662878

research-article2016

JMHXXX10.1177/1557988316662878American Journal of Mens HealthZemkov et al.

Article

Upper and Lower Body Muscle Power

Increases After 3-Month Resistance
Training in Overweight and Obese Men

American Journal of Mens Health

111
The Author(s) 2016
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DOI: 10.1177/1557988316662878
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Erika Zemkov, PhD1, Oga Kyseloviov, PhD1, Michal Jele, PhD1,

Zuzana Kovikov, PhD1, Gbor Oll, PhD1, Gabriela tefnikov, PhD1,
Tom Vilman, PhD1, Miroslav Bal, PhD2, Timea Kurdiov, PhD2,
Jozef Ukropec, PhD2, and Barbara Ukropcov, MD, PhD2,3

Abstract
This study evaluates the effect of 3 months resistance and aerobic training on muscle strength and power in 17 male
overweight and obese men. Subjects underwent either a resistance or aerobic training for a period of 3 months (three
sessions per week). Peak isometric force, rate of force development, peak power and height of countermovement
and squat jumps, reactive strength index, and mean power in the concentric phase of bench presses were all assessed
prior to and after completing the training program. Results identified a significant increase of mean power during both
countermovement bench presses at 30 kg (18.6%, p = .021), 40 kg (14.6%, p = .033), and 50 kg (13.1%, p = .042) and
concentric-only bench presses at 30 kg (19.6%, p = .017) and 40 kg (13.9%, p = .037) after the resistance training.
There was also a significant increase in the height of the jump (12.8%, p = .013), peak power (10.1%, p = .026), and
peak velocity (9.7%, p = .037) during the countermovement jump and height of the jump (11.8%, p = .019), peak power
(9.6%, p = .032), and peak velocity (9.5%, p = .040) during the squat jump. There were no significant changes in the
reactive strength index, peak force, and the rate of force development after the resistance training. The aerobic group
failed to show any significant improvements in these parameters. It may be concluded that 3 months of resistance
training without caloric restriction enhances upper and lower body muscle power in overweight and obese men.
Keywords
bench press, jump, maximum voluntary isometric contraction, obesity, power output, training

Introduction
Obesity is an emerging problem that poses significant
challenges to strength and conditioning professionals.
Decreases in endurance, range of movement of the spine
and major joints, muscle strength, capacity to hold prolonged fixed postures, respiratory capacity, and visual
control all have a negative effect on both work capacity
and quality of life (Ettinger & Afable, 1994).
Changes in body mass and composition affect muscle
strength. Higher absolute fat and lean mass values as compared with their leaner counterparts are reported in obese
people (Katzmarzyk, Janssen, & Ardern, 2003; Xu, Mirka,
& Hsiang, 2008). When normalized to body weight,
strength is 6% to 10% lower in those who suffer from
obesity. Despite greater muscle mass, they are significantly weaker than normal-weight subjects (Katzmarzyk
et al., 2003). Reduced muscle strength could possibly
stem from diminished muscle function, abnormal metabolism (lower oxidative capacity of muscle fibers, despite

their hypertrophy), and lower physical activity levels, also

exhibited by reduced motor unit activation during exercise
(Lafortuna, Maffiuletti, Agosti, & Sartorio, 2005).
Particularly, the knee flexor and extensor ratio is lower in
the obese than for those with normal weight (Katzmarzyk
et al., 2003). Lower flexor and extensor strength has a negative effect on the capacity to perform daily activities
safely, as highlighted by a strong correlation between these
factors (Stenholm et al., 2008). For example, rising from a
1

Faculty of Physical Education and Sports, Comenius University in

Bratislava, Slovakia
2
Institue of Experimental Endocrinology, Slovak Academy of Sciences,
Bratislava, Slovakia
3
Faculty of Medicine, Comenius University in Bratislava, Slovakia
Corresponding Author:
Erika Zemkov, Department of Sports Kinanthropology, Faculty of
Physical Education and Sports, Comenius University in Bratislava,
Nbr. arm. gen. L. Svobodu 9, 814 69 Bratislava, Slovakia.
Email: erika.zemkova@uniba.sk

