INTRODUCTION

T h e m a j o r p o l l u t a n t s w e r e B i o c h e m i c a l O x yg e n D e m a n d ( B O D ) ,
Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH3-N) and Suspended Solids (SS). In 2006, 22
river basins were categorized as being polluted by BOD, 41 river basins
by NH3-N and 42 river basins by SS. High BOD was contributed largely
by untreated or partially treated sewage and discharges from agro-based
and manufacturing industries. The main sources of NH3-N were domestic
sewage and livestock farming, whilst the sources for SS were mostly
earthworks and land clearing activities.
A n a l ys i s o f h e a v y m e t a l s i n 5 , 6 1 3 w a t e r s a m p l e s r e v e a l e d t h a t a l m o s t a l l
s a m p l e s c o m p l i e d w i t h C l a s s I I I , N a t i o n a l Wat e r Q u a l i t y S t a n d a r d s f o r
arsenic (As), mercury (Hg), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), lead (Pb) and
zinc (Zn), except iron (Fe) with 83 percent compliance.
( s o u r c e : h t t p : / / w w w.w e p a - d b . n e t / p o l i c i e s / s t a t e / m a l a ys i a / r i v e r.h t m )

T h e s t a t e m e n t s a b o v e s h o w s t h e r e a l i t y o f t o d a y s w a t e r q u a l i t y,
where most of it is contaminated by heavy metals, such as lead (Pb),
mercury (Hg), Cadmium (Cd), and chlorine (Cl). The exposure and
existence of these heavy metals are apparently one of the main threats to
h u m a n s h e a l t h . T h e s e m e t a l s h a v e b e e n s t u d i e d e x t e n s i v e l y a n d t h e i r
circumstances on human health regularly reviewed by international parties
s u c h a s t h e Wor l d H e a l t h O r g a n i z a t i o n ( W H O ) .
For thousands of years have heavy metals been used by humans, and
although several adverse health effect upon exposure of these hazardous
metals are being informed to public awareness, the harmful situations are
nevertheless still going on, particularly in many not-so-developed
countries.

The perspective of people regarding the heavy metals pollution is

that it is associated only in areas where great deals of industries are

o p e r a t i n g . O n t h e c o n t r a r y, r o a d w a y s a n d a u t o m o b i l e s a r e n o w c o n s i d e r e d
as large possible sources for such hazardous heavy metals. Zinc, copper
and lead are the most common heavy metals which by chance are released
from road travels, which accounts for at least 90 percents of the total
metals in road runoff.

On the road surface, most heavy metals become bound to the

surfaces of road dust or other particulates. During precipitation, the
bound metals will either become soluble (dissolved) or be swept off the
roadway with the dust. In either case, the metals enter the soil or are
channelled into a storm drain. Whether in the soil or aquatic environment,
metals can be transported by several processes. These processes are
governed by the chemical nature of metals, soil and sediment particles,
and the pH of the surrounding environment.
( s o u r c e : h t t p : / / w w w.f a i r f a x c o u n t y.g o v / n v s w c d / n e w s l e t t e r / h e a v y m e t a l . h t m )

A s a m a t t e r o f f a c t , h e a v y m e t a l s c a n b e v e r y h a r m f u l t o o n e s
health if a drinking water containing such deadly metals is consumed. The
adverse circumstances include disturbance in growth and development,
t r i g g e r i n g c a n c e r, o r g a n d a m a g e , n e r v o u s s ys t e m d a m a g e , a n d i n e x t r e m e
cases, causing fatal.

Research shows that youngsters are more susceptible to be affected

to the toxicity of the heavy metals, as the rapidly developing body
systems in foetus, infants and young children are far more sensitive than
the adults. The effects include learning difficulties, memory impairment,
damage to the nervous system, and behavioural problems such as
h yp e r a c t i v i t y a n d a g g r e s s i v e n e s s . I r r e v e r s i b l e b r a i n d a m a g e r e s u l t s f r o m
overdose of the metals.

