MATHEMATICAL

TRACTS

PAET

I.

BY

F.
EMERITUS
HONORARY

W.
PROFESSOR
FELLOW

NEWMAN,
OP
OF

M.RA.S.

UNIVERSITY
WORCESTER

Cambridge
MACMILLAN

COLLEGE,

AND

COLLEGE,

BOWES.

1888

[All Rights reserved.]

LONDON

OXFORD.

TKACT

ON

THE

BASES

I.

OF

GEOMETRICAL

GEOMETRY

WITH

TREATMENT

THE

J^l.

OF

CONTENTS.

(1)

On

(2)

Primary

(3)

Definition

and

Properties

of

the

Straight

(4)

Definition

and

Properties

of

the

Plane.

(5)

Parallel

(6)

On

the

Treatment
of

Straight

the

Volume

IN

the
to

laws
be

THE

learned,
of

the

series.
better

is

in

vary

imply

must

at

length

vary

may

radius
be

of

and

different
N,

If

or

Plane

and

but

Angle.

another,

to

in

of

of

and

ought
the

geometry

infinite

suffice.

perhaps

proportion,

special treatment,

unless

converging

Another,

VARIABLE

radius

of

the

kind,

say,

to

possibly

quantitu

".

geometrical quantity

some

prescribed

some

circle

be

may

circle

length

of

length

In

of

circumference

imagine

to

quantities varying

two

together: they

in

Sphere.

of

ratio

argument

according

size

circumference.

the

of

geometry;

the

than

simpler

least

the

Area

introduction

the

by

proportionals

to

may

equilateral triangle change

changes.

of

in

of

proposed.

is

shape

Infinite

requires

decimals

be

Nothing

Poles
Line.

Cone.

ideas

set

grounded

open

here

will

2.
to

well

Repeating
way,

which

first

one

Incommensurable.

INCOMMENSURABLES.

OF

preliminary

as

the

and

incommensurables

be

learner

Pyramid

from

Circle.

on

RATIO

Quantities

and

based

the

passage

between

Sphere

Lines

arithmetic

of

doctrine

the

of the

I.

1.

of Ratio

Ideas

increase

general

is each
an

side, its
diminish,

in

same

length;

area.

In

the

two

general

Is..
the

and
as

"

an

does

so

kind,
or

if

area

magnitudes

two

the

either

and

or

This

Thus,

together.
its

law.

Y
the

may

it
1

is

VARIABLES

notation

convenient

WHICH

INCREASE

that when

to suppose

changesto X',

changes

r.

to

Again, if X

3.

receive successive

obvious

An

'Vny 'i2/*2/3--

if the

notice; namely,

and

the

of

the

be the

to

arcs

it

which

sector

are
y^yz which
of Y.
be equal increments

the

Y increase

We

4.

in

Then

the

by
the

arc

and

illustration,
pose
sup-

area

if

X,

arc

will

x^
X

and

togetheruniformly.
establish

now

may

variables X

The

obvious

an

of the

bounded

sectors

the sector

...

bounds, evidentlythen

equal increments

are

#,,#"

and
circle,

by

will deserve

=#") induces equality

"

=yn).

...

uniformly. As

of

arc

x3

responding
cor-

that equality
regulated,

so

(i.e.
#^=3^=

set; (i.e.
y^=yz=y^=

then said to increase

are

are

a^ayCg ...#", the

well denoted
to Y are
if it occur,

simple case,

variables

two

in the first set of additions

in the second

additions

(ifadditions they be)

additions

or

UNIFORMLY.

whether

alike

geometry,

highlyconvenient for application

quantitiesare commensurable

theorem

incommensurable.
THEOREM.

If X

"

and

are

variables,which

connected

any two
increase

uniformly; then X
beginfrom zero together,and
In other words, if Y become
Y' when
to Y.
proportionably
X', then X

is to X'

comes
be-

Y is to FV

as

and X' commensurable,

Proof. First,suppose

varies

and

common

f (m times f) and X'

n". We may then suppose
of
and X' made
time
additions
Every
f
up by repeated
increment
has the increment
", Y will receive a uniform
X=

or

measure,

that
which

we

is of

Y is always the

call v\ then

may

f; thus the equationX

X' is not

Next, when

multipleof X,
times, but

Hence

impliesY'=nv.

such

less than

n%

X'=m

(when the four magnitudes are

m

times

and

assuming nv=
l"-s than

X and
fulfilled,

Y,

;
=

evidentlywe
Y

not

increase

n^

cannot

snh-

some

than

"///

have

presented to us) unless, as

we

Y'.

X, yet f is
X' contains f more

find

(m+ 1) times: and

Y would

that

X'

and

with

X, and

X'

: n=

1) times
X

condition,on

mj; impliesY=mv,

commensurate

that

(m

multipleof

same

Y' to contain

more

unless tin's condition

uniformly. We

may

first

than
were

therefore

DISTANCE

X9X8

assume

likewise

Then

OR

oppositesides

on

SHORTEST

of

F2F3 on oppositesides

by

the

first case

X', with values

of

have

PATH.

F',with

values

F2 and X : X3= Y : F3.

But
increase,then f
X^-X^j;, and F3" F2=u. Let n perpetually
lessen.
and v perpetually
Xz and Xz run togetherin X', F2 and \\
run
togetherin Y'. Thus each of the ratios X : Xz and X : X3 falls
into X : X', and each of the ratios F : F2) F : F3 falls into F : )".
Inevitablythen,

we

X'

Y',

Xz

when

even

these

last

mensurate.
incom-

are

Q.E.D.

II.
For

the

PRIMARY

IDEAS

convenience

OF

SPHERE

THE

POSTULATES
beginners,

of

CIRCLE.

AND

be ad

may

van

cvd

concerning the straightline and the plane,as well as concerning

But in the second stage of study the whole
lines.
parallel
straight
is
from the beginning:a task which
topicought to be treated anew
here assumed.

Length and

On
THEOREM.

"

this clear,it is

All

Distance.

numericallycomparable."To make
thin, flexible
imagine a thread indefinitely

lengthsare

simplestto

appliedupon any given line,will become an

of its length;and if any two lines be then measured
exact
measure
shewing either
comparable,
by two threads,the threads are directly
inextensible. This,if

and

they are equal,or that one is longer than the

safelyassert the same
longer. Hereby we

that
much

and

ln"w

fact concerning

givenlengths.
that i
Obviously,lengthis continuous magnitude: which means,
throw jh ail
pointP run along from A to B, the lengthAP passes

any

other

two

magnitudefrom
THEOREM.

by

one

zero

to AB.

Any

two

path which

is

some

would

limit to the
not

than

is shorter

equalpaths than which

pathsjoiningthem some

either

space may be joined

or
other possible,
by si'\

given pointsin
other is

none

must

be

the
shortening,

be two, but would

any
so

short.

For

of all

long; yet
needlessly
distance

would

coincide and become

possible

unless

there

be nil; the |"

one.

1"2

DEF.
ire

path

shortest

THE

SPHERE.

that

joinstwo

The

of their DISTANCE.

surfaces that do not

always to be
A

round
s""lid
(

at the same

be

second

distance from

is called

enclosed

mass

touch

its locus will be

therefore

and

point A

fixed

lie on

must

given surface;

given,and

we

speak of

surfaces.

the shortest distance of the two

Assume

same

joinsthem

the line that

given pointsand
or
again,if two

pointsin space gives a

if the two
argument applies,

SPHERE

it.
a

point S

so

movable

It will be able to

surface

play all
The

enclosingA.

(Globe or

as

Ball) and

its

'KNTRE.

Every pointoutside the sphere is further from the

and every pointwithin the sphereis nearer
to the centre, than
centre
For if T be an
the pointson the surface."
exterior point,every
are
fore
point$; therepath joiningT to A must piercethe surface in some
is longerthan SA by the interval TS.
the path TSA
Again, if
R be within the sphere,
we
imagine an interior sphere whose
may
is at the common
from
distance AR
surface
Then
A.
8 being
exterior to the new
sphere,SA is longerthan RA ; that is,R within
the sphereof S is nearer
to A than is the locus of 8.
Q. E. D.
"

THEOREM.

Two

DEF.
a

solid called

such concentric
a

For

within

their surfaces

shell.
spherical
"The

THEOREM.
other."

spheresenclose

two

surfaces

if the shortest distance

each
equidistant,
from a pointS to the

are

from

inner

the
face
sur-

is the

path SR, symmetry all round shews at once that if from a

second pointS' the shortest path will be S'R', the two distances SR,
S'R' will be equal. Indeed
it is not amiss to remark, that if any
surface be rigidly
attached to its centre, the entire surface
spherical
glideon its own
ground without disturbingits centre, because
may
th"- distances SA, S'A nowhere
change. Hence also we may justly
imagine the sphericalshell to glideon its own
ground, while the
suffers no displacement,
centre
and any shortest path S'R joining
the oppositesides of the shell may
the place which
assume
was
h
eld
Actual superposition
thus attests equality
of
previously
by SR.
nee.

"If

TIIK"II:F:M.
For
from

the

if

an

surface, its

tins, at distance

mined."
sphericalsurface be given,its centre is deterinner pointR be assumed
/)
,-it a ^ivcn distance

focus

is

//. imagine

interior continuous

an

point

I\' to

surface.

^vnerafe

Witliin

second

c.,n

POLES

tinuous

surface,and
The

towards

because

the

we

PARALLEL

it will be

series of

of the

sum

The

tinually.
precedingand so connecessarily
converge

will be the centre

is the same,

argument

same

then

must

distances

CIRCLES.

interior to the

surfaces

singlepoint,which

calculate.

concentric

AND

of the
from

that

proves

given surface,

whichever

all the

point

surfaces

are

spheres.

Poles
THEOREM.

To

of

Sphere.

pointon a sphere one oppositepoint lies

For if the pointP be
at the longestdistance along the surface."
given,and we take a point$ at any distance from P alongthe surface,
and

"

suppose

to

every

vary

under

the

condition

sole

that

its distance

(alongthe surface)shall not change,the locus of $ is a selfrejoiningline enclosingP. (We call this a circle.)Next, beyond
without
S, along the surface, take a new
point T, which moves
changing its distance from S and from P. This generates an outer
circle,
cuttingoff a part of the surface which was beyond the circle
of S.
form
third circle,and this
a
Beyond this we may similarly
series of circles ever
sarily
area
beyond it,will neceslesseningthe finite
the sphere. P will then be
towards a point Q on
converge
farther from Q (alongthe sphere)than
circles.
any of these parallel
We
call P and Q opposite
polesof the sphere. The distance between
them is evidently
the halfgirthof the sphere.
oppositepole;
Every pointon the sphere has not only its own
middle
circles. The
but also its system of equidistant
(or parallel)
is
the two
from
of these (that is,the one
poles),
one
equidistant
from

called their equator.

If in

equator whose

an

poles are

and

Q,

fix

If you

unmoved,

you

by Q.
the

Thus

This

THEOREM.

the
"

If P

to

pass

over

to

the

point
point

second

centre

site held

viously
pre-

place previouslyheld by
exchangeable,while the sphere as a whole
carries

same

one
oppositepoles,

both."

suppose

may

poles are

unchanged and

not

fix any

a
proceedinghalf round the equator
D are evidently
oppositepoles.
imagine a sphereto glideon its own ground,with

0, and then
D, C and

you

to

equator
and

the

P.
is

is attained.

be any

equator,and

two
one

pointson a spherethat are

only,passes through them

STRAIGHT

THE

LINE.

