetheopportunity
forinterfacesthattalkbacktoauser,providinginstantfeedbackonincorrectresponses.This
feedbackcanscaffoldthelearnertowardthecorrectanswerwithappropriateonscreen
explanations.Insomecases,automatedfeedbackcanoffermorethanshowinglearnershowto
closegapsbetweencurrentanddesiredperformance.KhanAcademyandCoursera,forexample,
satisfyseveralprinciplesoutlinedbyDickasofeffectivefeedback,includingclarifyingwhatgood
performanceis,facilitatingselfassessment,encouragingpositivemotivations,andproviding
individualassessmentinformationtoteachers.
Asimilarexperienceofflowandfeedbackisconsiderablymoredifficulttoprograminto
connectivistenvironments,whichofferstudentsmoreopenendedandselfdirectedassignments.
Surelyitispossibletogetintoastateofflowinconnectivistenvironments(andsomewouldargue

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MOOCS AND APPLIED LEARNING THEORIES

thatthisinstanceofflowismoreintrinsicandvaluabletolearningthanbehavioristflow),howeverit
isdifficulttoinducethisformofflowinaninterface,becauseuserdecisionsarenotconstrained,
anddecisionscannotberecognizedasrightorwrongastheywouldbeinanxMOOC.Toacertain
extent,thetypeofflowconnectivismcallsforisacognitiveprocessthatislessdistributabletoan
interfaceitrequiresmoreintrinsic,selfdirectedlearningandmeaningmakingitsismoreofa
jazzsolothanrecitingamantra.SalomonandPerkinscallthisefforttoreachcognitivelypotentflow
anintellectualpartnership.Itisaneffortontheusersendtobemindfulofwhatthetechnologycan
afford,anduseittopushthemselvesbeyondtheircognitivelimits.WhileSalomonandPerkins
arguethatthemoreopenendedtheactivitiesaffordedbyatool,themorefreedomthelearnerhas
inbecoming,ornotbecoming,mindfullyengagedinthem,theyrecognizethatwhilethisfreedom,is
affordedbytechnology,peoplerarelyengageinsuchmindfulprocessingwhenusingatechnology
undernormalnoninstructionalcircumstances(Solomon,etal.,1991).MOOCsareinstructional
circumstanceshowever,theyarealsowithoutthepressuresandincentivesthatmotivatestudents
intraditionallearningenvironments(tuitioncosts,personpersonsupport,industryrecognized
certifications).cMOOCproviderscannotassumelearnerswilldevotesimilarlevelsofmindful
participation.Rather,itisuptothedesignoftheseenvironmentstoinspiresuchaction.
Inadditiontoflowbeingdifficulttocatalyze,feedbackissimilarlylessprogrammable.In
xMOOCs,feedbackatoutputistriggeredbyinputthatisconstrainedtoasetofoptions.cMOOCs,
however,allowhighlyvariableresponsesrepresentingintellectualidiosyncrasiesyettobe
understoodbyanalgorithmicsoulmate.Thisvariabilityhaspreventedanytypeofautomated
scaffoldingsimilartothoseaffordedbyxMOOCs.Whileopenendedandselfdirectedlessons
affordlearnersthefreedomtoexploreadomainattheirownpace,italsoallowsstudentstospend

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MOOCS AND APPLIED LEARNING THEORIES

toolonggoingdownagardenpathwhichyieldstolearningthatcanbetransferredtoothertasks
fruitlesspaths:Iflearnersfaceproblemsearlyonthataretoofreeformortoocomplex,theyoften
formcreativehypothesesabouthowtosolvetheseproblems,buthypothesesthatdontworkwellfor
laterproblems(Gee,2005).ThedoublesidedswordofcMOOCsistheirlackofwellstructured
problems.BecauseMOOCstudentsaretypicallycollegeeducatedprofessionalsusingtheplatform
tolearnnewskillstoadvancetheircareers(Fowler,2013),apragmatic,outlinedpathtoknowledge
currentlypresentsacurriculumthatmeetstheseneeds.