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American Journal of Mens Health

chair takes longer (Davis, Ross, Preston, Nevitt, &

Wasnich, 1998) and is more difficult with obesity (Vincent,
Vincent, & Lamb, 2010). The total percentage of body fat
has been identified as a predictor in a decrease in chair rise
functionality (Foster et al., 2010).
These findings indicate that a training program for the
overweight and obese should be aimed at enhancing muscle power rather than maximal strength. Weight lifting or
progressive resistance training (PRT) is recommended
for the obese by the American College of Sports Medicine
(2001). PRT is defined as exercise whereby the resistance
against which a muscle generates force is progressively
increased over time (American College of Sports
Medicine, 1998). It increases muscular size and strength,
alters body composition by increasing lean body mass
and decreasing visceral and total body fat (Treuth et al.,
1995), and leads to changes in neuroendocrine and cardiovascular functions (Kraemer, Deschenes, & Fleck,
1988). Resistance training at intensities of between 60%
and 100% of the one repetition maximum (1-RM) elicit
structural, functional, and metabolic changes in skeletal
muscle, with higher intensities leading to greater adaptations (Fiatarone Singh, 2000).
A systematic review and meta-analysis by Clark
(2015) identified that that there is a necessity to include
exercise in combination with diet to effectively elicit
changes in body composition and biomarkers of metabolic issues. The combination resistance training (RT)
was more effective than endurance training (ET) or a
combination of RT and ET, particularly when progressive
training volume of 2 to 3 sets for 6 to 10 repetitions at an
intensity of 75% 1-RM, utilizing whole body and freeweight exercises, at altering body compositional measures and reducing total cholesterol, triglycerides, and
low-density lipoproteins. Additionally, RT was more
effective at reducing fasting insulin levels than ET or ET
and RT. The inclusion of ET was more effective when
performed at high intensity (e.g., 70% VO2max or HRmax
for 30 minutes three to four times per week), or in an
interval training style than when utilizing the relatively
common prescribed method of low-to-moderate (e.g.,
50% to 70% VO2max or HRmax for at least equal time)
steady state method. Thus, indicating that focus of treatment should be on producing a large metabolic stress (as
induced by RT or high levels of ET) rather than an energetic imbalance for adults who are overweight.
Recent guidelines on exercise for weight loss and
weight maintenance include resistance training as part of
the exercise prescription. It appears that aerobic training is
the optimal mode of exercise for reducing both fat and
body mass, while a program including resistance training
is necessary for increasing lean mass in the middle-aged
and the overweight/obese (Willis et al., 2012). According
to Carnero et al. (2014), the overweight and obese are able

to reduce their total and regional fat mass, regardless of

the type of training (aerobic training, resistance training,
or a combination of both). Marsh et al. (2013) identified
that in older overweight and obese adults, a hypocaloric
weight loss intervention led to significant declines in lean
and appendicular lean body mass. Moreover, subjects who
participated in the resistance training displayed significant
improvements in their leg press power, but not in their
knee extensor strength. However, muscle strength or
power was not adversely affected in the other groups (no
resistance training, pioglitazone or placebo).
It seems that resistance training elicits greater structural, functional, and metabolic changes in skeletal muscle
than aerobic training, resulting in the enhancement of
muscle strength and power. Weight lifting and resistance
training are a potent stimulus to the neuromuscular system
(Deschenes & Kraemer, 2002). Depending on the specific
program design, resistance training can enhance strength,
power, and/or local muscular endurance. These improvements in performance are directly related to the physiologic adaptations elicited through prolonged resistance
training.
In practice, mainly tests of maximal strength and muscular endurance such as maximum repetition test and
measurements of repetitive performance related to maximum strength or at a fixed resistance are utilized to evaluate the effect of such trainings on physiological and
performance variables. However, experience indicates
that testing of muscle power during resistance exercises
represents a more appropriate alternative for the overweight and obese than the 1-RM approach. So far, there is
little evidence regarding changes in power performance
in this population evaluated by tests that resemble exercises performed during resistance training. Most tests
currently in use can only be performed in a laboratory
using mainly isometric or isokinetic dynamometry. Thus,
few people benefit from testing on a sports field where
exercise programs are usually carried out. Therefore, laboratory testing should be complemented with field testing
to allow fitness professionals to assess the efficiency of
the training and to design programs that will further
increase performance. It can be assumed that muscle
power would be a more sensitive parameter reflecting the
effect of dynamic resistance training rather than tests of
maximal muscle strength. This study evaluates the effect
of 3 months of resistance and aerobic training programs
on strength and power in overweight and obese men.