Proof. Through P and its oppositepoleQ (justas above through

If this half equator PQ
the polesC and D) an
equator may pass.
attached to the fixed centre
become
A, it still
rigidand be rigidly
surface (without change of P or Q)
the spherical
over
may sweep
until it passes through R ; but after passingonce
through E, it does
not

back

corne

it,except in

to

III.

second

POINTS

revolution.

Q. E. D.

EVENLY.

LYING

Euclid, the line whose

In Simson's

points lie evenlyis called

phrase lyingevenly is not explained.We can

; but the

STRAIGHT

"

"

explainit.

now

the

When

poles P

two

and

Q,

and

the

A, all remain

centre

unchanged,nevertheless each of the parallelcircles associated

r and Q can
glideon their own ground. Evidentlythen, if P
A

fixed,this suffices

be

fixes A.

These

"

rotation,which
A, Q

suppose
P with Q.

generate

may

within this

Again

by

Then

line

is

rotation round

see

that

through A,
remains

line without

mere

And
now

This

circle

spins

every

pointin

and

may

discover that between

continuous

thickness

It is called

immovable.

since P

internal to the

so

may

on

the innermost

connects

line,while

with

representany
two

there is a

can

solid,we

Q and

passes

and

the

two

We

now

infer that

1.

Any

two

2.

Every part of

pointsin
a

space

and its

can

line
straight

"

we

unique line lyingevenly.

talk of rotation round

StraightLine

Q.

pointsin space,
it,is entitled

call it simply STRAIGHT.

we
axis; but ordinarily

On

during rotation
only turn about

this axis lies evenlybetween

any
we

axis,and

an

generate

Since
continually.

line is interior to all the solids and

which

itself. Hence

PMQ

P, A, Q

thinningof

limit to the constant

no

each

if the system revolve round

third surface interior to the preceding; and

tliere

while

surface within the sphere.

self-rejoining
line PNQ
P with
connect
a rigid
may

surface

new

PNQ

line

Q, and the

fact

that

Now

connects
sphererigidly

P, A, Q, PMQ

In

can

all fixed.

are

Q.

and

onlyspinround itself.Also, to fix P arid Q

circles excellently
define to us the idea of
parallel
is a constrained motion, still possible,
when P,
even

line,Q

its own

round

fix

to

with

Direction."

be

joinedby

is

straight.

line.
straight

an

THE

3.

4.

Any part of

line
unique straight
given.

are

PLANE.

is

determined,when

line,if removed,
straight

its two

end-points

take the

may

placeof
straight

it easilyfollows that a
Hence
equal part of the same.
will prolongitselfindefinitely
line,glidingalong itself,
far,either
along a determinate course.
any

able to

sharpen our
might say vaguely, Imagine a path
guidance. But
is,without particular
We

are

now

"

straightline

be drawn, it

of indefinite
itself,

idea

to proceedin any

This

see, that

we

now

pointsto

extent.

of direction.

definite

entitle

we

changed,a deviation there occurs,

recognizedat the point of deviation. The
kind
of magnitude, which
suggests a new
it suffices to remark

Now

attention.

the

on

Hitherto

we

direction" that
if

ever

short

so

beyond
prolongation

its direction.

direction be

way,

and

deviation

of

presentlyneed

in which

case

is

sharp corner

amount

will

If this

line

new

equallyfrom a previousline PA and from AQ the prolongation

to become
is tested by imaginingAZ
The equality
of PA.
ZA
if P and Q revolve in the same
axis of a sphere. Then
circle,
an
It is called perpendicular
and to AQ.
to
is equallyinclined to AP
EvidentlyZ (on the sphere)is at the distance of a quarter
PAQ.
girthfrom every pointof the equator traced by P and Q.
deviates

AZ

We

by

centre

to

return

the

sphere.

its half

(AP

or

AQ)

is called

If
is the

an

out

equator CDEG

is

the

trace

surface in which

out

between

the

PQ,

diameter

is

CAD

equator,while

equator

so

too

the

This is true, whatever

Therefore
the

equal; and
greaterthe sphere.
the polesP, Q, and

sphere are

same

midway

for C.

are

radius.

pole oppositeto C, then as the

CD, passes through centre A.
extremities

this passes
diameter of the

joined
through the
sphere,and

polesP, Q

that

seen

spheresthe greater the radius, the

the equator is assumed

whose

two

any

is called

Evidently all the radii of

different

When

been

straightline,it has
A.
The line PAQ

PLANE.

THE

IV.

lies.

This

the

of

meter
dia-

pointin

varyingdiameter,
diameter

traces

surface is called

circle.
is the planeof the equatorial
particular
while the
that P and Q might exchange places,
It was
seen
remain
unchanged.
centre
A, and the sphere'ssurface as a whole,
It is
Necessarilyalso the plane of the equator remains unchanged.

PLANE, and

in

then

HULED

PLANK

Till:

symmetricalon

HY

LINE.

STRAIGHT

its

oppositesides,or in popularlanguage,the
plane turns the ^mne
face towards P as towards Q.
is called perpendicularto the plane of the equator,
The axis PAQ
circle.
to- every radius of the equatorial
g perpendicular
THEOREM.

No

"

other line but AP

be

can

to
perpendicular

the

plane of the equator,}*

Proof.

be

For if AR

other radius of the

one
sphere,some
and
whose
parallelcircles,
pole is P, passes through R,
every
circle than is the poleP.
to the equatorial
pointof this circle is nearer

of

some

the

Theivt""iv
of the

in the
It has

The

pass.

from

fact

sphere'sgirth,a

THEOREM.
not

of R

the distance

which

shews

RA

not

to

quarter

be

dicular.
perpen-

Through any two radii AP, AR of a sphere,that are

same
line,one planeand one only may pass."
straight
Urn
that through P and R only one
seen
equator can
plane of this equator is the plane that passes through
"

radii.

the two

THEOREM.

"

Cardinal

Property of

If M

and

are

any

joinsM

straightline which

in the

the equator is less than

the Plane.

pointsin

two

and

plane,no

lie offthe

can

point
plane on

cither side."

suffices to establish this truth.

Symmetry

line is meant

data to fix what

point of

it should

towards

than

towards

line

whole

other; for the

pointsM, Ny

lie off the

Q.

Thus

one

hypothesis
supplies
givesno reason
why any
side rather

is determined

neither

of which

by MN,
plane on

but

Our

there

can

is

than

by merely the
guide any pointtowards
for
no
adequate reason

on

the

extreme

rather

deviation

either side.

Symmetry

of

data

is in other

mathematical

topicsacceptedas

adequate argument for symmetry of results. Otherwise, "the

for diversity"
of sufficient
reason
passes as refutation of alleged
sity. Therefore the argument here presentedhas nothingreally

an

want

novel.

We

have

now

new

method

of

generating a plane that shall

through two intersecting

straightlines LM, MN.
Along
and
let a point E run,
a
similarly
along MN
point F. Join
of E and of F continues.
Then EF
while the motion
(by the
pass

ML
EF
last

THE

PLANE

EVERYWHERE

LIKE

ITSELF.

Theorem) always continues to rest on the plane LMN.

generatingthe plane supersedesthe idea of rotation.
we

might

THEOREM.
For

ME

suppose

if

"

MF

to retain

plane has

This
For

mode

of

simplicity

fixed ratio.

unique point or centre."

no

from

given sphericalradii AP, AR

through
which
and
(equatorial)
plane,in AP take M arbitrarily,
passes an
in AR
take N arbitrarily.
Then we
have seen
that the locus of the
is our
moving line MN
given plane. But again,in this plane take
Then
from the
a fixed point 0, and
join 0 to fixedpointsM and N.
start

we

lines OM,

ON

which

glideon

A
The
so

can

can

is

plane
with

to

pass

the

ground

the

as

pointof the

from

impediment

logicforbids

of parallelstraightlines,to
difficulty
the definition of an angle.
remark
on

Above,

change of

sharp corner

direction.

turn

or

In

we

point
whole.

sphere,

passing to the

our

arrested

are

which

it has the

geometry

the

of

name

the

by

proceed, after

identified with

was

the

unique.

Geometry, until

Plane

of

surface is

with

as

plane,

same

very

sphere did ; thus

changing the ground or surface as

own

without

plane,no

routine

received

its

the sphere is finite ; but

infinite,

this,no

After

(as in the last)generate the

can

we

one

deviation,or
an

angle,and

tends
magnitude by aid of the circular arc which it subBut no insuperable
at the centre
or
by the sector of that arc.
logicforbids our estimatingthe magnitude of an angleby the portion
it interceptsfrom
of the infinite
which
a
area
plane; which indeed
is suggestedby a perpetualelongationof the radius of the circle
of the angle.
assumed
whose
measure
sector was
as
we

its

measure

Monsieur

adequate to
without

new

any
in

attention

axiom

Euclid's Twelfth

equivalentof

the

demonstrate

(1837) adopted this definition

Paris

in

Vincent

this

Has

all.

at

method

as

Axiom

received

due

England ?

Monsieur

Vincent

suggest acceptingthe
straightlines,as the
intersecting

the

not

was

plane area cut off by two

infinite
of the angle which
they
measure
first to introduce

that obtained

the method

acceptance

in

into
so

first to

enclose
a

an

perhaps he

was

the

Elementary Geometry,
institution as the University

treatise

high

but
on

of France.
Two

natural.

lemmas

alone

are

wanted, and these

every

beginnerwill find

10

PROOF

LEMMA

OF

TWELFTH

Tin;

"Every angle is a
that is,some
finite multipleof it
which
subtends
it,is always some

AXIOM.

finite fraction of

I.

exceeds

For

90".

rightangle;"

the circular

finite fraction of the

arc

quarter of

the circumference.
DEF.

in the

straightlines AM, BN
both perpendicular
line AB,
to a third straight
the planearea
which is enclosed between
MA,
When

LEMMA
UK

two

Then, I say, whatever

II.

of the band

area

is less than any

same

call that

we

AB

the breadth
finite fraction

and

BN

plane are
portionof
a

BAND.

(AB) of the band,

of a rightangle.

to X, and
Proof. Prolong AB
along it take any
indefinitely
of equal lengthsAB
number
CD
BC
DE, "c., and through
G, D, E... draw perpendicularto ABODE...
straightlines CO, DP,
.c.
tion.
Evidentlythen the successive bands are equal,by superposiThus, whatever multipleof the first band be deducted from
off by the right angle MAX,
the plane area
marked
the loss is
iiiM nsible ; for,as remainder,we
find the area
off still by a
marked
deducted). Any
rightangle (such as QEX, if only four bands were
two
which
be identified by supercan
rightangles embrace areas
position,
=

and

have

appreciabledifference.

no

The

matter

may

be

summed
is infinite in
concisely
up by remarking, that every band
direction only, say, horizontallybut the area
embraced
one
by any
cally.
and also vertirightangle is infinite in both directions,
horizontally
Thus it is no paradox to say, that no
finite multipleof the
band can, by its deduction
from the area
of the rightangle,lessen
"

that

infinite area

"

in

Euclid's Twelfth
MABN

estimate.

our

be any band

Axiom
;

angleNBA, any
11 be
prolongedso
prolongationof AM.

is

Q.E.D.

now

and, within the right

line BT
straight

'r.'H-tionof
i li"-ban"l

the

J//;.LY

angle NBT
AM

immediate

an

far
For

as

as

I cannot

am

we

be drawn,

the

meet

to

angle NBT

the

is less than

any

is greater than
be

Unite
the

band

Thus

ials"

fraction of the same;

MABN,
of

do cross,

If

right Jin-lf,while

this would

corollary
; viz.

but

necessitythe

hence

unK-ss
two

/""/'

lines

assertril.

see

any

forced to abandon

new

axiom

involved

several other

in this

proof:therefore
speciousmethods and give it

VOLUME

preference. Surely we
of France

in such

The
and

of Pyramids

of this

topicin Euclid
improvement.

much

in the

11

authorityof

and

the

University

other, then

Cones.

is very

that
first,
parallelepipeda
prove
the length of one
edge,which we

solelyin
x

the

to

For

1.

and

bow

may

the Volume

treatment

it admits

PARALLELEPIPEDON.

matter.