PatternMaking&ParticipationChallengeswithcMOOCs
TheUniversityofManitobas2008ConnectivismandConnectedKnowledgecourse(CCK08)is
creditedasthefirstMOOCinthesensethatitattractedalargenumberofnonpayingstudentswho
useddistributedtechnologiesforparticipationandcommunication.Thecoursesinstructors,
StephenDownesandGeorgeSiemens,chosethismediumtoreflectconnectivisminaction.A
numberoflessonswerelearnedfromthiscourse,namelythatinteractivitywasaffordedbutnot
adoptedandthatstudentsexpressedaneedforstructure,support,andmoderation,requestsat
oddswiththecharacteristicsofconnectivismautonomy,diversity,opennessandinteractivity
outlinedbyDownes(Mackness,etal.2010).
ManylearnersinCCK08experiencedproblemsfindingwaystoestablishandmaintaina
beneficiallearningdialoguewithotherclassmates(Kop,2011Macknessetal.,2010).Duringthe
course,activeparticipationandinteractionwasonlysustainedby14%ofthetotalparticipants
(Mackness,etal2010).Interviewsconductedafterthecourserevealedthatmanystudents
disengagedfromthecoursesforumandothersocialfeaturesbecauseofinappropriate

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MOOCS AND APPLIED LEARNING THEORIES

communication(trolling)andatendencytoselforganizeintoconversationsdelineatedbylevelsof
domainexpertise.Theforum,withitschaoticandunmoderatedthreadeddiscussions,quickly
becamenoisetomanywhovisiteditwasdifficulttogleanvaluefromthefirehose.
TheseresultspresentcriticalneedsforcMOOCstoconsiderhowconnectivesidealsare
implementedassocialityisafoundationalidealofconnectivism.Connectivismrecognizesthatin
Web2.0,knowledgeofaconceptisdynamic.Thisrapidevolutionisdirectedbythemultiplicationof
perspectivesdiscussingthedomainatvaryinglevels.Amongstthemultiplicationofperspectives,
patternsandconnectionsemergethathelpmembersofthecommunitytoevinceshifts,identify
ideologicalgroupings,andposequestionsthatshouldbeaddressedinlightofadomainscurrent
trajectory.Becauseadomainsevolutionisdependentonitspatterns,whicharedependenton
dialogue,understandingadomaininstepwiththedomainsoverallevolutionrequiresrecognizing
patternsinthedialogue,askillthatishighlyrelevantinaninterconnectedworldthatconsidersdata
withanexponentiallyshrinkinghalflife.Thesepatterns,orasIimaginethem,constellations,are
formedbyconnectingtheseeminglyrandomplacementofindividualstars(commentary)thatmake
upastretch(domain)ofthetotalfirmament(knowledge).
InthecaseofMOOCs,wecanhaveaverystarrynight,andyetfinditdifficulttomake
constellations.(Engestrm,1999,2001).Inausersdefense,formingconstellations,isboth
challenging,andaneffortnottypicallycalleduponbyawebenvironment.Scanningthemultiplicityof
perspectivesforemergingpatternisahighfavortoask,especiallyconsideringthebiggestissue
withanalyticsisthatitcanveryquicklybecomeadistractingblackholeofinterestingdatawithout
anyactionableinsight(Cardello,2013).Recently,GooglehasenteredtheMOOCarenawitha
MOOCbuilderthatisslatedforSpring2014deployment.Googlesparticipationcanconceivably

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MOOCS AND APPLIED LEARNING THEORIES