Humans are therefore needed to be highly aware with the harmful

e f f e c t s t h e w a t e r c o n t a i n i n g h e a v y m e t a l s c o u l d b r i n g t o o n e s h e a l t h .
Heavy metal pollution is a quickly growing problem for our oceans, lakes,

and rivers. Right now it may not be the biggest pollution problem, but just
w a i t i n g f o r i t t o g o a w a y o r t o l e t i t s o l v e i t s e l f i s n o t g o i n g t o h e l p . We
need to be aware of the problems heavy metal creates, so we all, in our
own little ways, can contribute to the solutions. Heavy metal pollution is
a threat to human health, animals, plants, and the planet itself, and is
mainly caused by industrialization and its consequences. While some of
the metal pollutants come from fertilizers and sewage, the biggest source
of heavy metal pollution definitely is industrialization.

OBJECTIVE

The objective is to determine the levels of chlorine (total and free), iron,
sulphates and phosphorus in a series of water sample and to identify if the
w a t e r s a m p l e i s c o m p l y w i t h M a l a y s i a n Wat e r S t a n d a r d .
T H E O RY

P o l l u t e d d r i n k i n g w a t e r c a n b e f o u n d a n yw h e r e . E v e n i n c i t i e s o r
countries that claim to have healthy water supplies, there are still cases
regarding polluted water because the local water may contain unique
b a c t e r i a t h a t h u m a n s b o d y i s n o t u s e d t o . U n s a f e d r i n k i n g w a t e r s o u r c e s
can spread serious diseases, such as potential water-borne illnesses like
H e p a t i t i s A, Typ h o i d F e v e r, v i r a l g a s t r o e n t e r i t i s , c h o l e r a , c y c l o s p o r i a s i s
and schistosomiasis. Most of these diseases have different types of
systems, but they all result in abdominal pain, cramping and diarrhoea.

Chlorine, for examples, is usually added to water to deactivate and

destroy disease-causing microorganisms and is the most widely used as
disinfectant in the United States. It can react with naturally occurring
o r g a n i c c o m p o u n d s f o u n d i n w a t e r s u p p l y, w h i c h i n t u r n s p r o d u c e
h a z a r d o u s c o m p o u n d s , k n o w n a s d i s i n f e c t i o n b y- p r o d u c t s ( D B P s ) .
Trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acids are common DBPs. It is

undeniably potentially carcinogenic especially to organs such as kidney

a n d l i v e r.
T h e S e c o n d a r y D r i n k i n g Wat e r R e g u l a t i o n s r e c o m m e n d a m a x i m u m
concentration of 250 mg/L for sulfate ions (SO 42-). Sulfate is in fact
occurs in almost all natural waters. Sulfate is indeed one of the major
d i s s o l v e d c o n s t i t u e n t s i n r a i n w a t e r. H i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f s u l f a t e i n
drinking water cause a laxative effect when combined with magnesium and
calcium. Bacteria which in fact attacks and reduces sulfates, causes the
formation of hydrogen sulfide gas (H 2S).
Phosphorus occurs naturally in rocks and other mineral deposits.
Tec h n i c a l l y, t h e r o c k s r e l e a s e t h e p h o s p h o r u s a s p h o s p h a t e i o n s w h i c h a r e
soluble in water and the mineralize phosphate compounds breakdown.
Phosphates (PO43-) are formed from this element. Phosphate occurs in
living and decaying plants and animals as free ions or weakly chemically
bounded in aqueous, to sediments and soils, or as mineralized compounds
in soils, rocks and sediments. The phosphorus is often scarce in the wello x yg e n a t e d w a t e r s a n d l o w l e v e l s o f p h o s p h o r u s r e s u l t s i n t h e l i m i t a t i o n
o f p r o d u c t i o n o f f r e s h w a t e r s ys t e m s . P h o s p h a t e s a r e g e n e r a l l y n o t t o x i c t o
humans or animals unless they are present in high levels of concentration.
Phosphorus pollution accelerates a process called eutrophication, which
i s e s s e n t i a l l y t h e p r o c e s s o f a l a k e s b i o l o g i c a l d e a t h d u e t o d e p l e t e d
bioavailable oxygen. (Source:
h t t p : / / w w w.s e r c o n l i n e . o r g / p h o s p h o r u s / b a c k g r o u n d . h t m l ) T h e b u i l d - u p o f
p h o s p h a t e i n t h e l a k e w a t e r o r a n y s u r f a c e w a t e r e c o s ys t e m l e a d s t o
overproduction of lake or water body which results in the imbalance in the
nutrient and material cycling process. There will be massive production of
ph ytoplankton and therefore cause variety of problems ranging from
a n o x i c w a t e r s t o t o x i c a l g a l b l o o m s a s w e l l a s d e c r e a s e i n d i v e r s i t y, f o o d
supply and destro ying the habitats. Excessive growth of algal due to
phosphorus pollution increase water treatments costs, degrades fishing
and boating activities as well as impacts tourism and property values.