On

OF

their volumes

clumsy. It

if two

such
call

may
in

are

the

demands

solids differ
in the

one

proportion of

a.

Next, if

2.
round

it

volumes
3.

base and
4.

in

are
are

they
one

in the

have
xy

solid

y, zt

in the

and

proportionof

angle

xyz

in common,
other

but

the

a, b, c, then

edges

the two

abc.

the
on
easilyshewn that parallelepipeda
equalheighthave equalvolumes.
this it is

After

Therefore

measured

its

by

that the volume

finally,
base x its height. Con.

of

is
parallelepipedon

The

same

is true

same

of any

prism.
From
5.

this

we

Divide

proceedto approximateto

the volume

of

pyramid.

height(h)into (n) equal parts by (n" 1) planes

the

parallelto the base (B). Establish, on these (n 1) bases,

upright walls, and you will find you have constituted a double
interior to the pyramid, one
exterior; the
system of prisms,one
of the other system. Every
latter has the lowest prism in excess
of a pyramid. The
other, by the nature
base is similar to every
all

volume
the

same

6.

here of every

prism is

for all,but the base

The

base

whose

its

base, the number

and

being

varying.

distance

the

from

vertex

is -.h, is to the

r2

original(B)
volume

as

of the

r2

n2; hence

its

prism standing on

is

area

it

which
jji"ft

(^BJ
.

the

Hence

the

volumes

by omitting ?i2from

the numerator

is

"

of the

of

sum

l2 + 22 + 32+...+ rca h
of the external prisms

the

givesfor

largerfraction

we

#,

obtain

\'2

YoU'Mi:

thi-

Mm

volumes

""t'

when

It, /"

of

the

interior:

be

fj,

32

22 +

less

exterior

the

volume

the

than

greater

its

for

pyramid

the

of

volume

the

But

the

of

difference

and

system

the

has

the

infinite.

is

.,'

infinite,

since

Now

prisms.

when

system

indefinitely.

the

numerical

unknown

limit

which

to

the

fraction

?i2

when

approximates

"

"

than

increases

Let

7.

vanishes

each

hence

when

limit,

1s +

is

pyramid

and

finite

arc

prisms

ot'

systems

internal

the

for

PYRAMID.

OF

thus

Then

increases.

the

base,

for

just "

of

prism,

This,
that

the

being

is

equal
COR.

same

base

i.e.

//,

of

Every
and

all

of

limit

form

at

have

height

numerical

the

of
if

pyramids,

/j,.h.B

of

the

ji

prism

cone

height.

also

attained,

pyramid's

we

find

can

that

shews

once

since

volume,

equal

therefore

have

only

instantly
that

infer

that

has

each

divide

to

the

volume

$h.B.
whose

pyramid
exactly

J, and
which

is

we

and

pyramids,

equal

is there

universally
to

three

proved

unknown

Hence

been

themselves;

among

the

the

the

for
V

equal

has

into

equal

are

/z,

result

theorem

prism

triangular

of

and

is

//,

whatever

same,

the
base

Since

all.

this

When

B.
.

value

the

equal

same

h
.

the

know

with

pyramids

8.

/j,

Meanwhile

one.

is tin-

remains

shall

we

in

IJL

pyramid

i""n, which

tract

it

the

of

volume

one

third

is

shews

triangle,

J.

volume
has

base

of

the

every

same

of

the

base

pyramid

J/t B,

or

and

cylinder

height.
which

has

the

TEACT

GEOMETRICAL

In

1.
and

OF

concerned

with

and

subtraction,

addition

denoting

"

TREATMENT

algebra,

pure

II.

number

only, the

in

an

elucidation
that

when
and

(+ a)

"

mean

(- a)

interpreted
afford

to

of

along

negative direction
as

reasonably

given

axis,

gives the
of

as

he

it is

imaginary:

work

we

of

this
2.

number

for

though
reply
in
But

geometry;
to

wary

useful

first reply
iJ"\

to

the

is

the

this

the

to

the

a,

along

think

to

apt

number

same

natural

complaint
you

sense."

generally

"

number:

no

reverse

whether

or

are

of

So

confess

murmurs

how
reply, "Some-

teacher's

by \/- 1," sounds

double

is:

made

No

like

saying:

ought

one

itself; the

unit
the

has

fully,it

that

"Out

is elicited."

be

the

sign

such

the

and

negative

negatively

learner's

has

coming

(" a) gives

"

or

we

still better
time

some

no

as

beforehand

reason

the

rises

beginner:

"

that

instead

"There

5.

truth

except

namely,

explain

this

results

symbol,

is decisive,

this

numbers,

of

useful

out

double

and

soon

are

fact

and

debtor's

positive and

the

positively

For

V~

or

and

nonsense

The

we

the

and

know

proposition involving it

scrupulous

every

Out

V"

meets

If

a.

"

in

should

beginner,

as

"

past

positive,so

is incurred,

different

as

differently directed.
when

it

information.

"

time

"("a)

But

and

mystery

no

natural

is found

that

heat.

symbols

counted

ambiguity

no

needful

and

be

add

also

It

increases

Distinguishing

make

is to

debt

needed

(db) surprises
a

symbols

early stage

a, but

"

to

the

(+ a) gives

"

is

find

we

is to

distance

given

cold

illustration.

line,

be

direction;

reverse

mean

subtract

to

geometry,

equally good

direction

that

doubled.

was

both

(- 6) should

subtract

to

algebra

of minus

should

by urging

and

property,

mark

(" a)

and

a,

is illustrated

apply

the

V~l-

force

symbol

direction
is better

of

V-

V~

symbol
points

perpendicular
to

make

new

desire

to

any

which

precedes,

only.

The

to
to

direction

new

next

and

beginning.

"

WARREN'S

14

directions from

radii issue in many

that

Suppose

RADII.

fixed

pointin
long as we

So
along them.
is involved,
to count, nothing new
are
of course
and
no
Suppose one of these radii to be our
difficulty.
for
ordinary positive
radius, and
axis, another to be called the m

plane,and that distances

know
along which radius we

distinct ion

write

along it,so

that

index

the

counted

are

under

number

every

lm is its unit,in length 1

=

as

be

to

estimated

counted

absolutely.

ambmcm...along the m line,and combine am " bm,

and interpret5aw, obm " 6cm, without
or
fear,since all are
difficulty
But such a product
radius.
lengthsto be counted along the same
In abn no
is
as
obscurity
bn would need careful interpretation.
am
If linear,we
found, whether the a be linear or numerical.
proceed
has
dimensions.
If
three
in
ab3,though space
as
only
interpreting
attain it by the proportion
for the value of ab3, we
we
put A
in kind as b3. Similarlyif
is the same
b* : A, so
that A
be
A'=ab", we are able to count A' along the n radius,whether
a
simply numerical, or when it is linear,by aid of the ratios 1 : a
bn: A'.
But if we
proceedthus with am. bn,usingthe proportion

Then

deal with

we

ambn with abn\for 1OT: am is the

confound

we

Mr

3.
ise

basis
logical

ratio

as

: a.

for this matter

by

follow,and wonder
substantially

his

that

He

elementary works.

in all

found

laid

I here

which

^"l,

on

it is not

in 1826

Warren

same

virtually
distinguishes
lines. In the former,
proportionate

and
proportionate
lengths
is not regarded;with the latter,
it is essential. Thus
if
DIRECTION
but are
drawn along our
/",C, D are proportionate
radii,
lengths,
4 1
viz. A along the positive
axis,B along the m radius,C on the n

between

"

and

radius

do not pronounce
the p radius,we
these lines proportional,
also their directions justify
that
it;
is,the p radius

on

unless
b"-

axis.
tin-

-aine

This

with

the

""M, ON, OP
arc,
arc

ML

amounts

side of the

angular distance

the

disposedtowards
n

line,and

axis.
positive

I*- tin 4

we

to

it,as the

from

need

before

radius,as

is the

sayingthat

the p

the

at

line

the

admit

we

radius

line must

Alt"T

OM,

ON,

OP

this condition

are

He

the
on

same
pared
com-

arc

that

cular
cir-

PN

shall

the

units
v

OL,

to

Then, if OL,

radii,and LMNP

that

k.

lines.
proportionate

of the

directions is fulfilled,
we

concede

that

WHEN

PROPORTIONAL.

counted
proportionate
lengths

the

15

along them

also

are

proportionate

lines.
If the
This

NP

arc

enables

the

agreeablyto
PL

arc

LM"

the

exchange

to

us

add MN

LM,

arc

is p

The

LP

arc

n,

and

called

Hence

LN

arc

m,

second

process

PN+NL=ML+NL.

both, then

to

in the

p, the

Also

from

count

we

portion,
pro-

the

L,

and

of necessary

test

NL.

arc

third terms

Alternando.

if

PM

arc

arc

call

direction

n.

the four

is,when

simplestcase

proportionalsbecome

three

third

if M and N run
as
coalescing,
togetherin Q.
If further
arc
QP, we have OL : OQ= OQ : OP.
and so on.
OP
: OR]
PQ, then OQ : OP

by the second and

Then
if arc
ZQ
=

PR

arc

arc

this to
Apply now
quadrants.Then OQ

the

4.

both

received

The
is

V,

OQ

V(-

OQ

1
.

1)

V-

the

PQ and QL

arcs

are

portional
pro-

1).

proportion

mean

then

Here

OL.

*JOP

mean

1) and OP=("

for

symbol

in

as

is the

OL(=

between

in which

case

This

I-

is

only a

lowing
fol-

analogy with the symbol;

V expressedthe mean
though, previously,
without
proportionbetween numbers, or perhaps lengths,
of

out

cognizance

of direction.

Now,

first care

our

direction,has the

of

be, to inquirewhether

must

as
properties

same

V~

as

it operates

when

symbol

pure

on

number.

ab
ba,and
as
the order is indifferent,
First,in combining factors,
Evidently,
We ask, does V~ fulfilthis condition?
1
a.
(1) a
=

a
a.

^-1

^-1.

OP

to

5.

But

OL
1.

new

connectingthem
a

and

needs

what

b
,

QOP

because

OQ

had

We

Next, repeat */-"

OP=J-I.OQ,

along the

directed

lengtha,

the

Similarly

OQ.
perpendicular

But

measuring

a, each

OL*/-I

90",

.'.

OP

OL.