includetoolsthatdistributethecognitiveenergiesrequiredtovisualizepatterns.Googlesrecent
interestinapplyingtheirdatavisualizationchopstotheMOOCspaceofferspromise,however,
instructionaldesignershavealreadymadesignificantstridestowarddesigninganinterface
evincingpatternsandmeaningmaking.
TheSocialNetworksAdaptingPedagogicalPractice(SNAPP),forexample,investigates
studentinteractionsbasedonforumpostings.Thissoftwarevisualizesexchangesinordertofind
disconnectedstudentswhoareatriskofnotcompletingthecourse,highversuslowperforming
students,beforeandaftersnapshotsofteacherinterventions,andbenchmarkingstudentprogress
(West,2013).HowthismaybeappliedtocMOOCassessmentanddatavisualizationofhasyetto
beconsidered,butIurgeinstructionaldesignerstothesefeaturesfromagamedesignperspective,
withspecialinterestinGeesconceptsofdistributedknowledgeandskillsasstrategies.
Thepromiseofdatavisualizationmaytaketimetorealize,andtherearedesignchoices
MOOCscanmaketoencouragethedynamiccommunicationandpatternmakinghybridMOOCs
callfor.Ahead,Inourinformingdesignsectionoftheprojectpaper,wehighlightdesignsolutions
influencedbyUXprinciplesandthebeneficialprinciplesoflearningthatgoodgamedesignershave
hiton,mostnotablycustomizationanddistributedknowledgeofpatternmaking.
BehaviorismClaireBradley
Oneofthefirsttheoriststoattempttostudyhumanbehaviorinaquantitativewaywas
behavioristE.L.Thorndike(Skinner,1953).AccordingtoThorndike,behaviorisstampedinor
learnedwhenitisfollowedbyspecificconsequences(Skinner,1953).Forexample,acatlearns
thatitmustliftalatchtoescapefromaboxafterbehaviorsitengagesinallowittoescape(Skinner,
1953).Ifthecatisplacedintheboxagainandagainthespecificbehaviorthatresultsinescapewill

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MOOCS AND APPLIED LEARNING THEORIES

occurafterashorterperiodoftime(Skinner,1953).ThorndikelabeledthisphenomenonTheLaw
ofEffectandnotedthatitoccurredwithnothoughtprocessonthepartofthecat(Skinner,1953).
Thisexampleillustratesthecentraltenetsofbehaviorism,learningoccurswhendesiredbehaviors
aredemonstratedfollowingagivenstimulusandthatthestudyoflearningshouldbelimitedto
observablebehaviorandshouldnotincludethedescriptionofinternalstatesastheycannotbe
directlyobserved(Watson,1913).Similarly,behavioristsbelievedthatbehaviorscouldbe
conditionedthroughreinforcement(Skinner,1953).Inotherwords,thelikelihoodthatagiven
behaviorwillbeexhibitedcanbeincreasedifitispairedwithareward(Skinner,1953).Inlater
conceptualizationsofbehaviorismthisconceptwassomewhattempered.Themostpowerful
reinforcerswereseenasthoseinternaltothelearner,whileoutsidefeedbackwasdescribedas
importantforcorrectionandcontinuedmotivation(Bullock,1982).Behavioristsalsoplaceagreat
emphasisonthecharacteristicsofthelearningenvironment,ratherthanthoseintrinsictothelearner
(Ertmer&Newby,2008).Thus,theroleofthelearnerissimplytoreacttostimulipresentedbythe
environment.
Inthe1950sconcernsabouttheeducationalsystemwereraisedbecauseofthegrowthin
population,alsotherewasanincreasedinterestintraininglargegroupsinshortperiodsoftime,led
primarilybythemilitary(McDonald,Yanchar,&Osguthorpe,2005).Duetotheirbeliefthata
properlydesignedlearningenvironmentcouldleadtothedevelopmentofdesiredbehaviors,
behavioristssoughttocreateprogrammedinstructioninanefforttoautomateeducationto
encouragelearningwithminimalinputfrominstructors(McDonald,Yanchar,&Osguthorpe,2005).
Programmedinstructionwasfoundedonseveralunderlyingassumptionsthatmirroredthoseof
behaviorism.First,theideaofontologicaldeterminismstatedthatbehaviorwastheresultofnatural