The maximum contaminant level (MCLs) of iron is 0.3 mg/L. Iron

ingestion is not generally unhealthy and absolutely necessary in small
a m o u n t s . H o w e v e r, r e s e a r c h h a s f o u n d t h a t e x p o s u r e t o h i g h l e v e l s o f i r o n
can lead to heart disease, cancer and diabetes. Iron is often included in

supplements and enriched products. It also contains in red meat, therefore

easily to be consumed.
E X P E R I M E N TAL P R O C E D U R E

E x p e r i m e n t A: C h l o r i n e , Tot a l ( 0 - 2 . 0 0 m g / L ) U s i n g D P D M e t h o d

1. The stored program number for free and total chlorine (Cl 2) powder
pillow is entered. (8 0 ENTER) and display will show: Dial nm to 530
2. The wavelength dial is rotated until the screen shows the dial number
that equals to the one that recommended. When the correct dial
wavelength is dialled, the display will quickly show: Zero Sample then:
mg/L Cl2.
3. The 10-mL cell riser is inserted into the sample compartment.
4. A 10-mL sample cell is filled with 10-mL of sample.
5 . O n e c o n t e n t s o f D P D Tot a l C h l o r i n e P o w d e r P i l l o w i s a d d e d t o t h e
sample cell known as prepared sample. The sample then is covered with
stopper and shaked for 20 seconds. Stopper is then removed.
6. The SHIFT TIMER button is pressed and a three-minute reaction period
will begin.
7. Another sample cell known as the blank with 10-mL of sample is filled
a n d t h e n p l a c e d i n t o t h e c e l l h o l d e r. T h e l i g h t s h i e l d t h e n i s c l o s e d . Al l
these are done just after the timer beeps.
8. Zero button is pressed and the display will show: Zeroing then: 0.00
mg/L Cl2
9 . W it h i n t h r e e m i n u t e s a f t e r t i m e r b e e p s , t h e p r e p a r e d s a m p l e i s p l a c e
into the cell holder then the light shield is closed.
10.Read button is pressed and it will show: Reading .The result in
mg/L Cl2 will appear and then recorded.

Experiment B: Chlorine, Free (0-2.00 mg/L) Using DPD Method

1. The stored program number for free and total chlorine (Cl 2) powder
pillow is entered. (8 0 ENTER) and display will show: Dial nm to 530
2. The wavelength dial is rotated until the screen shows the dial number
that equals to the one that recommended. When the correct dial
wavelength is dialed, the display will quickly show: Zero Sample then:
mg/L Cl2.
3. The 10-mL cell riser is inserted into the sample compartment.

4. A 10-mL sample cell is filled with 10-mL of sample known as the blank
and then it is placed into the cell holder and the light is closed.
5. Zero button is pressed and the display will show: Zeroing then: 0.00
mg/L Cl2
6. Another cell is filled with the 10-mL of sample.
7. One contents of DPD Free Chlorine Powder Pillow is added to the
sample cell known as prepared sample. The sample then is covered with
stopper and shake for 20 seconds.
8. Immediately a minute after reagent addition, the stopper is removed.
The prepared sample is place into the cell holder then the light shield
is closed.
9. Read button is pressed and it will show: Reading .The result in mg/L
Cl2 will appear and then recorded.
E x p e r i m e n t C : S u l f a t e ( 0 t o 7 0 m g / L ) S u l f a Ver 4 M e t h o d