Evidentlythen V

This further

the change
justifies

or

1
.

of

.(V

V~

Also

"/-!. OL.

or

-j"^

to

1
"

is

OL).
valent
equi-

-*J-\.

i.e. in
arises in adding unlike quantities,
difficulty
have two lengths
If along radii m and n we
by +.

meaning

explanation.It

may

can
seem

we

attach

to

that the

am +

bj.

symbol +

urgently
(plus)receive
This

1C

SIGN

now

sense.

FOR

in fact when

Now

"

NOW

TOTAL

(a + 6)

addition; it reallyexpresses

mean

RESULT.

zero, the

does

not
difference,

strictly

not

but

sum;

not

embarrass

call it a sum,
and say that either a or
we
generalization,
b is negative. They may
the very same
line OL estimated in
mean
If OL mean
the line as travelled
oppositedirections,as OL and LO.
to

0 to L, and

from

OZ

LO

LO

the

travelled from

as

travel is

0, the

to

total result

that the

clearlymeans

zero,

same

ment
state-

of

such

the travel neutralizes

itself.Thus if,instead
of
is zero, which givesonly a numerical
idea, I
call total 7"esultzero, you will gain a geometrical
idea.
At this we
must
in direction. Evidently,
aim, when we deal with lines differing
from any pointin the outline of a limited surface,a point
if,starting
until it regain its original
travel round the circuit,
place,we may
of
is
such change
and no
will
one
justlysay, the total result
zero;
it to mean
that the lengthof the circuit is zero.
So if there
suppose
be a triangleABC,
we
may
say, the total result of the travel
nothing;since
sayingthat the sum

+ BC

AB

in

CA

different direction.

sides

three

symbol
from

0, if it be understood

are

mislead

-f cannot

AB

the

lengthsof the
in the equation cm 4- an + bp 0, the
is evidently
though its sense
enlarged
suppose

us,

BG

The

AC.

BC+CA

have

is considered, we
+

Indeed,

line is to be estimated

to total result.

sum

Again,since
AB

b, then

c, a,

that each

successive sides of

AB

BC

last is

GA

and

AC

"

AC, when

0, which

direction

further

justifies
along two

interpretable, Motion
"

"

triangleyieldsthe

total result

same

as

motion

along the third side."

resultant

word

The

mechanics, but there

characterizes

to

In fact

symbol *J"
our

now

en;il"lcs us

"

V"

1 when

1, or AC

distance in every direction. If

and AB
is the ordinarypositive
rectangle,

again,we

must

be

worked

in the

fundamental condition

total result,as

to express

(an obliqueline)

lint

no

great step forward; for the

direction is estimated, and

AC
independentlengths,

can

made

unawares

parallelogrambecome a
of AB, BC, CA
the lengtfis
before),

BC=a"J
and

have

we

the

also for

adopting it in geometry
from the sum.
distinguished
ctinn
ol.j(

seems

may

have

the

method.

l"yA
expressed

A C

\/"

have

total result of

1.

b, we

c, a,

Since

and

are

direction whatever.

any

inquirewhether
received

are

symbol +

First, does
B

B + A

thus extended,
it

fulfil the

Assuming (as

CONFORMITY

must) the doctrine

we

sides

whose
rectangle
that

c+a"J"

th e

V~

OF

of

TO

ALGEBRAIC

17

LAW.

parallelstraight
and considering
lines,
any

are

and

diagonal
=

find

c, we

\/

1+

"

the

opposite sides. Next, does ithA + hBI

fulfilthe condition h(a + B)
from

The

doctrine of similar

affirms

it.

OM

Let

at
triangles

axis,and
positive
length,we write
the

OP

Next, along OH
in p.

OP

Op

"

have

we

Also

OP

and

is

to Om

Op
is,

If further
it affects every
as

to be

fnp"J"

hx 4-

or

hx + V

Om

(whether h

and

meetingOP
Op=-h. OP.

1 .y,

\f
"

is

numerical.

"J"

Om

"

1
.

hy,

hy,

numerical.

were

change h

we

(inlength)and

supposedh

"

to
equivalent

to
perpendicular

h(x-\-"J" ly)

just as if V"

is 1

hx',that
mp

y"J-\.

by similar triangles,
mp

Then

In this h

that

Om

is

mere

+ MP

OM

or

numerical).Erect

or

pendicular
per-

if 0 M

expresses

take

y,

then

joinOP,

to it ;

linear

MP

x,

once

from

number

mere

of the last in the

term

to

positive
length,

ratio,and leaves equivalence

same

before.

proved generallythat with any factor h (provided

it be counted along the positive
axis)the producth (x + V" 1 y) is
is virtually
proved,if h be
equivalentto hx + ij"l. hy, the same
changed into hm, that is,if the numerical h be computed along an
m-axis. For we may transform
our
hypothesis,
by choosingthe m-axis
as
positive.If herebyx, y change to x'ty',we obtain a result the
same
inform as the previousresult,and x' y'remain quiteas general
If

we

have

"

as

were

Thus

the x, y.

"

we

write

may

V- ly)

hmx

J-l.

hiny.

change the obliquehm into a + */-l.b, where a. b

to
if the m-axis be perpendicular
axis. Now
are
along the positive
the positive,
write simply hm
kj- 1, where k is along the
we
may
1 hmy
axis. Then V
\/ 1 V 1 kyt and since each V 1
positive
After this,we

can

"

N.

18

CONFORMITY

denotes

revolution

of

the

OF

ky

through

TO

ALGEBRAIC

LAW.

90", the

"J"

shews

^-1
.

revolution

through

180",

is

or

equivalent

the

to

symbol

Thus

"

"lyas?yV"
in

good

If

THEOREM.
A

viz.
the

(7 and

If

eye.

the

binomials

viz.

we

do

OA

the

same

length.
Of

P.

with

\/"

will

(so called)

roots"

if PM,

as

soon

also

now

we

with

quadratic

63

at

to

once

the

coincide

QN

are

Oif

B"/"1,

in

hypothesis,

our

is A

That

geometrical

proof appeals

they

OQ

jJV.

the

see

of

OP=

as

ties,
equali-

OQ,

as

have

Zwo

implies

OQ,

until

to

holds

and

well

same

I?/).

\/"

the

(7 and

As

P
=

of the

meaning

equation.

ON=

very

C,

coincides
D.

"imaginary
simple

case,

first

take

a?
both

Here

In

the

equal

coordinate

IGx

lie

roots

a?

then

at

ID

then

1, this

V-

and

V-

as

OA

to

(x

geometrical

OQ

then,

course

reader

The

"? +

requires Q

This

Q, therefore

with

(7 +

OP

1, and

OP

by

and

dropt perpendicular
QN=D

Ik) into

positive axis,

direction,

same

Evidently

"J"

The

denoted

account

have

D.

OP

V-

the

be

not

"

are

V-15

(h

out

^1

ky

"

numerical.

were

multiplying

1 kx

/y7"

the

latter

angles
along

along

I6x

"

on

the

the

-1-65
two

yields

0, whence

are

sides,

is 8, and

equal
radii
the

axis.

positive

roots

opposite
axis

0, which

But

radii
which

transverse

"

"

1.

change
V"

drawn

G3

to

the

origin

65,

1.
from

terminate
coordinate

where
is

the
"

1.

TRACT

ON

III.

FACTORIALS.

SUPPLEMENT

Extension

THE

1.

early,

much

adds
a?

think,

its

to

(a;-1)

but

in

xw

the

writes

x(x-

treatise,

elementary
Factorial

new

Boole

for

Theorem.

Cauchy's

without

simplicity.
and

(2?-2),

Binomial

appeared

1825,

as

the

of

following

II.

Notation,

#(2) for

1) (a?-2)

(x

which

1), #(3)

as

for

1), whence

(x-

n+

the

exponent

...

a)(n+l]

x(n)

(x

since

half-oval,

In

parenthesis

which

1
.

this

for

mann

\n, In

"

1 +

xn

(n

course

The
Index.
call

x^L"

equivalent

Exponent
In

is

(which

(of

Factorial
must

be

x^

(n

1)'

"

general

to

integer)

less

the

propose

Theorem

is n^.

is

Guder-

striking
Jarre

the

to

This

tt.

eye

than
in

exhibits

by

x.

is

(x

in

simple

Binomial

1)

...

power)
for

is

term,

libitum.

the

Professor

of

Then

ad

...

late

the
its

be

to

or

place

to

...

but

by

Theorem

is,

ought

3
.

introduced

Binomial

the

has

it

distinctive.

quite

are

notation

this

still

Better

n).

"

already
1

) (x

Numero,

2)

(x
.

as

from

distinguished
.

1)

one

stating

the

number

factors.
2"2

an

may
of

20

EXPANSION

condensed

or, in

This

the

equationbeing of
of

(m

indefinite

in

for every

be equal term
must
by term
values),
when
we
multiplyany two such series,

(1 + Mvx

by

have

the routine

of

the law

This

the

M3x* + etc.)by (1 + Np

in
multiplication,

Nj?

Now

x.

etc.),

so

which

NJ

P^M^

visible,that

(1 +x)p, and
(1 + x)m,(1 + a?)",

get generally

we

for all series of this form

true

of

power

form

same

of the indices is

being

series

three

Mj?

P^MI+M^

P^M^NJ
and

product of

-f n, then

n)thor pilidegree of x, and being

number
than
(thereforein more

we

expansion,

for values

true

and
positiveintegers,

If 771, n, p be all

2.

(x -f J))^.

OF

at

may
once

be

appliedto
it yieldsto us

the
the

result
mC

an

for

equation true

integerr,

therefore

fractional.

Write

extension

of the

it is true
x

of'1

i tub's

of /',

Q, A,

n,

and

reader

must

/.',('. is

x*-*

'I*

exponents replacingthe

The

and

not

r-"2'

numeros

carefullyobserve
an

exponent.

n
"

''"""

also when

h for

for m,

rr-j

NOTE.

of

n
m

ordinary(x + h)r. For,

of

with

'""

values

more

mC

than

and

are
n

counted

h for p, and

you

have

an

be written

aT3
^
^
2+ r-;r':l4

of the

preceding.

in

which

that

the

arbitraryand

are

this latter may

by

follows, that

"
r'

the

upper

POWERS

IN

Powers
Since

3.

of which

the

SERIES

in Series

x^L"

generallaw

(x-r)
#2

(x

of

Factorials.

x,

"

is

conversely
oxL

21

FACTORIALS.

x(x"l)=xz

x^

Again

OF

x^L +

1) (x

a*iJ,

x.

2)

x3

But

Evidentlywe

thus in succession obtain

can

xn in series of

Since
with
we

coefficients P,

P"Q x^

index

that

is the

(x-ri)+

But

if in

we

cannot

In

general,

involvingx,

not

by
n,

(x

the
n

(a)we

of

placeof
n, the

x, and

(a)by

1) + (n

1), (x

the formula

write

exponent of

the

on

n,

.(x

x^

(n -f 1) for

in the series ;

We
to

the

xn ; and

have

also

calculate P"~r.

rightmultiplythe

x, viz.

of
equivalents
+

the term

It remains

be.

Pi^a?. .(a).

of its term.

numero

may

P^_2^ i,

...