Method
Participants
A group of 17 male individuals (age 37.9 5.1 years,
height 182.6 5.8 cm, weight 104.4 14.8 kg, body mass

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Zemkov et al.
index [BMI] 31.2 3.7 kg/m2) volunteered to participate
in the study. All participants were recreationally active,
but were not involved in any form of aerobic, strength,
and/or power training. Individuals with any chronic disease or regular use of pharmacotherapy were not eligible
to enter the study. Participants were all fully informed
regarding the procedures and the possible risks, and provided witnessed written informed consent prior to the
study. All studies were approved by the Ethics Committee
of the University Hospital Bratislava, Comenius
University Bratislava, and by the Ethics Committee of the
Bratislava Region Office and are conforming to the ethical guidelines of the Helsinki declaration.
Clinical phenotyping was performed before and after
the intervention (Kurdiov et al., 2014). Body weight and
height were used to calculate BMI (kg/m2). Waist circumference was measured at the midpoint between the lower
border of the rib cage and the iliac crest. Bioelectric
impedance was used to evaluate total and visceral adiposity and to estimate lean body mass (Omron BF511,
Omron Healthcare Ltd., Matsusaka, Japan). Resting
energy expenditure was measured after an overnight fast
and following 30 minutes bed rest with the Ergostik
(Geratherm Respiratory, Bad Kissingen, Germany) for a
period of 30 minutes. Volume and dynamics/intensity of
daily ambulatory activity were determined with accelerometers (Lifecorder plus, Kenz, USA) continuously
within the 3 months of the intervention. Habitual freeliving ambulatory activity was defined as daily life activities requiring more energy than 3 times the resting
metabolic rate (>3METs). Participants were asked to
keep their regular eating habits during the study.

Testing
Prior to the study, participants took part in a familiarization
session, during which the correct exercise techniques were
explained. Following this, testing was undertaken in random order on different days. After a standardized warm-up
(i.e., dynamic flexibility and stretching routine) and a specific warm-up (e.g., two submaximal effort trials of bench
press exercise with an initial weight), participants performed strength and power tests, as described below.

Maximum Voluntary Isometric Contraction

Participants performed three maximum voluntary isometric contractions using a FiTRO Linear Isokinetic
Dynamometer (FiTRONiC, SVK). The participants were
seated in a fixed chair with their lower legs placed on a
leg press machine platform with a knee angle of 90.
Participants were carefully instructed to contract as fast
and forcefully as possible. Online visual feedback of the
instantaneous force was provided to the participants on a

computer screen. Peak force, peak rate of force development (RFD), and RFD over time intervals of 0 to 100 and
0 to 200 ms were analyzed.

Countermovement Jump, Squat jump, and

Drop Jump
Countermovement jumps (CMJ) were performed from
full extension to a knee angle of 90, followed immediately by an upward movement. Squat jumps (SJ) began
from an initial semisquat position (90 knee flexion),
determined from visual inspection, and once achieved,
participants held the position for approximately 2 seconds before performing an upward movement on the
command of the tester. The better of the two trials of the
CMJ and SJ were taken for evaluation.
The drop jump (DJ) was performed from a height of
30 cm. Participants were instructed to drop off a platform
and then quickly jump upward as high as possible. The
most enhanced score of the two trials were utilized for
analysis. Reactive strength index was calculated as a ratio
of jump height and ground contact time.
A computer-based system FiTRO Force Plate was
used to monitor basic biomechanical parameters involved
in exercise (FiTRONiC, SVK). The system consists of a
strain gauge force plate, electronics, 12-bit analogdigital
convertor and software. Basic software from the same
company (FiTRONiC, SVK) was used for calibration,
data acquisition, storage, and analyses (integral and average calculation from specified intervals, time zoom). An
analytical software module was utilized for the calculation of acceleration, velocity, displacement, and power
from forcetime curve. Vertical force (F) applied to the
plate consists of weight (product of body mass m and
gravitational constant g) and inertia component (product
of body mass and vertical acceleration).

Bench Press
Bench presses were performed randomly with and without a countermovement (CM) and using maximal effort
in the concentric phase of lifting. The initial weight of 20
kg was increased by 10 kg or 5 kg (at higher loads) up to
maximal power. Rest intervals of 2 minutes were applied
between repetitions with particular weights. The most
enhanced results of the three trials (two at higher loads)
were utilized for evaluation.
The CM chest press required the participants to lower
the barbell to the chest without making contact when
transitioning from the eccentric to concentric phase. Any
repetitions that contacted the chest or failed to come
within 0.05 m of the chest was disregarded and repeated
after 1 minute of rest. Exercises without CM began from
an initial position on the chest (the barbell about 0.05 m