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MOOCS AND APPLIED LEARNING THEORIES

laws,andassuchfreewilldidnotexistinhumanbehavior(McDonald,Yanchar,&Osguthorpe,
2005).Therefore,inprogrammedinstruction,theactiveworkinthelearningprocesswasdoneby
thosewhodesignedthelearningenvironment.Leavingthelearnertosimplyabsorbandreacttothe
materialasitwaspresented(McDonald,Yanchar,&Osguthorpe,2005).Programmedinstruction
alsoassumedthatabstractconceptsofthemindandmemorywerenotimportantinlearning
processes,insteadinstructionfocusedonphysicaleventsandobservablebehaviors(McDonald,
Yanchar,&Osguthorpe,2005).Thus,complicatedmaterialwasbrokenintosmallsegmentsdefined
bysetsofspecificandobservablebehaviors(Cooper,1993McDonald,Yanchar,&Osguthorpe,
2005).Programmedinstructionwasalsobasedonsocialefficiency,thedesiretoeliminate
unnecessarycosts,andtechnologicaldeterminism,whichpositedthattechnologywasthemost
importantcontributortosocialchange(McDonald,Yanchar,&Osguthorpe,2005).Advocatesof
programmedinstructionbelievedthatiftheseprincipleswerefollowedcorrectlythenstudentswould
successfullylearn(McDonald,Yanchar,&Osguthorpe,2005).

Althoughlaterresearchshowedthisapproachtobelesseffectivethanothermethodologies,

muchofcurrentonlineinstruction,includingxMOOCs,canbeseenasdescendantfrom
programmedinstructionandbehaviorism(McDonald,Yanchar,&Osguthorpe,2005).xMOOCs,
suchasthoseprovidedbyonlineplatformslikeCoursera,arecharacterizedbyafixedcourse
structure,videolectures,andembeddedtests(Kalz&Specht,2013).Thesecoursesfocusonthe
interactionbetweenthelearnerandcoursecontentandtheultimategoalistotransmitinformation
fromtheinstructortothelearner(Kalz&Specht,2013).Thus,inxMOOCslearnersarenotactive
participantsinthelearningprocess,insteadtheirroleistotakeinthecoursematerialasitis
presented.ThiscanbeseeninthedescriptionofthepedagogybehindCourseracourses,which

19

MOOCS AND APPLIED LEARNING THEORIES

focusesprimarilyonthefeaturesoftheonlineplatform(Coursera).Thisemphasisonthelearning
environmentisinherentlybehavioristandmirrorstheclaimofprogrammedinstructionthatcertain
componentsoftheenvironmentwillguaranteestudentlearning.Courseraalsostatesthattheirgoal
isforlearnerstolearnthematerialquicklyandeffectively(Coursera).Thisreflectstheprincipleof
socialefficiency,foundationaltoprogrammedinstruction.Similarly,someinstitutionsofhigher
educationarebeginningtoconsiderthepossibilityofusingMOOCsincombinationwithtraditional
facetofaceteaching(Scholz,2013).InthesesituationsMOOCscouldbeusedashomework,
allowingstudentstolistentolecturesoutsideofclass,whileclasstimewouldbereservedfor
interactionandhandsonlearningactivities(Scholz,2013).InthissenseMOOCswouldserveto
automatelearninginmuchthesamewayasprogrammedinstruction,thusallowingeducatorsto
focustheirtimeonmoreworthwhileendeavors(McDonald,Yanchar,&Osguthorpe,2005).
Courseracoursesalsofeaturetestsembeddedinlecturevideosinanefforttogaugestudent
retentionofmaterial(Coursera).Thispromptfeedbackmimicstheimmediatereinforcementused
bybehavioriststoconditionbehavior(McDonald,Yanchar,&Osguthorpe,2005).Furthermore,the
culturesofparticipationinherenttoMOOCsspeaktotheimportanceofreinforcersintrinsictothe
learner.CulturesofparticipationrefertothedifferinglevelsofactivityofMOOCusers(Fischer,
2011).Forexample,MOOCusersbeginasunawareconsumers,transitioningtocontributorsonly
whentheyactivelyparticipateintheMOOC(Fischer,2011).Atthemoreactivelevelsof
participationfewerusersarerepresented,withonlyasmallgroupreachingthemostactivelevelof
metadesignerswhoextendtherangeofthelearningenvironment(Fischer,2011).Accordingtothe
behavioristviewtheinternalmotivationsofMOOCusersarethemostimportantfactorsinpropelling
themthroughthevariouslevelsofparticipationandtheexternalfeedbackpresentintheMOOC

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MOOCS AND APPLIED LEARNING THEORIES

wouldsimplyprovidecorrectionalfeedback(Bullock,1982).