"

2) + (n

r)

2),etc.,

xr^2. Then

have

we

ing
(6)and (c); that is,in equatidentifying
numero
(r). At the
coefficients belongingto every particular

right hand
ic2

the

as

each term

apply to

the

same

left member

successive terms

index

lower

the

denotes

P"= 1, whatever

Multiplythe

and

and

of upper

sum

and

index

the lower

Here

seen

n, but

dependent on

Pr1 tfO1 + Pr VxJ

upper

be 1.

write

may

the

x.

contains xn, its coefficient must

only x^

unknown

xn

x1^, x^,... x"^,

x^,

and generally
x4,xs,...

end

oxL + x,

in

be wrong

so

coefficients of
PJ,= lPln-l}
that P\
1,

x\

pi

"

-t

_
"

Pl

-1
"

"

^a"-1?

"

i.e. since when

2,

INVESTIGATION

and

P,l,=1,justas Pj
universally
P""*"

_
~~

n+l-r

otherwise,

horizontal
is

same

the

number

of

1;
which

second

the

row

we

one

from

Evidentlythis

of

and

second

1 +

the

ti+l-r"

PJ'1,

"

r.

of

table,beginningfrom

second

row

from

is

2; 1+2

the

find

of units.
Each
consisting
P above it,multipliedby its upper
index
its column) + its companion to the leftin

row

3;

1 +

2 + 3 +

4;...

P^=\n. (n + 1). Similarlyfrom

and the
third,workingfrom leftto right,

generalterm
form

generalwe

each
vertical,

to form

Thus

row.

to fillin the vacancies

us

row

computed

(which is the
the

"

in

pr-1

"*"

n-r

This enables

^pr
'

TABLE

Also

1.

P^rP^

if

one

OF

is

the
law

is manifest.

Heuce
presci

table to any

extent

requiredcan

be made, such

as

is here

CONVERT

TO

POWERS

INTO

FACTORIALS

P.

BY

23

solelyto evaluate the coefficients of (a),

will be taken
that the numbers
the indices of P^Pp1, P"~2...
warn
us
for a? we
take out (beginningfrom PJ at the
out diagonally.Thus
top on righthand) 1, 15, 65, 90, 31, 1.
this table is used

When

that the second column

It will be observed

and

generalP*

in

is the Table

The

letter P

the

and

are

1, 22

1, 23

"

"

of Direct Factorials.

being

both

appropriatedfor

almost

advantage

an

see

"

2r+1- 1.

Such

functions,I

is 21

the

Legendrian

supersedingP"rby I /^

in

n
integers,

index

of the

column,

sarily
Neces.

1 index

of

row.

Collect the results for P

and

in

which

P=

general
yieldidentically

#C2 + etc.

Factorials

4.

This is a

Series

problem of

mere

0^

in

common

of

Powers.

multiplication,

"(*-!) (a?-2)...(ff-.n+ l),

and
yet the factors being special

their combinations

often

recurring,

24

INVESTIGATION

of

the work

computer

one

TABLE

OF

after him.

avail for many

may

We

may

assume

x^

where,

Since

(x

multiply(a)by

remarks

But

Q"+1

that

As

before,this enables

is

anticipatedthe
as

(m

r) ""

To

the firstrow

the table,when

to continue

us

$".

formula

our

compare

with

that

of

before.

0, Q?

mQ?

is

firstcolumn

The

1.2.3.4,
+

Qf1,

table,when

the second

row

the third

r,

+ Prl-1.
lJr1=rPf0

is the
row

35

same

from

11

have

unity as

1.2

then

write it

may

when

compute

and

nQnr~ + Qnr^',

1, 1, 1.2, 1.2.3,

To

We

Qln= nQ\_ltinasmuch

known.

are

fact,the first row

Hence

x,

xn^y

identical.

also in the former

dividingby

(");

......

1, and

Q?+l

the first table,we

be

Q'^

m,

firstcolumn

and

In

Qo

generally,

or, if

n) x^

"

1 for

(6)and (c)ought to

But

Also

Ql,x

n,

"

(a) write

in

Also

"

...

have

0, you

etc.

before, obviouslyQj=l.

as

making

Qn0xn Qrlxn~l+ QrV-"

in the
the second

85

table

as

in the old.

15

10

new

175

21

TO

TURN

BACK

FACTORIALS

The

r +
multiplier
(p"l)
its Q distinguishes
the Q table

INTO

POWERS

combining upper
from

the P

BY

and

table:

Q.
lower

25

index

of

thus

1.2.3

1.2.3.4

or

indeed

Factorials.

Inverse

These

too

Again

it

used

are

better to

seems

Thus

for
diagonally

supersede
5n"2+ etc.

by

5.

Even

in Arithmetic

and

learn that

Nor

can

an

Elementary

we

are

driven upon

infinite series may

tend

to

"

decimals,"
recurring

unique finite limit.

from
Algebra fail to recognize,

l-xn
l-x

26

WITH

that when

is

the series 1 +

NEGATIVE

NUMERO

numericallyless than 1, with

+

a? +

-f xn tends

indefinitely
increasing,

to the limit
n

After

this it

universal),from

-J
(1\"

with

1 +

quickly follows (by Cauchy's process now

perhaps
Binomial
Theorem
with n positiveinteger,
that

has for limit

infinite,

+^=2-7182818...

17

which

we

which

call e, and

also

be
presently

6.

"

that

f1

-J

need

On

this

assumed.

Now

let

Factorials

with

ea.

Analogy suggeststo

has for limit

we

here

not

dwell

NegativeNumero.

define x^

meaning";

as

x^

will be identical with x~l. Then

[x (x + 1) (x+ 2)

for

and x^"

x^J

Hence

is

"

two

x~*
x^

Also
factors here

x^

(x +

I)]"1.

(x H-l);*;^,

on

"

x~3 + x~4

x~b 4- etc.

(x+3y.x^"
the

right,each

can

take

then

their

claim

the

A;x-n-l-A"1x-n-z+An,x-n-3-etc

task is to discover the coefficients when

form

of

product,the
rightto assume

..........

our

course

will stand for

So
descending in powers of x.
of x^l". By like reasoningwe
"l\iivalent
with coefficients independentof x,
series

and

of

1}

have, in descendingpowers

1, we
x^

-^

(x + n)~l #O.

x^

when

of the

--

\x ~H

Now
and

it will

propound

us

x^

but

is given.

(a),

THE

First make

But

from

TABLE

SUFFICES.

27

1,

the

series

alreadyobtained

coefficient of the last is 1 ;

column of our
table. Also
the firstrow

OF

in

or

for x^

generalAlr=I.

(a) we

write

may

x^

etc.

generally

But

this is

as

n,

there, unity,and

will be

Thus

the same,

..

"A?~1x~n~r +

the

of P

Anr~l.

in Art. 3, only there

the first row

as

and

we

write

may

had

we

the same,

of Art. 3

in

place of

x~n

Pr V"-1

values of P

same

PJ- V""1

before.

as

Vn'3
P3n-

But

etc.

in the last

T7

multiplyby
verify,

2.

no
as

; thus

etc.

ought

to

So

2.

ought to

for convergence, x
x
ought to exceed

7.

this A.

the column,

for convergence

But

table

equation we

and

for

here,

are

the whole

"

exceed

r, p

first column

down
but vertically,
longer take the P's diagonally,
index (n
the same
1) above every P denotes
upper

To

(c).

............

Arl=nAl+Ar\

the law of continuation

and

gives

get

we

x"

with

law

Now

r.

get

you

be identical,
hence

A^nA"^

exactlythe

here

are

fixes

A"x~n~r+

1, which

x-n-A^lx~n~l+...

(6)and (c)must

and

for

Al=n

what

1 ; which

...

Now

This

universally
An, obviously

s~M 2"

in

see

of the table.

Next, multiplyequation (a)by (x + n),and

But

that every
givesthe first

we

Assume

now

(n

"

exceed

90af5 + etc.

Evidentlyin

3.

the series for

1).

the Inverse

Problem,

to

developx'n

in series of

Factorials.
With

unknown

coefficients B
x-n-l

independentof

x^+Btx^J

]%x^J+

x, we

...............

start

from

(a).

28

THE

FOR

INVERSE

Multiplythe lefthaud by
of x, viz.
by the equivalents
(x + n)-n,
Observe

(a-+

l)f (aj+

SUFFICES.

the successive terms

x, and

l)-(w

PROBLEM,

2)

the

on

right

(n + 2),etc.

(x +p) a,'-*"" x(~p)

that

"

-...'
in

But

(a) we

write

may

for

1, which

gives

^J+...+Bnr-l.x^r+

(c).

......

Identify(6)with (c),
J3T=n

.-.

and
the

here

there

was

We

may

Bn/1;

Q in Art. 4, only n and r here standingfor

Also
since .Bj=l, the top row
is unity,
p.

and

further

Multiply by

of the

"

the

on

that

prove

the firstcolumn

as

B\=Q\,

as

the

Here
factorials

Q table

also
as

BI

x~4

2^

the
+

right;

B\

0 ;

J5's is the

"

SB]

annihilate
=

2
.

2,

selves,
them-

0 ; etc.,

(n- l)n.

...

Therefore

the B

to obtain
Q's vertically,

Ga;^ + 35^

then

must
-

1, (x + 2)

1.2;

Bln=l

Q13)etc. exact.
throughout.

x^

and

take

we

the

on

2B\

I, ^

JBJ=3B;=1.2.3,
Thus

our

Q's. For

the other terms

B\
B\

or

of

left, also by (x + 1)

; and

first column

the

3, for the successive terms

Obviouslyx~l x^
making ^-1=0;

same

1)B*^

for

as
r

"rl;

there.

as

(x + 3)

formula

same

what

same

Bnr (n +

generally

225#^

x~n

table is the

in

series of

-f etc.

+ Qrlx^~? +
+ Q;*1.^C^r + etc.;
generalx~" x^ + Q^x^
but specialinquiryis needed
concerningconvergence.
Apparently
it converges more
rapidlythan

In

...

x*+(js -hi)'2+ (a+2)-f+

etc.

NEW

8.

To

develops (e'-l)"

of xn.

We

may

Mnxn
where

Mn

manifestly

Binomial

the

(e*
of

out

make

1)-

which

pick

to

is less

'

the

n,

make

to

and

1,

so

get

we

All

on.

have

last is

the

of which

by

"

e*

+1,
of

xr which

13

here

1,

n-

When

2,

n-

...

is

us

concerns

When

"I
"

Now

0.

partial coefficients

that

term

f/yr
-

etc.

successively n,

only
A^

Mr

n,

)**

fyF

--

make

we

have

we

""-"*

which

than

that

in

etc.,

the

up

powers

positive integer

in

form

is

? ""-""

observing

Mp

up

where

have

we

if

1, and

e-

the

^ jj+etcj"

Mn+lxn+l+...+Mrx'

Theorem

*"

{?

or

for this

assume

29

PROBLEM.

rf-

in the

When

denominator.

2,

we

have

Hence

I2.

Let

be

to

(n

1) what

if

is to

then, with

the

same

for both,

terms.
l,....

I-

If
Add
same

to

the

of p

has

this

value

preceding, coupling
(n

"

p)r

as

factor

every

pair

that

with

the

30

J/r+ .Vr

COMPARE

that

Observe

"

Ti

--

n,

N^.