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American Journal of Mens Health

from the chest), and once achieved, participants held the

position for approximately 2 seconds before performing
an upward movement on the command of the tester. Each
participant was observed during the exercise to ensure
that no countermovement was performed. Participants
were required to keep the same grip width for the entire
testing protocol and to ensure that contact was maintained
between their hips and back with the bench.
A computer-based system, FiTRO Dyne Premium,
was utilized to monitor basic biomechanical parameters
involved in the exercises (FiTRONiC, SVK). The system
consists of a sensor unit based on precise encoder
mechanically coupled with a reel. While pulling the tether
(connected by means of small hook to the barbell axis)
the reel rotates and measures velocity. Rewinding of the
reel is guaranteed by a string producing force of approximately 2 N. Signals taken from a sensor unit are conveyed to the computer by means of USB cable. The
system operates on the Newtons law of universal gravitation (force equals mass multiplied by gravitational constant) and the Newtons law of motion (force equals mass
multiplied by acceleration). Instant force while moving a
barbell in a vertical direction is calculated as the sum of
gravitational force (mass multiplied by gravitational constant) and acceleration force (mass multiplied by acceleration). Acceleration of vertical movements (positive or
negative) is obtained by derivation of vertical velocity,
measured by a highly precise device, mechanically coupled with the barbell. Power is calculated as a product of
force and velocity and the actual position by integration
of velocity. Comprehensive software allowed the collection, calculation, and online display of the basic biomechanical parameters involved in the weight exercise.
Previous studies have identified that measurements of
peak and mean power during resistance exercises using
the FiTRO Dyne Premium system provide reliable data
(Jennings, Viljoen, Durandt, & Lambert, 2005; Zemkov
et al., 2015).
The device was placed on the floor and attached to the
bar by a nylon tether. Participants performed the exercise
while pulling on the nylon tether of the device. Peak and
mean values of power and velocity were obtained
throughout the entire concentric phase of lifting, as well
as from the acceleration segment.

Training
The participants were randomly divided into two groups.
While the first group underwent resistance training, the second group performed aerobic training for a period of 3
months (three sessions/week). All training sessions were
supervised by exercise professionals. Adherence to the
training program was monitored and regularly encouraged.

Aerobic performance and cardiovascular health status

were assessed by a cardiologist in the recruitment process, and after completing the 3-month intervention.
Maximal aerobic capacity (VO2max) was calculated from
the continuous measurement of gas exchange (Ergostik,
Geratherm Respiratory, Bad Kissingen, Germany) during
an incremental exercise test (Lode-Corival cycle ergometer, Lode B.V., Groningen, The Netherlands) and
expressed relative to lean body mass. Each session began
with a standardized warm-up and ended with cool down
stretching exercises. During the training, aerobic dancing, running, and spinning were alternated. During each
session (of 1 hour duration) the exercise intensity was
monitored by using a Polar RS300X (Polar, Finland).
Intensity was maintained at 70% to 85% of maximal heart
rate.
The resistance training program was designed according to the individual strength assessments at the beginning of the study. The strength training sessions were
carried out at the FITGYM Fitness Centre of the Faculty
of Physical Education and Sports, Comenius University
in Bratislava. Participants performed the periodized
strength-training program three times per week (Monday,
Wednesday, and Friday) for 12 consecutive weeks via the
use of equipment, free weight and machine resistance
exercises. Participants were informed about training
methods and the training equipment to ensure the safety
of the workouts. Instructions outlining the proper and
safe exercise technique for all exercises were provided
before testing and training. All training sessions were carried out individually and trainees were under constant
supervision. An experienced expert was present during
every training session to ensure the exercises were performed correctly.
The aim of the resistance training program was to
enhance maximal strength as well as explosive power
when possible. Each session consisted of a brief warmup, followed by exercises for strengthening the major
muscle groups. Within two to three workouts, the optimal
weight was selected. This period gave the participants the
opportunity to practice technique and experiment with
different resistances. The strength training program was
designed according to the fundamental principles that
ensure a progressive overload of the musculature.
Progress was made through increasing the amount of
weight, increasing the number of repetitions and sets,
decreasing the amount of rest time between sets, and a
combination of any of these according to the subjects
physical fitness. The exercises utilized standard free
weights and equipment that is available in most gyms.
This approach allowed participants to become familiar
with the beginners weight training workout routine that
can be easily followed after completion of the study.