1. The stored program number for sulfate (SO42-) powder pillow is

entered. (6 8 0 ENTER or 9 ? ? ENTER) and display will show: Dial nm
to 450
2. The wavelength dial is rotated until the screen shows the dial number
that equals to the one that recommended. When the correct dial
wavelength is dialed, the display will quickly show: Zero Sample then:
mg/L SO42-.
3. A 25-mL sample cell is filled with 25-mL of sample.
4 . O n e c o n t e n t s o f S u l f a Ver 4 S u l f a t e R e a g e n t P o w d e r P i l l o w i s a d d e d t o
the sample cell known as prepared sample. The sample is swirled to
dissolve the mixture. A white turbidity is developed.
5. The SHIFT TIMER button is pressed and a five-minute reaction period
will begin. The cell is allowed to stand undisturbed.
6. Another sample cell known as the blank with 25-mL of sample is filled
a n d t h e n p l a c e d i n t o t h e c e l l h o l d e r. T h e l i g h t s h i e l d t h e n i s c l o s e d . Al l
these are done just after the timer beeps.
7. Zero button is pressed and the display will show: Zeroing then: 0.
mg/L SO42-.
8 . W it h i n f i v e m i n u t e s a f t e r t i m e r b e e p s , t h e p r e p a r e d s a m p l e i s p l a c e i n t o
the cell holder then the light shield is closed.
9. Read button is pressed and it will show: Reading .The result in mg/L
SO42- will appear and then recorded.
Experiment D: Phosphorus, Reactive (0-2.50 mg/L PO43-) Using Phos
Ver 3 ( A s c o r b i c Ac i d ) M e t h o d

1. The stored program number for reactive phosphorus, ascorbic acid

method, powder pillows is entered. (4 9 0 ENTER) and display will
show: Dial nm to 890
2. The wavelength dial is rotated until the screen shows the dial number
that equals to the one that recommended. When the correct dial
wavelength is dialed, the display will quickly show: Zero Sample then:
mg/L PO43- PV
3. The 10-mL cell riser is inserted into the sample compartment.
4. A 10-mL sample cell is filled with 10-mL of sample.
5 . O n e c o n t e n t s o f P h o s Ver 3 P h o s p h a t e P o w d e r P i l l o w i s a d d e d t o t h e
s a m p l e c e l l k n o w n a s p r e p a r e d s a m p l e . An d t h e n i t i s s w i r l e d
immediately to mix.
6. The SHIFT TIMER button is pressed and a two-minute reaction period
will begin.
7. Another sample cell known as the blank with 10-mL of sample is filled
a n d t h e n p l a c e d i n t o t h e c e l l h o l d e r. T h e l i g h t s h i e l d t h e n i s c l o s e d . Al l
these are done just after the timer beeps.
8. Zero button is pressed and the display will show: Zeroing then: 0.00
mg/L PO43- PV
9. The prepared sample is place into the cell holder then the light shield
is closed.
10.
Read button is pressed and it will show: Reading .The result in
m g / L P O 4 3 - w i l l a p p e a r a n d t h e n r e c o r d e d t h e r e s u l t s o f f o r m s P, P O 4 3 and P2O5.

E x p e r i m e n t E : I r o n , Tot a l ( 0 - 3 . 0 0 m g / L ) U s i n g F e r r o Ver M e t h o d
1 . T h e s t o r e d p r o g r a m n u m b e r f o r i r o n ( F e ) F e r r o Ver p o w d e r p i l l o w i s
entered. (2 6 5 ENTER) and display will show: Dial nm to 510
2. The wavelength dial is rotated until the screen shows the dial number
that equals to the one that recommended. When the correct dial
wavelength is dialed, the display will quickly show: Zero Sample then:
m g / L F e F V.
3. The 10-mL cell riser is inserted into the sample compartment.
4. A 10-mL sample cell is filled with 10-mL of sample.
5 . O n e c o n t e n t s o f F e r r o Ver I r o n R e a g e n t P o w d e r P i l l o w i s a d d e d t o t h e
sample cell known as prepared sample and then swirled to mix.
6. The SHIFT TIMER button is pressed and a three-minute reaction period
will begin.
7. When the timer beeps, the display will show: mg/L Fe FV and another
sample cell known as the blank with 10-mL of sample is filled.
8 . T h e n p l a c e d i n t o t h e c e l l h o l d e r. T h e l i g h t s h i e l d t h e n i s c l o s e d .
9. Zero button is pressed and the display will show: Zeroing then: 0.00
mg/L Fe FV

10.