WITH

7i

71

----

-^

or,

+ I)'(TI

in

^ (")r

Nr change r

(n

to

"^^o

(" + 1)

("
*-"^"

so

on

1)' etc.,
-

notation,

A;., (n + IP

(n)'+

in shorter

But

(n + 1)"

+ J"TJ
|r (Jl/r

"

and

.-.

1,

--

"

1 and

(n

2)'+ etc.

(n + 1)terms.

to

have

you

(")"'+

**\iC"

V"

l
'-

{(n1)"- 1(ny
+

l)r

Q"

"

("

2)r"+

n--"~--1(n

etc-

"

"

(n + 1) terms

to
"

1)'

w.

n-1

"

("-2

1.3.8
-f-1)
(T?

Our

|r(Mr + Nr),from

always exceeds

assuming as

z!V=i

n.

coefficients after

^H

Divide

above.

by (n + 1) |r-f 1
.

simplifythe
dividingby xn,
We

notation

^
_

somewhat

by

4 etc.
.

Multiplyby

xn.

The

generalterm

7i

becomes

'

(n + 1) (71+ 2)...(n+p- 1) (71+ j")

-f p

THE

Put

+ p

term

with

+ l.w-f

change;

both

and

and

xr ;

(r-1)

...

.r'

in

Mr

to p

less factor in denominator:

one

increased

are

by 1, r

undergoes

r~n

+ 2.n

+ 3... r"

Introduce these values into

Change

with
r

=
^

"

and

(a)and multiplyby

+ 1 to n, .'.

l.r.r-hl'

+ nC;^
Cnp Cnp~l
=

; the

same

for the P's in Art. 3.

as

Also when

But

lt

assumed

we

as

01*
2

equivalent

OX

first row.

cx_

ex

"^S.S^S.S.^"1"

identifies (7Jwith

first column.

of P

previousMr

our

2-. 7i + 3

^rr=n+ 2tn-^3~1
r__l

but when

which

31

Cn+l

that

law

SUFFICES.

no

AGAIN

*5="

.'. M

so

OF

this
identify

r, to

TABLE

Also

1, for

all values

the

Finallythen
-iy
=

i+
the

in which

Just

r.

Plr

so

law

and

first row

1 in its

in tne

same
we

of

evidently"7j l; just as PO=!"

Thus, with firstcolumn

and

"t"2.3...(r
+ l)
whole

identical with

of continuation,the whole

those

table is the

same.

obtain

pj.a?

numerators
increasing

are

pulleddown

by increasing

denominators.
The

generalterm

may

be written n^

Pnp xp, or equally

.

(n

[The
the

course

of

analysishere pursued forestalls that

of A"
.

learner.]
Thus

\\"?
+

1
.

+ 1

+ 2

+ 3

Or to

o2

PROBLEM

OF

To

investigate
log (1 -f x)
of
except in the elementarycase
aid from the Higher Calculus.
9.

Let y

e*

1, then

"

(1 -f ?/).

LOG

series,with

in

of

(1 + x)n

and
being a positiveinteger,

no

Also

log (1 + y).

aid from

no

xs

by elementaryalgebra.
From

the

last

approximation,
x, and
y
/. x=yJy2. Whatever
=

reverted

a?

y*.

the

As

second, y

series in powers

log (1 + y)

or

(with the appropriatenumerical

identical equation.
Consequently,writingy
log(l +
Subtract

y + z)

(y + z)

values

z)-\og(l

by (a),if we

write

Az(y

z)*+ A3 (y + z)3+

f^-AJ
\i
yt
its whole

the first term

coefficients of
partial
That

But

is

"

Y+

y +

found

in

be

(6).

etc.
...

-f

z4)+

:=""

etc.
.

jwhich

(c).

again,

This

yi

simplepower

then

must

of z, and

be the

sum

there
of the

"

(c).

3A

jf

4A4y*+

etc. when
?/2 ?/3-f
"

(a),

.......

^fVi^- V-etc..

y"

hj"

2A^y

we

equivalent

alone contains the

coefficient is

Hence

powers

log( 1

or

\i +

of which

"

for y, has for

--

thus

y)=z-z

log

first
J y2,

A^A3A4...)will

of

the left hand

be

can

+ etc

A, (tyz + Zyz*+ *3) A, (Itfz+ Qy*z*+ 4^2

But

x,

for y,

(a)from (b)developingthe

\og(l+y

of

as

x,

\x*"

A^f+A3y*-A^4

which

then

of

of y, at least within certain limits.

unknown
coefficients called A,

with
x

an

values

for minute

into powers

assume

may

that

see

we

i"

etc.

less than
numerically

1.

PROBLEM

Hence

2AZ

1, 3AZ

1,

Finallythen, log(1 + y)
furnishes

This

N.B.

far

the

"

that

proves

the next

eases

We

(x)
(x) xn, "fi
"f"

as

of

means

knowing

while

y2"

1.

computing logarithms in

the

Binomial

Theorem

with

"Derivation,"'

or

admitted, this equation at

log (z),""'
(z)
=

That

this is

develop[log1 +x]nin

To

once

which

process

x2 is " 1, the

when
possible,

then assume,

with unknown

alone, where

the upper

series of powers

Article.

PROBLEM.

may

etc.

If Differentiation

nxn~l,be

""(z) means

when

10.

on

\y^+ Jy8 \y*+

fractional exponent.

negativeor

1, or in generalAn

Elementary Algebra,before
as

[log1 + a?]".

OF

precedingArticle

coefficients X? A"
,

index is not

A*
,

of

x.

shows.

ing
depend-

exponent,

an

+ etc

2
...

If

uny dz-nun~ldu,

hardly worth while

tedious

to

and

disguiseDifferentials by

(a).

[It
a

more

elaborate

is

and

Algebra.]

(log1

sides of

both

Differentiate

XT'*

hereby,

(a),then drop the

common

factor dx

fe
'tc----

_
-

etc.

Multiplyby
.-.

1 + x, and

(logf+^r1

*"*

divide

*?

"

;r

by

n,

^i

-etc.

etc.

N.

(6).

34

LAW

THE

But

writing

(n

1) for

"

OF

in

SUFFICES.

equation

(a)

get

we

AT1.

XJ

(n

in

4.

the

top

Thus

1) x;_j

Art.

with

(6)

Identifying

obtain

we

X?+1

or

evidently
is

row

X?-1

Also

(c),

X"

Again

1.

(n

r) X?

XX

But

this

Thus

the

the

then,

is

first

to

column

tables

two

(logl+aO*

known

aft-

are

be

of

also
the

^^

\s?

"

\x*

"

agrees

with

Finally

coefficients

The

analogy

already
to

the

law

same

be,

may

as

Q'j

as

of

Art.

r\nu

iv

(!^--i-l^+Jj^l5
"

I.

1,

etc.,

that

whence

Q.

of

In

short

CiC'}

known.

series

of

i'tt+2""tt
+

with

generally

\lx*

J#3

same.

+n

X?;}, the

(a) making

by

and

XJ'1;

whatever

X^w

deserves

notice.

I\M

I"NJ

u*
..+et.

TRACT

ON

SOME
in

his

Apology
volume

subject

under

pretend

add

carries

off

all

admiration

treated

dazzling

very

by sweeping

chief

to

liability
resulting

from

linear
avoid

to

have

not

in

and

fact

the

which
a

strings

have

thought
time

same

have

mode

seemed

judged,

so

authority
At

admitted

of
less
to

his

of

some

that

found,

slight

my
I

tried

reasoning
satisfactory.

teach

which

to

Perhaps

accents

it

that

on

one

every

pupil

teacher

able

was

that

that

he

might

with

speak

learners.
in

occasions

mathematics,

easier,

ought

it

treated;

to

rare

of

this

why

replied,

easier

changed
ex-

College,

otherwise

class
was

question,

to

or

reasoning

University

very

elementary

and

When

supposed

the

formula

this

direct,

brain.

method

know

argument

thought

the

By

he

who

to

whether

less

were

whom

of

of
in

the

arguments

hard

minus.

in

since

have

change

an

by

Algebra,

some

add,

must
to

the

notation

my

on

common

much

to

not

with

though

Morgan,

beginners.
if

or

colleague

De
into

plus

do

details

question,

fatigue

then

my

way,

lessen

Professor

difficult for

too

was

own

my

and

with

late

not

was

in

danger

the

require

the

strain

the

upon

same

Spottiswoode,

meaning

chief

the

turn

would

term

words

topic

to

error,

found

the

course

make

the

was

Todhunter

treated

his

to

Dr

Mr

found
as

what

page,
I

but

much

so

to

read

latter,

in

Also

functions

this

London,

has
Of

he

subject.

the

eye,

half

one.

that

to

the

to

over

presented

by

since

me,

Equations

indeed

nor

this

on

from

"Determinants."

of

him,

merit

as

Algebraic

name

to

needful

seem

Higher

the

to

SUPERLINEARS.

may

on

IV.

to

another

to

have

bow."
3"2

"

two

BILINEAR

Equations of

1.

TABLET

the

first degree are

called

simple,but when
three or more
letters (x,y, z...)are
involved,complexityarises with
when
much
there is no
of principle.
danger of error, even
difficulty
To solve two equationsof the form alx + bly clt a"jB+ b$
c9 is
If we
could alwayscertainly
the
remember
always the same
process.
=

solutions
x

and

confound

never

indices,nor

the

mistake

between

and

this

"

The
modern
method, due eminently
might have much value.
to the genius of William
is quiteadapted to Elementary
Spottiswoode,
there be guessed.
cannot
Algebra; but its vast range of utility
First study the denominator
D
alb2 a,ib1.It arises from the
left-hand of the equation (alx+ bly c1, in which
the four letters

alone

"

stand

in square,

Here

as

is the

difference of the two

and the diagonalwhich slopesdownward

products
formed diagonally,
from leftto rightis acceptedas the positivediagonal. This is
cardinal point.Remember
it,and you will not go wrong on + and

"

Understand

Of

in square

then, that

then, so does

course

if you

But
into

change the

change D
After

or

which
,

exchangesrows

into columns.

order of the rows,

change

you

or

the order of the

the result to

PN"NQ,

to

"

this is fixed in the

Then

column

So B

i.e.you

D.

mind, it is

easy

remember

to

above,viz. at"2 a^, in the form

the numerator

of

ata2 into the column

for the

bpt into c^,

/\
x=
Finally,

""
V

is obtained

c^,

making

of y

numerator

yieldingB

a.

is found

c.

t\

without

y=

C/

mistake.

from

the
Call

"

it C.

columns,

Q P

denominator

common

MQ-PN.

means

with vertical sides

"

by changingthe

by changing the

column

LINEAR

FUNCTIONS.

37

Observe,if the equationsbe presented in the form

ty

aix +
this is
affect

c1

0 ;

bjj+

a2x +

c2

0 ;

equivalentto changing the signsof c1 and C2, which does not

C, but exactly reverses
the signs of A and B.
Previously

had

we

(x

or

But

from

1)

(x

A)

(A

the two

(1

C)

C)

6.
:

b$
ty

+
+

a?

B),

equationsa:x

new

(y

c.