Sources

CognitiveApprenticeshipSamSeidenberg
TheconceptofapprenticeshipemergedintheMiddleAges.Inexchangeforformaltrainingina
particularcraft,aswellasfoodandlodging,noviceswouldworkdiligentlyforamastercraftsman,
learningthroughobservationandmodelingofthemastersactionsinordertocreateitemsofreal
economicvalue.DuringtheIndustrialRevolution,whenmachinesbegantoproducegoodswith
unprecedentedprecisionandspeed,thedemandformastercraftsmanandthusfor
apprenticeshipsrapidlydeclined.However,theconceptofapprenticeshipneverdisappeared.Inhis
bookMastery,AuthorRobertGreenearguesthatEachagetendstocreateamodelofapprenticeship
thatissuitedtothesystemofproductionthatprevailsatthetime.WiththeadventoftheIndustrial
Revolution,[theMiddleAge]modelofapprenticeshipbecamelargelyoutmoded,buttheideabehindit
livedonintheformofselfapprenticeship(emphasismine)(Greene2012,p.237).In
selfapprenticeship,thearchetypesofApprenticeandMasterbothresidewithintheindividual.Thatis,
theindividualmustguideherselftowardmasteryofafieldthatisentirelyunique,acquiringnotjustone
skillbutawidevarietyofskillsalongthewaythrough.
TheMinMOOCstandsformassive,referringtothe(supposed)inherentscalabilityofanopen
onlinecoursealecturerecordedanduploadedtotheinternetbyanNYUprofessorcanbeaccessed
aseasilyinBangladeshasitcaninBrooklyn.ItisthistheoryonwhichMOOCplatformssuchas
Coursera,Udacity,andSkillshareresttheirbusinessmodel.Byexpandinghighereducationbeyondthe

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MOOCS AND APPLIED LEARNING THEORIES

spatialandtemporalconstraintsoftheuniversityclassroom,thehopeisthatmorepeoplewillbeableto
developmoreskillsandthusfurthertheirselfapprenticeships.However,whilevideolecturesand
multiplechoicequizzeshavescaledquiteeasilyonline,thecognitiveapprenticeshiptherigorous,
detailedfeedbackthatisnecessaryforobtainingmasteryinagivensubjecthasprovedmore
troublesome.
Cognitiveapprenticeshipistheuseofmodeling,coaching,andfadingtohelpalearnermove
throughtheirselfachievemasteryofagivenskillset.Collins,Brown,andNewmansuccinctlydescribe
cognitiveapprenticeshipintheirseminalpaperonthetopic,
[First],theapprenticerepeatedlyobservesthemasterexecuting(ormodeling)thetarget
process,whichusuallyinvolvesanumberofdifferentbutinterrelatedsubskills.Theapprentice
thenattemptstoexecutetheprocesswithguidanceandhelpfromthemaster(coaching).Akey
aspectofcoachingistheprovisionofscaffolding,whichisthesupport,intheformofreminders
andhelp,thattheapprenticerequirestoapproximatetheexecutionoftheentirecompositeof
skills.Oncethelearnerhasagraspofthetargetskill,themasterreduceshisparticipation
(fades),providingonlylimitedhints,refinements,andfeedbacktothelearner,whopracticesby
successivelyapproximatingsmoothexecutionofthewholeskill(emphasismine).(Collins,
Brown,andNewman1987,p.2)
Theuseofcognitiveapprenticeshipintheclassroomhasseensomeverypositiveresults.Butfor
oneprofessortosustainsuchintensefeedbackandsupportforaclassofthirtystudentsfora
fourmonthsemesterisalreadyincrediblychallenging...howcouldhepossiblydothesamefor100,000
students?Obviously,thisisimpossibleforasinglehuman.
WhilenotconsideredMOOCsinthetraditionalsense(ifatraditionalsensecouldevenbesaid