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Zemkov et al.
Table 1. An Example of Training Sessions.
Exercise: Monday (upper
body)
Chestm. pectoralis
Bench press
Incline bench press
Armm. triceps brachii
Triceps push down
Armm. deltoid
Seated shoulder dumbbells
press
Exercise: Wednesday (lower
body and back)
Backm. dorsi
Seated lat pulldown
Seated row
Hip/thigh
Seated leg (knee)
extension
Back squat
Forward lunge

Load (repetitions sets

rest)

Table 3. Average Training Values for the Periodized

Strength-Training Program.
Training program

8 reps 5 sets 90 s
8 reps 4 sets 90 s

Phase 1

10 reps 4 sets 90 s
Phase 2
10 rep 4 sets 90 s
Load (repetitions sets
rest)
12 reps 5 sets 90 s
10 reps 4 sets 90 s
8 reps 2 sets 90 s
12 reps 5 sets 90 s
10 reps 5 Sets 90 s

Table 2. Circuit Training Sessions: Fridays (Functional

Training).
Week

Load

Rest between
exercises

Circuits

Rest between
circuits

1-4
5-8
9-12

30 s
45 s
60 s

30 s
30 s
No rest

6
7
8

120 s
90 s
60 s

Structure of the Sessions. Each session began with a general warm-up of 10 to 15 minutes and ended with static
stretching of approximately 5 minutes. The total duration
of training session was 60 to 70 minutes. Four to five
specific resistance exercises were applied twice per week
(Monday and Wednesday). The sequence of exercises
was maintained throughout the study. While the Monday
routine served as an upper body workout focusing on
chest, shoulder, and arm muscles, the Wednesday routine
exercised lower bodythigh, hips, and back muscles.
The examples of strength training Sessions 1 and 2 are
outlined in Table 1. The exercises of the third session
(Friday) activated a larger muscle mass (multijoint) and
core muscles (push-ups, squats, sit-ups, swing, seated lat
pull-down, shoulder press, prone plank). The third session was carried out as the functional training via circuits
(Table 2).
Training Program.All strength-training exercises were
performed using smooth and controlled concentric and

Phase 3

Week 1
Week 2
Week 3
Week 4
Week 5
Week 6
Week 7
Week 8
Week 9
Week 10
Week 11
Week 12

Days/
week

Intensity
(% 1-RM)

Duration
(min/week)

3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3

57
57
62
62
70
70
74
74
79
79
82
82

120
120
135
135
144
144
150
150
168
168
180
180

Note. Days/week = the number of training days per week; RM =

repetition maximum; intensity = the average intensity assessed in
percent of 1 RM for each week; duration = the approximate total
workout time each resistance training sessions.

eccentric muscle action. The weight loads were set differently and mainly reflected ones level of strength, performance, and acute or chronic health problems. In each
session, the participants completed a specific number of
repetitions and sets depending on the intensity for that
workout session (Table 3). The training progression
incorporated three levels of difficulty by increasing the
weight load (% 1-RM), repetitions/set, sets/exercise, and
rest intervals. Exercise selection and load gradation
intensity was determined from the individual assessment
prior to the beginning of the program. The initial 4 weeks
(Phase 1) were used as an anatomical adaptation and
familiarization phase, with intensity and volume being
moderate. In the second phase (Weeks 5-8), the program
used a gradual linear increase in intensity and duration as
well. Subjects who completed the exercises correctly
after 8 weeks of the training were progressed to a third
difficulty level (Weeks 9-12).
A flowchart of the experimental protocol is provided
in Figure 1.

Statistical Analyses
Data analyses were performed using statistical program
SPSS for Windows version 18.0 (SPSS, Inc., Chicago,
IL). The effect of training programs on strength and
power variables determined by maximum voluntary isometric contraction, squat, countermovement, and drop
jumps, plus the bench press were evaluated using a twoway analysis of variance (ANOVA) with repeated measures. Factors considered included time (pretraining vs.
posttraining) group (resistance vs. aerobic). Where

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American Journal of Mens Health

Familiarization session

Pre-testing of muscle strength and power

3-month resistance training

3-month aerobic training

Post-testing of muscle strength and power

peak velocity (9.7%, p = .037) during countermovement

jumps after the resistance training. Parameters obtained
during squat jumps also increased significantly after the
resistance training, that is, the height of the jump (11.8%,
p = .019), peak power (9.6%, p = .032), and peak velocity
(9.5%, p = .040).

Reactive Strength Index

Regarding the reactive strength index determined from a
drop jump, the ANOVA revealed no significant differences for the factors group time. There were no significant changes identified after either the resistance or the
aerobic training.