+ c^z

0| you

+ c/

OJ

get

ci ai

C2 a2
in circular order.
We

also present the solution

may

follows

as

M,

Simple equationsare
metaphor. If a quantity w
the

(where

b, c...

a,

dependentor

have

the French
now

be

but

for

the

adopted

altered.]

dependent on x,
vary, yet always u
u

We

here

have

z...

ax

to

set

forth

cz

to

be

called

of their

-K

functionof

function ; and

the function

suppose

that however

by +

linear

expected u

word

now

geometrical

y,

mysterious reasons

strange

It is convenient

of linear functions.

is called

[One might

resultant

by

so

numerical),then

are

is

may

its constituents.

#, y, #...
a

of these

values

called Linear,

often

2.

few

to have

own,

it cannot

properties
no

lute
abso-

term.
(constant)

I.

To

multiplyevery

the function

[For,if u

by
=

that
+

ax

If two
and

by +

linear

these

any

number

(m), multiplies

number.

mu

II.

by

constituent

have

cz+...,
=

amx

functions
the

same

then

bmy

have

cmz

the

+....]
same

coefficients

number

[as U=ax

of

tuents
consti-

T.EMMAS

Ut

LINEAR

OX

will
; you
a.rt-f byi 4- cz{]
constituents in pairs[forhere

add

U+l\
whatever

the

number

of

join

the

(s + *,);

constituents].

that

Observing now

3.

if you

functions

the

+ a-J+ b (y + y t)+
(./.-

FUNCTIONS.

aN

or

"

bM

is

linear function

b N
of X
the

and

function

The
M

J7",we

Or

m.

is true

same

if

variables and

the

as

by

that to

see

ja,

mM

Ib,

wX

b and

Next, by making

(A

second

Ex)

column

(Cij Dx )
-

row

or

into

to

ought

to

to

us

"" y

be

called
stituents
con-

suppose

we

can

+"7,

times
some-

Thus

x\
,

yield,

same,

(A

binomial,

one.

the

and

function

our

column

regard a

may

variable.

or

we

b N

having the

for

; then

tablets
superlinear

two

constant

as

mM

constant
alternately

blend

row

linear ; for it is open

superlinearrather than

4.

b N

remark, that

the

to

multiplies

multiplya

we

b,
leads

by

ma,

This

MX

column

multiplya

)y

(B

L)

the

Here
other

column

columns

are

holds, if a

process

which
added

tablet into two

make

instead of

row,

when
Conversely,

and

both, remains

in

was

a
a

tablets ; and

when

Evidentlythe

binomial.

column, is the

givencolumn

before, but

as

each

column

is

same

in both.

same

is binomial, we

the

can

resolve the

binomial,we

can

resolve the tablets into four.

Thus

by

"

A+x,

firstprocess.
as

By

.1, C! +

x,

B, D

y,

second, each

of these

C +

tablets becomes

result,
A

.1

11

1"

/;

'/

l"

''

two,

VANISHING

the
or

If

THEOREM.

5.

tablet

For

zero.

(or row)
A

obviously

yieldsAD

is resolvable

by

Art.

given tablet simply

COR.

Hence

the

to

of

(or row) be

D,

this

portional
pro-

proportion

" mD,

into

Thus

But

mC,

mD,

columns

column

inference.

(or row)

the

second

proportional.Hence

are

The

value

make

you

again if you

(or row) ; nor

column

tablet.

important
one

other

A"mC,

its two

==

vanishes.

an

if to

changed

a
usefullysimplifies

because

is zero,

tablet

column

one

meaning AD-BC,

sometimes

This

6.

or

if

if A

Thus

is AB-BA
by definition,

zero,

the other,

hence

BO;

tablet

the
other.

the

to

not

Equally

is identical with

zero.

COR.

of

the

tablet

addition

is

tional
propor-

subtract

instead

adding.
Further,

as

value

the

to

or

makes
In

y.

of

values

^;

viz.

-*

Art.

1, the

"

and

y is

simply x

only general solution, unless

the

; which

of

for

solution

the

zero,

vanish

denominator

of

original equations

is indeed

This

0.

the

if in

c15 C2 become

terms

column

one

39

BILINEAR.

that

"

case

y
we

^ ;
can

Conversely,this

absolute
0 and

also

the

deciding nothing
equate
shows

the

afa

two

aj)1

equivalent
the

that
do

not

value

to

two

vanish.

0.

The

equations shall
It

arbitrary.

results

be

from

last is the

condition

which

provides

mutually consistent,though x and y

eliminatingx and y, leaving their

"tO

TRILINEAR

7.

Begin

from

the

TABLETS.

problem of

three

[aBx
+ b5y4- csz

simpleequations,

OJ

present three equationsto be fulfilled by only two

jese

/iy

/v"

viz.
quantities,

and

disposable

if

they

all divided

are

self-consistent.
equationsare not certainly
Our
an
equation of condition will remain.

by

If #, y,

z.

The

three

be eliminated,

first business

vestigat
in-

is to

it.
From

the two

firstequationstreated

abandoningcircular order, we

in which

as

at

the

"

substitute for xyz

givenequation,
to them, and you get
provedproportional

-fc

(1)

Call it

F3

Then

0.

a,

is linear in

aj)9cs.This is the
compatible. It is seen
De Morgan wished
to

F3

equationsshall be
from eliminating
Professor
x, y, z.
tablets Eliminants.
Why Gauss entitled them
explains.Spottiswoodeapparentlyintroduced

(2) F3

Then

fy"c"

of
^3 ^s superlinear

the
obliterating

constituents

column

aa, thus

we

or

row

see

as

the

as

call these

row.

one

the third order.

coefficient of aa is obtained in
last written that are
in the

reducingF8 to

t.-ihk-tl"v \\liirli,/.. rnust

result

in a8, 63,c3, that is,

Hence
also in any row.

as

The

to

is linear

in its third

Fn

condition

the excellent notation

a2

for the value written above.

quantities

Determinants, no

bl cl
62 C2

at

the three

0.

c.

that the three

then

of Art. 1, but

have

In the third
now

end

!)""multiplied.

(1)by
same

EXPANSION

The

same

process

OF

is used

with

41

TRILINEAR.

63and

c3, producing

c.

...

and

Finallythe signsof

justas

in the

bilinear

each

In

of

having

the

term

three

In

of

and

factors,but
row

Thus

in

its own

no

three
is any

term

column.

when

F3 is given

from
in

tracted
con-

three apparent binomials.

the three

y ; then

given equations you may exchange the position

by eliminating
y, x, z you obtain

an

but you

or

and
positive

(the diagonal slopingdown

aj)2c3

leftto right)is positiveas before.

form, we can expand it into
8.

alternate

six terms, three

of its own

with another

c0

V3 are

"

term

factor combined

of

aj)2

is formed

Evidently F3
negative;

the terms

cannot

infer that

with the b column

U3

the

reverses

0;

ca

F3. In fact,to exchangethe a column

Thus it changesF3 into
signof
62
.

6,0,

That

just reverses
effect follows from
exchangingany two
Thus
generally

is,to exchange the

sign of F3.

The

columns

Again,

same
or

rows.

first and

second

columns

the
tiguous
con-

"1

OF

EXCHANGE

Observe, that

COLUMNS

if three binomials
+

maa

the

multipliers
mt

therefore
linear in
9.

does not

V3

n,

is linear in

regardto

any

THEOREM.

expressedby

as

the

column

constituents.

three

are

nothing of

these

column

V3

of

4- pal
H-cra

contain

ROWS.

OR

before saw,

we

Further, 7 say, To

as

exchange

rows

a1? a2, a3,

Evidentlyit
to any

is

row.

and

columns

alter the value of

V3. In proof,multiplythe three equations

numbers
givenin Art. 7, by disposable
m, n, p
m, n, p, and so assume
the three productsare added togetherthe coefficients of y
that when
vanish.
There will remain
and z may
0, and as
(ma^ + ?ia2-f pa3)#
do not admit #=0, we
have three equationsconnecting m, n,p\ viz.
we
=

a,m -I-a2?i+

3p

01

=o'
Ji7H+ "g?l_l_
])^p
cjn + c.2n-f C3p
and

be

that these may

need

compatible,we
k
Cl C2

by eliminatingm,

OJ

o,

"

n, p.

and
changed to columns
nothing but V3 with rows
columns
to rows,
positivediagonalaj)2c3.Every
retainingthe same
find by developingV3 and S3 that theyare identical:
learner will easily
but there is an
advantage here in general argument applicableto
bility
higher orders. $3 0 and V3 0, being each a condition of compatiof the previousequations,
must
contain the same
relation of the
constituents. S3 is a linear function of its column
aj)^ ; so is V3 a
linear function of its row
ajb^. But $3 0, Fa 0 being derivable
from
the other, there is no
one
possiblerelation but $3 /z V3 in
be free from a^Cj. But the same
which
arguments will prove
n must
also from a3b3c3.Therefore
that p is free from
a262c2,
/-t is wholly
Make
numerical.
6, 0, ct 0 and this will not affect ft. But this
Here

S3

is

makes
and

But

that the

definition.
or

/Lt =

l.
"".

minor

two

Hence,
This

i-;.I).

on

then

tablets

M.

identical

implied in their
this assumption for bland c,, we
find F3
A\
is the umuersal
value of /^ ur
in
all
F;! #,
are

was

ON

In

10.

SUPPLEMENT

VANISHING.

43

the

developed value of F3 (Art. 7) if 63 0

does not contain
get simply F3
as \ 64 c, which
av or

you

two

constituents

and

c3, and

made

are

be

may

wholly inefficient
by

changed

to

When

and

the

greatest

Since

F3

is

0,

vanishing of b3

""
minor

other,

az.

These

*"**

major square is divided into two

complemental rectangles,the vanishing of one
the

c3

Thus

zero.

So

the

and

tablet

rectangle

only the

has

and

squares

two

two

obliterates
for

squares

its

factors.

11.

column,

can

we

multiply any
a

column

or

can

be

or

consist

row

F3s

joined into

B +

Further,

the

F3

A'
B'

exchange
This

can

leaves

only be

It follows

column

if two

For

zero.

Second

Order

to

multiplies F3 by

Binomials,

we

resolve the tablet

only in

differ

singlerow

A0
B0

mA'

A'

A,

Bf

B0

C'

Cn

contiguous columns
exchange

or

to

if

; and

into

two.

singlecolumn

AQ
B'

B0

C'

CQ

(or rows) be identical,

changes F3

them

it

before.

was

to

F3.

Hence

to
(or row) be proportional

column

(or row), the tablet

may

is

instance, if av

For

zero.

assume

ax

wa2,

rac

gives

every

Bilinears,that

the

Yet

F8

"

F8.

to a,2,62,
c2, we

This

or

of

m,

F3 exactly what
when
F3 0.

that if

and

row

every

by

row,

12.

of

universally,

one

n,

function

the

any
of

which

A+m,

in

as

argue

column,

Converselytwo

linear

a2

62 c,

6t

contiguous

bv ct are

mb.2,cl

portional
pro-

??ic2,then

44

TO

and

the

SOLVE

FOR

last tablet

X,

y,

is zero,

SIMPLE

IN

EQUATIONS.

its first and

because

second

row

are

identical.
What

has

columns

is

tablet

by

of any

tablet

enunciated

14.

rows

or

contiguous
two

any

rows

columns,

but

increase

NEW

in

before

as

Second

the

in

changed in value, if
decrease
proportionalto

is not

V3

(or column). Thus

those

two

of two

(or columns) does

rows

argument

same

column) receives
row

this Article

or

since

multiply

the

1.

that

proves

in

contiguous

The

13.

said

evidentlytrue

of

exchange

been

or

have

we

shown

in

V3

the

same

Order
any
some

row

now

(or
other

propertiesas

F2.