W it h i n t h i r t y m i n u t e s a f t e r t i m e r b e e p s , t h e p r e p a r e d s a m p l e i s p l a c e
into the cell holder then the light shield is closed.
11.
Read button is pressed and it will show: Reading .The result in
mg/L iron will appear and then recorded.

Experim ent F: Chrom ium , Hexavalent (0-0.60 mg/L Cr6+) Using 1,5Diphenylcarbohydrazide Method

1. The stored program number for chromium hexavalent ( Cr6+) is entered.

(9 0 ENTER) and display will show: Dial nm to 540
2. The wavelength dial is rotated until the screen shows the dial number
that equals to the one that recommended. When the correct dial
wavelength is dialed, the display will quickly show: Zero Sample then:
mg/L Cr6+
3. The 10-mL cell riser is inserted into the sample compartment.
4. A 10-mL sample cell is filled with 10-mL of sample.
5 . O n e c o n t e n t s o f C h r o m a Ver 3 R e a g e n t P o w d e r P i l l o w i s a d d e d t o t h e
s a m p l e c e l l k n o w n a s p r e p a r e d s a m p l e . An d t h e n i t i s s w i r l e d
immediately to mix.
6. The SHIFT TIMER button is pressed and a five-minute reaction period
will begin.
7. Another sample cell known as the blank with 10-mL of sample is filled.
When the timer beeps, the display will show: mg/L Cr6+ and then placed
i n t o t h e c e l l h o l d e r.
8. Zero button is pressed and the display will show: Zeroing then: 0.00
mg/L Cr6+
9. The prepared sample is place into the cell holder then the light shield
is closed.
10.
Read button is pressed and it will show: Reading .The result in
m g / L C r 6 + w i l l a p p e a r a n d t h e n r e c o r d e d t h e r e s u l t s o f f o r m s P, P O 4 3 and P2O5.

A P PAR ATU S / R E A G E N T S

Apparatus

Pour-Thru Cell
Portable Spectrophotometer DR 2400
250 ml Erlenmeyer flask
10-mL and 25-mL cell riser
Clippers
25-mL graduated cylinder
Reagents

Sample water
D P D Tot a l C h l o r i n e P o w d e r P i l l o w
DPD Free Chlorine Powder Pillow
S u l f a Ver 4 S u l f a t e R e a g e n t P o w d e r P i l l o w
P h o s Ver 3 P h o s p h a t e P o w d e r P i l l o w
F e r r o Ver I r o n R e a g e n t P o w d e r P i l l o w
C h r o m a Ver 3 R e a g e n t P o w d e r P i l l o w

R E S U LT

Substance

Reagent

Chlorine,
total

DPD total
chlorine
powder
pillow
DPD free
chlorine
powder
pillow
Sulfa ver 4
reagent
powder
pillow
Phos ver 3
phosphate
powder
pillow
Ferro ver
Iron reagent
powder
pillow
Chroma ver 3
powder
pillow

Chlorine,
free

Sulfate

Phosphorus
reactive

Iron

Chromium
Hexavalent

Colour of
solution

Range (mg/L)

Result
(mg/L)

Colourless

0.02 2.00

0.36

Colourless

0.02 2.00

0.10

2.0 70.0

25.0

0.02 2.50

0.43

Light orange
solution is
formed

0.02 3.00

0.96

Colourless

0.01 0.70

0.00

Slightly
cloudy
solution is
formed
Pale blue
solution is
formed

S A M P L E C A L C U L ATI O N S

S a m p l e 1 C h l o r i n e , Tot a l ( C l 2 )
The concentration of Chlorine (Cl2)

= 0.36 mg/L

The volume of a sample

The mass of Chlorine (Cl2)

= 10ml/1000 = 0.01 L
= 0.36 mg/L x 0.01 L
= 3.6 x 10 -3 mg

Sample 2 Chlorine Free (Cl 2)

The concentration of Chlorine Free (Cl 2) = 0.10 mg/L
The volume of sample
The mass of Chlorine Free (Cl 2)

= 10 ml/1000

= 0.01 L

= 0.10 mg/L x 0.01 L

= 1.0 x 10-3 mg

Sample 3 Sulfate (SO42-)

The concentration of Sulfate (SO 42-) = 25.00 mg/L
The volume of sample
The mass of Sulfate (SO 42-)