Figure 1. Flowchart of the experimental protocol.

significant differences were detected (p .05), a Tukey

post hoc test was utilized. Effect sizes (ES) are reported
in the tables. Descriptive statistics include means and
standard deviations. Statistically significant prepost
training changes are marked with a symbol (*p .05, **p
.01).

Results
There were no significant prepost intervention changes
in anthropometric and body composition variables in any
participants (weight from 104.4 14.8 kg to 104.4 15.4
kg, BMI from 31.2 3.7 kg/m2 to 31.3 4.0 kg/m2, and
body fat from 30.6 4.7% to 29.3 5.1%). The obesity
level in both groups was comparable before and after the
training period. Results of prepost training changes in
strength and power variables after resistance and aerobic
training in overweight and obese men are displayed in
Tables 4 and 5.

Maximal Muscle Strength and Rate of Force

Development
Results from the ANOVA indicated no significant differences for the factors of group and time. There were no
significant changes in any parameter after resistance
training. After the aerobic training the values even slightly
decreased.

Peak Power and Height of Countermovement

and Squat Jumps
The ANOVA revealed a significant interaction effect of
group time for the jump parameters, which increased
significantly more after resistance than aerobic training.
There was a significant increase in the height of the jump
(12.8%, p = .013), peak power (10.1%, p = .026), and

Mean Power in the Concentric Phase of Bench

Press
As expected, the ANOVA revealed a significant main
effect for group time (p < .01), that is, there was a significant increase in power output following the resistance
training but not after the aerobic training. More specifically, there was a significant increase of mean power in
the concentric phase of the countermovement bench
presses at 30 kg (18.6%, p = .021), 40 kg (14.6%, p =
.033), and 50 kg (13.1%, p = .042). These values also
increased significantly during concentric-only bench
presses at 30 kg (19.6%, p = .017) and 40 kg (13.9%, p =
.037; Figures 2a,b-above). The aerobic group failed to
show any significant improvement in these parameters
mainly due to the fact that their program did not include
exercises for the upper limbs (Figures 2a,b-below).

Discussion
Three months of resistance training in previously
untrained overweight and obese individuals enhanced
power performance during the bench press as well as during squat and countermovement jumps. The training did
not induce any significant changes in the parameters
determined from the drop jump and maximum voluntary
isometric contraction. More specifically, there was a significant increase in the height of the jump (12.8%), peak
power (10.1%), and peak velocity (9.7%) during countermovement jumps following the resistance training.
Parameters obtained during squat jumps also increased
significantly after the training, that is, the height of the
jump (11.8%), peak power (9.6%), and peak velocity
(9.5%). There were no significant changes either in reactive strength index, maximal muscle strength, or the rate
of force development following the resistance training.
It is important to point out that lower limb muscle
power improved after the resistance training despite no
changes in the weight (from 102.7 13.0 to 102.8 12.9

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Zemkov et al.
Table 4. Parameters of Strength and Power Prior to and After Resistance Training in Overweight and Obese Men.

Maximum voluntary isometric contraction

Peak force (N)
Peak RFD (N/ms)
RFD during 0-100 ms (N/ms)
RFD during 0-200 ms (N/ms)
Squat and countermovement jumps
Peak power of SJ (W)
Peak power of SJ (W/kg)
Peak velocity of SJ (m/s)
Height of SJ (cm)
Peak power of CMJ (W)
Peak power of CMJ (W/kg)
Peak velocity of CMJ (m/s)
Height of CMJ (cm)
Drop jump
Height of jump (cm)
Reactive strength index (1)

Pretesting, M (SD)

Posttesting, M (SD)

p values

3282.1 (668.9)
19.7 (5.9)
11.7 (2.3)
9.4 (1.6)

3419.8 (541.3)
19.9 (5.6)
11.6 (2.0)
9.9 (1.5)

.263
.831

.095

3719.2 (558.9)
36.6 (4.3)
2.09 (0.3)
17.9 (2.5)
3905.5 (560.8)
38.1 (3.9)
2.23 (0.3)
19.8 (2.9)

3883.3 (563.8)
40.5 (4.9)
2.31 (0.3)
20.3 (3.1)
4125.6 (591.8)
42.4 (6.0)
2.47 (0.4)
22.7 (3.3)

.236
.032
.040
.019
.115
.026
.037
.013

21.5 (2.2)
0.83 (0.14)

22.5 (2.4)
0.85 (0.17)

.207
.464

Effect sizes

0.2

0.3

0.3
0.8
0.7
0.9
0.4
0.9
0.7
0.9

0.4
0.1

Note. RFD = rate of force development; CMJ = countermovement jump; SJ = squat jump.

kg) and BMI (from 30.7 3.3 to 30.8 3.5 kg/m2).