22

MOOCS AND APPLIED LEARNING THEORIES

toexistatthispoint),atleasttwoonlineeducationentitiesKhanAcademysWorldofMathand
Duolingo,havescaledcognitiveapprenticeshipsuccessfullythroughharnessingthepowerofmachine
learningandartificialintelligenceintheirinstructionalsystems.Theinstructionaldesignsofbothservices
areessentiallybasedonthesamemodelofdeeplyanalyzingindividualstudentlearningdatainorderto
providetimelyandappropriatemodeling,coaching,andfading.Inotherwords,thesoftwareactsasa
virtualmasterbyidentifyingandrememberingcertainaspectsofastudentslearningwith
unprecedenteddetailandprovidingsupportonlyasneeded.
Thoughthesetypesofsystemsarequiteeffective(Thompson,2011)(VesselinovandGrego,
2012),bythemselvestheycurrentlyonlyfosterthemasteryofthedeclarativeandprocedural
knowledgeofagivensubject.Undoubtedly,thisknowledgeisvitaltosubjectfluencyyoucannotspeak
alanguagewithoutknowingitsvocabularyandgrammaticalrules,norcanyouperformformal
mathematicswithoutunderstandingwhatthesymbolsrepresentandhowtheyinteractwithoneanother.
However,theydonotexplicitlyfosterthesocialandemotionalintelligencenecessarytousetheseskills
fortheirultimatepurpose:workingforandwithotherhumans.
Cognitiveapprenticeship,liketraditionalapprenticeship,isgreatlyfacilitatedwhenpairedwith
situatedcognition,thewrappingoflearninginarealworldsituationorcontext.Researcherswiththe
UniversityofHelsinkiscomputersciencedepartmenttookthisnotiontoheartwhendesigninga
MOOCforintroductoryprogramming,anddevelopedanextremeapprenticeshipsystembymeansof
twocorefeatures.First,theMOOCfunctionsasanassessmenttoolfortheuniversitybydoublingasan
entranceexamtotheCS/ITmajor.Throughaddingtangibleconsequencestocourseperformance,the
coursecreatorsaimtoincreasestudentengagementandattentiveness.Second,thecourseputsalarge
emphasison[c]ontinuousfeedbackbetweenthelearnerandtheadvisor.Thelearnerneeds

23

MOOCS AND APPLIED LEARNING THEORIES

confirmationthattellsherthatsheisprogressingandtoadesireddirection.Therefore,theadvisormust
beawareofthesuccessesandchallengesofthelearnerthroughoutthecourse(Vihavaien,Luukainen,
Kurhila2011,p.1).
Aspreviouslydiscussed,scalingcognitiveapprenticeshipunderaonetomany
advisortostudentratioquicklybecomesinconceivable.ButVihavaien,Luukainen,Kurhilawereable
overcomethisobstaclebymeansofapyramidsystem:
AsXA(extremeapprenticeship)isaformofapprenticeshipeducation,thepyramidofthe
stakeholdersisessentialinorganizingthecourse:therearemasters(tenuredteachersworking
alsoasadvisors)thatareonthetopofthepyramid,craftingmaterialandexercises,coordinating
andcontrollingtheoperationjourneymen(paidadvisorsthatcontributetoexercisesandhelp
thestudentswithexplicitresponsibilities)apprentices(unpaidadvisorsamongfellowstudents
withlimitedresponsibilities)andfinally,studentsofthecourse(potentialapprenticesoffuture
courses)...Usingtheapprenticeshipsystemallowsustoprovideteachingandcoaching
experienceformanyofthestudents,aswellasgivethemresponsibility(Vihavaien,Luukainen,
Kurhila2011,p.23).
Thisextremeapprenticeshipsystemiswithoutadoubtquitechallengingto
organizeandmaintain.Yettheeducationalpotentialitholdsishuge.Todate,noothersystemofonline
educationhasallowedstudentstolearnwithinsuchanauthenticcontext.
WhilecurrentMOOCplatformssuchasCoursera,Udacity,andSkillsharehaveprovideda
revolutionaryandimportantservicethroughincreasingaccesstohighereducation,theyhaveonlydone
sowiththepartsofeducationthatareeasilyscalable:setitandforgetitvideolecturescombined
withstaticquizzesandassignments.ThesetraditionalMOOCswillnotbeabletocompetewith