= 10 ml/1000 = 0.01 L
= 25.00 mg/L x 0.01 L
= 0.25 mg

Sample 4 Phosphorus, Reactive

The concentration of Phosphorus, Reactive = 0.43 mg/L
The volume of sample
The mass of Phosphorus, Reactive

= 10 ml/1000

= 0.01 L

= 0.43 mg/L x 0.01 L

= 4.3 10 -3 mg

S a m p l e 5 I r o n Tot a l ( F e )

The concentration of Fe

= 0.96 mg/L

The volume of sample = 10 ml/1000

The mass of Fe

= 0.01 L

= 0.96 mg/L x 0.01 L

= 9.6 10 -3 mg

Sample 6 Chromium, Hexavalent (Cr 6+)

The concentration of Chromium, Hexavalent
The volume of sample

= 0.00 mg/L

= 0.01 L

The mass of Chromium, Hexavalent

= 0.00 mg/L x 0.01 L

= 0.00 mg

DISCUSSION

Based on the results obtained, there are certain errors that might
have been done without purpose and thus lead to erroneous data.

First and foremost, the reading for each sample is only done once.
Nevertheless, lack of instruments and long time consuming factors evade
from taking at least two readings for each sample, and therefore an
average value cannot be obtained to ensure the accuracy and precision of
the results.

Next, the improper handling of the round water sample may also
c a u s e d i n a c c u r a t e r e a d i n g s . Any fingerprints or smudge imprinted on the outer
surface of the round water sample can become an unfavourably interference for
the solutions to absorb wavelengths of light in the spectrophotometer. Thus, the
reading of concentrations by the instruments may not be accurate.

Besides, some of the samples are supposedly be immediately inserted into

the spectrophotometer after being poured in their corresponding reagents. Thus,

any careless procedures or unobservant may lead to inaccuracy of the readings

taken.

CONCLUSION

The concentrations of chlorine total in the water sample is 0.36 mg/L,

Chlorine free is 0.10 mg/L, Sulfate is 25.0 mg/L, Phosphorus reactive is 0.43
mg/L, Iron is 0.96 mg/L and Chromium Hexavalent is 0.00 mg/L. Based on the
following data, the water sample is mostly concentrated with sulfate and
contains no chromium hexavalent, which explains the colourless solution
formed, indicating no change or reaction occurs to detect any presence of
chromium in the water sample. Nevertheless, the exceeding value of
concentration of phosphorus reactive and iron, which is 0.1 mg/L and 0.3 mg/L
respectively, requires extensive water treatment, as it might worriedly brings
any health effects to both humans and aquatic ecosystems.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Firstly, the outside surface of the round water sample is best wiped first
before inserted into the spectrophotometer. This is to ensure that there are no
fingerprints on it which might interfere the reading analysis.

Secondly, the sample must be analyzed immediately after collection and

cannot be kept for later analysis. This is because the heavy metals content of the
water sample might differ from the time it is collected until it is analyzed.

In addition, the collection of the water sample is preferentially near the

middle of the water stream and at least at one arms length of depth. This is
because; most heavy metals are bounded at inner depth of any water streams.

REFERENCES
1 . h t t p : / / w w w.w a t e r - r e s e a r c h . n e t / g l o s s a r y.h t m
2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexavalent_chromium
3 . h t t p : / / w w w.h e a l t h y - w a t e r - b e s t - f i l t e r s . c o m / h e a v y - m e t a l s - w i t h i n w a t e r.h t m l
4 . h t t p : / / w w w.f r e e d r i n k i n g w a t e r.c o m / w a t e r - e d u c a t i o n / q u a l i t y - w a t e r heav ymeatal.htm
5 . h t t p : / / w w w.l e n n t e c h . c o m / p e r i o d i c / w a t e r / c h r o m i u m / c h r o m i u m - a n d w a t e r.h t m
6. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorination
APPENDICES

DPD Total Chlorine Powder

Pillow

Sulfa Ver 4 Sulfate Reagent

Phos Ver 3 Phosphate

Ferro Ver Iron Reagent

Powder Pillow

Powder

DPD Free Chlorine Powder

Pillow

Chroma Ver 3 Reagent Powder

Pillow

Graduated Cylinder

Portable Spectrophotometer
DR 2400.