Obesity is associated with a lower strength-to-mass ratio
(Koster et al., 2011; Vilaa et al., 2014; Zoico et al.,
2004), and a higher muscle lipid content is associated
with compromised muscle strength and power
(Goodpaster et al., 2001; Hilton, Tuttle, Bohnert, Mueller,
& Sinacore, 2008; Sipil et al., 2004). It has been suggested that excess stored fat may limit the magnitude of
improvement after the resistance training. For example,
young adults with higher BMI and greater subcutaneous
adipose tissue surrounding the bicep exhibited an attenuated gain in bicep strength with resistance training,
despite a similar relative increase in muscle size as in
those who were normal weight or had less subcutaneous
adipose tissue (Pescatello et al., 2007; Peterson et al.,
2011). Nevertheless, the study by Nicklas et al. (2015)
identified that the addition of caloric restriction during
resistance training improves mobility and does not compromise other functional adaptations to resistance training. Resistance training improved body composition and
muscle strength and physical function in the obese. These
findings, along with the observation in the present study
support the incorporation of resistance training into obesity treatments regardless of whether caloric restriction is
part of the intervention.
On the other hand, the aerobic group failed to show any
significant improvements because the training stimuli
were not sufficient to enhance lower body muscle power.
Contrary to these findings, a significant increase was
previously identified in the absolute lower limb anaerobic
power output evaluated by means of a jumping test after
3 weeks of aerobic (A: 13.7%) and aerobic plus strength

training (AS: 18.1%), without any substantial difference

between A and AS (Sartorio, Lafortuna, Massarini, &
Galvani, 2003). The addition of strength training to A
conditioning increased maximum strength. The maximum strength increase after the body weight reduction
program determined by one maximal repetition test of
lower and upper limb muscle groups was significantly
greater in the AS group, ranging from 11.4% to 25.4%
(A) and from 26.7% to 41.8% (AS).
Kraemer et al. (1999) discovered that maximum
strength, as determined by 1-RM testing in the bench
press and squat exercise, significantly increased for a diet
group of overweight men that performed both aerobic
and strength training three times per week for 12 weeks in
both the bench press (+19.6%) and squat exercise
(+32.6%). Sarsan, Ardi, Ozgen, Topuz, and Sermez
(2006) identified that a 12-week resistance training significantly improved 1-RM test of hip abductors, quadriceps, biceps, and pectorals compared with those in the
control group. Only in the hip abductor muscle strength
was there a significant increase in the resistance compared with the aerobic exercise group.
Interestingly, 1-RM significantly correlated with total
fat (r = .56, p < 0.01), leg fat (r = .45, p < .05), and arm fat
(r = .39, p < .05; Zavin et al., 2013). A short-term (3 week)
mass reduction program (5 days/week) entailing exercise
(aerobic and strength training) and energy-restricted diet
in morbid obesity induced significant effects on body
weight changes and composition as well as on maximum
voluntary total isotonic strength and maximum leg power
output (Sartorio, Maffiuletti, Agosti, & Lafortuna, 2005).
After the intervention, maximum voluntary total isotonic

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American Journal of Mens Health

Table 5. Parameters of Strength and Power Prior to and After Aerobic Training in Overweight and Obese Men.
Pretesting, M (SD)
Maximum voluntary isometric
contraction
Peak force (N)
Peak RFD (N/ms)
RFD during 0-100 ms (N/ms)
RFD during 0-200 ms (N/ms)
Squat and countermovement jumps
Peak power of SJ (W)
Peak power of SJ (W/kg)
Peak velocity of SJ (m/s)
Height of SJ (cm)
Peak power of CMJ (W)
Peak power of CMJ (W/kg)
Peak velocity of CMJ (m/s)
Height of CMJ (cm)
Drop jump
Height of jump (cm)
Reactive strength index (1)

Posttesting, M (SD)

p values

Effect sizes

2964.1 (667.3)
23.4 (6.8)
13.2 (2.9)
10.1 (2.1)

2940.3 (605.2)
16.4 (7.1)
9.6 (4.8)
8.8 (3.0)

3778.1 (539.3)
37.6 (3.6)
2.11 (0.3)
18.4 (2.6)
3883.3 (566.7)
38.3 (4.1)
2.31 (0.3)
19.3 (2.7)