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MOOCS AND APPLIED LEARNING THEORIES

dynamic,subjectspecificdigitaleducationalsystemssuchasKhanAcademysWorldofMathand
Duolingowhichincorporatecognitiveapprenticeshipintotheirinstructionaldesign.Thesesystems
requiremuchmoretimetobuildandmuchhighermaintenance,butthequantityandqualityoffeedback
theyprovidemakesthemmuchmorepotenteducationalproducts.Inturn,systemssuchasthesefocus
heavilyondeliveringdeclarativeandproceduralknowledge,whilestrugglingtosituatethecontentina
humancontext.Designersofonlineeducationplatformswillhavetosteadilyiterateoninnovative
strategiessuchastheUniversityofHelsinkisextremeapprenticeshipmethodinordertoensure
studentsdevelopthesocialandemotionalintelligencenecessarytoimplementtheirnewskillsinthereal
world.Ultimately,theinstructionalsystemsthatwillrulethedayaretheonesthattakefulladvantageof
theaffordancesofdigitaleducation,andempowerlearnersbynotjustgivingthemanintroductionor
overviewofatopic,butensuringthattheyobtainthesubjectmasteryneededtofurthertheir
selfapprenticeships.
Brown,J.S.,Collins,A.,&Duguid,P.(1989).Situatedcognitionandthecultureoflearning.
EducationalResearcher,18,3242.

Brown,J.S.,Collins,A.,Newman,S.E.,&.(1987).Cognitiveapprenticeships:teachingthecraftof
reading,writing,andmathematics.Champaign,IL:UniversityofIllinois.

Greene,R.(2012).Mastery.NewYork,NY:PenguinGroup.
Guskey,T.R.(2007).Closingtheachievementgap:RevisitingBenjaminS.Bloomslearningfor
mastery.JournalofAdvancedAcademics,19,831.

Thompson,C.(2011,July15).HowKhanAcademyisChangingtheRulesofEducation.WIRED.
RetrievedDecember12,2013
Vesselinov,R.,&Grego,J.(2012).Duolingoeffectivenessstudy(p.1).

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MOOCS AND APPLIED LEARNING THEORIES

Vihavainen,A.,Luukkainen,M.,&Kurhila,J.(2011).MultifacetedSupportforMOOCin
Programming.N.p.:UniversityofHelsinki.

Vygotsky,L.S.(1978).Mindandsociety:Thedevelopmentofhighermentalprocesses.Cambridge,
MA:HarvardUniversityPress.

Intro/Conclusion+Limitations,Criticism,andAreasforFurtherResearchBillKemp
GeneralOutline:

Intermsofstructure,thissectionwillcomeattheendofourtheoryconversation.This
sectionsprimarygoalistoseamlesslymovefromtheorydiscussionintoafluentandcohesiveshift
totheMOOCslimitationsandcriticism.Asagenre,theresearchpapersultimategoalistonot
onlypresentourideasinacompellingmanner(theoryandresearchsupport),butalsoopendoors
forfurtherinvestigation.UsingBrunersTheActsofMeaningastheprimarysource,thissectionwill
warnCognitiveRevolutionistsoftheneedtoincorporatevisceralcommunitiesandcultural
acknowledgementinordertopreventthedehumanizationofeducation.Thisnotionwillleadintoour
groupsfinalsuggestions.
AccordingtoBruner,humansarethecreatorsofmeaningweareactiveandopen.While
theMOOCsplatformreflectsthisideology,howcanwecreatenonlinearmaterialsthatare
applicabletonumerousculturesanddemographics?Here,asSprio(1990)wouldsay,Iwillmakea
26

MOOCS AND APPLIED LEARNING THEORIES

fewsuggestionstoleadfutureresearcherstowardsfindingmaterialsthatfosterMultiple
Representations,andallowstudentstotrulyunderstandthecourseasopposedtoknowingit.

27