3905.5 (541.1)
39.9 (4.4)
2.28 (0.3)
20.2 (2.7)
4080.7 (585.9)
40.5 (4.9)
2.46 (0.4)
20.7 (3.1)

.372
.085
.063
.057
.124
.087
.081
.079

21.9 (2.5)
0.83 (0.15)

21.7 (2.5)
0.83 (0.16)

0.2
0.6
0.6
0.7
0.3
0.5
0.4
0.5

Note. RFD = rate of force development; CMJ = countermovement jump; SJ = squat jump.

strength improved significantly, while no change was

detected in the maximum leg power output, although the
maximum leg power output per unit body weight and fatfree mass increased significantly. In spite of the positive
correlation of maximum voluntary total isotonic strength
and maximum leg power output with fat-free mass, there
was no detectable relation between the changes in body
composition and those in motor performance. The
improvement in maximum voluntary total isotonic
strength and maximum leg power output was attributable
to factors other than muscle mass change.
The extent of the functional and health benefits to be
accrued from resistance training depends on factors such
as initial performance and health status, along with the
specification of program design variables such as frequency, duration, intensity, volume, and rest intervals
(Deschenes & Kraemer, 2002). If possible, the power
control should be taken from the parameters of a performance test (Kortmann & Schumacher, 2013). The present
study, in addition to the assessment of power outputs of
the lower limbs used in most of the studies, also evaluated the power performance of the upper limbs. There
was a significant increase in mean power in the concentric phase of countermovement bench presses at 30 kg
(18.6%), 40 kg (14.6%), and 50 kg (13.1%). These values
increased significantly also during concentric-only bench
presses at 30 kg (19.6%) and 40 kg (13.9%). Bench
presses were performed with increasing weights up to
maximal power. This approach represents a more specific
and safe method for testing power performance in the
overweight and obese than the measurement of 1-RM.

Moreover, testing can be performed in fitness centers and

training programs can be adjusted accordingly.
When trained properly (i.e., similar intensity and volume), functional and physiologic adaptations after resistance training were similarly notable among women and
the elderly as they were among young men. However, in
contrast to relative measurements, gender and age differences exist in the absolute magnitude of adaptation
(Deschenes & Kraemer, 2002). Obesity-related variations
in body composition differs considerably due to gender,
and is responsible for differences in muscle performance.
The higher muscle strength observed in obese subjects
(both men and women) and in male subjects (both obese
and normal weight) is accounted for by a greater amount
of fat-free mass (Lafortuna, Maffiuletti, Agosti, &
Sartorio, 2005). A limitation of the study was the relatively small sample size (n = 17) consisting of only male
participants in spite of the fact that 35 participants completed the training program. However, most of the female
participants underwent the aerobic training. Therefore,
there is a lack of information on changes in strength and
power performance after the resistance training in a group
of women. For this reason, these findings cannot be generalized to the broader community based on this study alone.

Conclusions
A regular 3-month resistance training in previously
untrained overweight and obese men led to an increase of
muscle power in the upper body for 16% and lower body
for 10% despite no changes in the body weight and BMI.

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Zemkov et al.

b
350

300

Mean power in the concentric phase (W)

Mean power in the concentric phase (W)

250
200
150
100
50
0
20

30

40

300
200
100
0

50

20

30

40

Weight (kg)
Pre-training

400

50

60

70

Weight (kg)

Post-training

Pre-training

b
350

Mean power in the concentric phase (W)

Mean power in the concentric phase (W)

Post-training

300
250
200
150
100
50
0
20

30

40

400
300
200
100
0

50

20

30

Weight (kg)
Pre-training

40

50

60

Weight (kg)

Post-training

Pre-training

Post-training

Figure 2. Mean power during barbell bench presses performed (a) without and (b) with countermovement before and after
(above) the resistance training and (below) the aerobic training (*p < .05).

Such improvements in power performance after a longterm sedentary lifestyle with lack of regular physical
activity, may be beneficial for this population for increasing their quality of life, decreasing the risk of falling and
a reduction in health-related consequences.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect
to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding
The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support
for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This

work was supported by the European Foundation for the Study of

Diabetes (EFSD) and Lilly Research Fellowship Programme (No.
70995), and by the Scientific Grant Agency of the Ministry of
Education, Science, Research and Sport of the Slovak Republic
and the Slovak Academy of Sciences (No. 2/0191/15).

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