PROBLEM

to

ai" +

solve for x, y,
b

cz

in the three

0,

0,

equations

Assume

Eliminate

d,

Ajc, d2

the x, y,

A^x, d3

A3x.

visible;then

here

The

last tablet may

Then

be resolved into two,

a,

0.

namely:

I,c,
0.

Multiplythe
each

constituent

former

of these

by

of the first column

a

x,

and, as

an

of the latter

equivalence,
multiply
by xt

THE

In

the

values

first column

dv d2,ds.

PROBLEM

the

of

last restore

solves for

for

Ajc, Ajc, Aax

have

Dx

dl Cl

b,dl

at

0;

are

easy
The

symmetry.
If

COR.

to

we

remember:

method

each

-,

suggests the

in

succeeds

make

0.

from

Then

obtain

the

"3 C3

PROBLEM.

To

P} Q, R, p, q,

X, then

we

ds
eliminate

may

X\

involve

two

equations

=0)

+r*

qx

the

from

or

other

quantities.First,put

have

pX
Eliminate

(px2
where

proportion
"

15.

-Dz

other, by entire

Orders.

Higher

x2

0.

Ifi

you

0,

similar steps
By perfectly

x.

a,

These

their

if

Then

you

which

45

SOLVED.

qx

solve for x;
i.-e.
=

.(1).

TWO

PROBLEMS

Again,writingin

the

original
+ Q)
'(Pa;

(px
eliminate

which

.r, as

if P,r +

q) x

4-

and

KL1MINATION.

OF

px

Px

px

4-

ordinarycoefficients.

were

Q,

0]
Oj

R
r

expanded,gives
PxR

Eliminate

QR

+
r

px

PR

or

between

0,

(1) and

(2),which

gives

required.
eliminate

To

from

+ Sbx*
few;3

the two

Bex + d

\ax*+2bx
+c
First,multiplythe last by

a,

the elimination
a

2b

b 2c

2",

of
a

2c d

b d
of two

or

0.
;

b,

Art. 15,

2c, r

equalroots

be

ab
b

By conductingelimination

second

equationsof
c, p

2=0,

attain
process, we
the three
Assume
-"niticipate.
a

0,

subtract

and

equations,

d.

yields

2bc

This is the condition

17.

last with the two

the two
/.

Hence

0,

PROBLEM.

Compare

"

2_

the result

16.

QR

that is,

by

Then

in the

from

three

relations

b d

given cubic.
givensimpleequations

which

were

of Art.
"".jiiations

7.

not

easy

Kliminatc

to
//

AN

IDENTICAL

9 CONSTITUENTS,

EQ. BETWEEN

twice,(1)from the

ALL

first;(2) from the second

two

47

ARBITRARY.

and

third.

Hence

get

we

from

which, by eliminating
#,
equation

aa

But, otherwise

F3

obtain

U=

0, if we

define U

by

the

ba

eliminated, we

find,as the condition

of

compatibility

0.

Therefore

F3

we

contains

we
By inspection,

0.

"7=0

the

see

relation of the constituents

same

that

U, equallywith

6j,cr Since then ?7 and F vanish together,we

U=fj,.V3,in which yu,does not involve alt b1nor cx.
1, 6X 0, Cj 0
suppose
at
a,,

Fs, is
have
To

as

linear in

necessarily

determine

/i,

c2

and

100

bn ba

",',

100

O^a
so

that in this

value

of

//, for

case
particular

all values

of

all the nine constituents

are

18.

trilinear

To

remember

largerand

U=

62F3,or /-t 52. This then is the

altbiycltor universally
U=bz. F3, while
arbitrary. Q.E.D.

this
mark

out

important equation, write

its minor

The

square.

the

factor

square

b2is

in

the centre.

'2

By interchangingrows or columns
obtained.
F3, fresh relations are
claim the central placefor itself.

without
Indeed

no

"

'

3-

alteringthe
one

value

constituent

of
can

TABLET.

QUADRILINEAR

Fourth
To

19.

eliminate

from

x, y, z, u

form

Order.
four

have
a^x 4- b$ + ctz 4 dtu 0, we
Cor. to Art. 14.
First, eliminate from
and

get the proportionsof

values in the fourth

all the

four,and obtain

x,

y, z,

the

first

three

equation whereby

the

tionate
propor-

eliminate
entirely

you

0 ; if

the

equations

these

Next, insert

u.

equationF4

an

given equationseach of
much
from
now
facility

F4 stand for

6, c, dt

developedform of F4 can always be recovered (by attention

to the simple rule given for developingF3) from
the conciser or
form
**ttdeveloped
This

Evidentlyin
So

then

F4 is a

the definition

it must

be

of

any

other
the

equationsbeing arbitrary. Also

free

F4
as

each
a/y^;
in square is linear

of the

from

tablet

thus

as

process

(orrow) by
To

linear,if

order

firstterm

of

F4

others is linear in a^a^

its first column ; so then

in the
m

third

column

one

be

binomial, it may

is

the

row,

of a4
of
as

64c4 d^.
the

given

defined

is

Therefore
must

it be

column.

to every

Being

to

as

linear function

splitinto

two

Likewise

to

order.

the
multiplies

(or row) of such

whole

exchange first and second

of F4, but reverses
term

tablet

by

quadrilinear
tablets by the same
multiply any column

m.

column, exchanges the first and

the sign
signs. It reverses
Thus to exchange the first and
of the third term, also of the fourth.
the sign of F4. Evidently then the same
second column
reverses
The
must
happen by exchanging any two contiguous columns.
same
argument appliesconcerningany two contiguousrows.
second

The

showing

reasoning of
that

the

Art.

tablet

12

their

concerning F3

vanishes, if

one

now

column

appliesto F4
(or row) be pro-

ITS

PROPERTIES

THE

49

SAME.

this
portionalto another column
(or row). From
(as concerningF3 in Art. 13, and concerningF2

F4 is

changed

not

decrease

or

20.

in

in value, if any

proportionto

That

F4

is not

altered

of the term

and

is

same

row

altered.

never

of Art.

the

given equationsby

the

condition
z

and

that

shall

the

sum

forbids

no
a1b^c^d4,

showing that

find

all the

'inl^lplqi

from

form

the

or

doubt, a perfectdemonstration,

; but

for

and

of the

less obvious

the

gument
ar-

orders.

Multiply
and
assign to these multipliers
of the equationsthus multiplied

higher

disappear.
But
Q.
(mal+ na^-}-pa9 + qaj x
four equationsto
have
we
0, hence

will remain

There

tnnpq,

is,no

mine

easier

the

y,

It

elementary than

more

each

column,

or

6), that.

(orcolumn).

row

generallyproved by elaborate
when
F4 is resolved into 24 elements
factors of the

Art.

and columns,
by exchangingrows
inspectionof the separate terms

is

two

in

(or column) receive iner

row

other

some

it further follows

our

thesis
hypo-

determine

viz.

bjn

aji + a3p

b2n+ b3p 4- b4q

c3p +

djm,+ dzn+ d3p

eliminate

we

Cjiw.+ czn +

When

a^q

the

mnpq

0,
0,

c4"/

0,

d4q

0.

result,which

we

may

call

S4

0,

with
exchange of rows
the
involves
Each
is linear in ap^^.
of them
Each
columns.
The
the constituents.
equation$4 0 must
relations between
same
from
be deducible
F4 0. The only possiblerelation,making S4
is independent
in which
has the form $4 yu,F4,
/z
and F4 vanish together,
But
of "VWV
symmetry proves p equallyindependent
shows

$4 differingfrom

in

F4 only

the

other

of every

make

may

the

column;

therefore

Universally then,
by exchanging rows

/a

l,

with

To

find

it,we

on

the

columns.

Evidently this argument

Tablet

is numerical.

1, mM
positivediagonalall
1
both $4 and F4
Then
at6sc3rf4
vanish.
Therefore
F4 is not all
or
S4=F4.

constituents

all the other constituents

holds, however

if the successive definitions follow the

high
same

the

order of the

law.
*

50

SOLUTION

We

21.

have

xyzu

(asbefore)on

Then

solve

now

can

FOUR

OF

the

right.

el

A jflj,
e2

when

EQUATIONS.

four

necting
given simple equationscon-

left side absolute

the

on

SIMPLE

We

proceed as

e1e2e3e4,with
in Art. 14.
Let
terms

9x,

e4

zero

A4cc.

equationbecomes

our

(a4+ A4) x
Eliminate

b4y+

d+u

C4z +

then

x, y, z, u,

blCl

"4

C4

first column

The

Then

two.

the second

being binomial, we
multiplythe left tablet by
also by x ; whence
A

resolve this tablet into

can

and

x,

the first column

of

Cj
0.
c*

In

the second

tablet

we

replaceits

now

column

by

its value

0te,e,04.
Thus

solved

have

we

solve for yt for zy and for

for

By perfectlysimilar steps

x.

u.

if
Finally,

M=

N=

"""

i"4
c4 dt

e4

c?404

a4 c4

^i c.
R

Q=

a,
we

have

"

"

R.

we

COMPLEX

22.
and

Take

four

our

also from

the

LT

DELATION

equationsas

eliminate

from

these two,

a,

6.

51

From

19.

both y and

the three first

whence

and

To

(6.(C3bnc)

in Art.

three last eliminate

b

have

we

"

U=0

which

we

may

Thus

remember

f/"40
=

for

and

F4

0. and

that
be

the

0 express

the
reconciling

Inspectionshows
and //. will
C/4 yLtF4,
*)

by

four

of the

stituents
con-

equations.

like F4, is
"7"4,
these

free from
affect

it will not

condition

same

u,.

linear in

four.
But

Put

ajb^d^

Assume

then

al

l,

it makes

111^

and

that

U4

is,

whence

generally
f/"4
By varying the

order

F..

of the

This

could

elements, we

not

have

have

been

seen.
fore-

other results.
4"2

Observe

in

first term

we

the

have

these

(1) To
of

21

readilyproceed

we

the

to

V4.

The

F4; those

formation; whence

of continuous

law

same

of

of
squares cut from the four corners
diagonal.
being from the positive

aid of Art.

By

23.
with

U4

PROPERTIES

in the centre

is the square

that

linears in ?7are

THESE

OF

GENERALIZATION

tri-

of the

Order,

Fifth

in every

Order

the

value

properties.

same

exchange

and

rows

does

columns

affect

not

T..
(2) Fn is a linear function of
(3) If

row

or

column

(4) To multiplya

row

or

(5) To exchange any

column) changes Fn
(6) If
another

one

row

(7) Fn

is not
decrease

or

row,

one

any

or

be

binomial, the Fn may

column

by

m,

column.

splitinto

multiplies
Fn by

(or column) with

m.

contiguousrow

(or

Fre.

"

(or column) is identical with

(orcolumn), the Fn

row

increase

row

to

be

one

any

altered

or

to
proportional

zero.

in value

proportionedto

when

another

row
row

(orcolumn) receives
or

column.

(8) If Fn be divided
parts,two
of

and

squares

complement

one

24.

To

prove

to fall into four

so
as
along the diagonal,
two
rectangularcomplements, the vanishing

makes

the other

the last

wholly ineffective.

it suffices
universally,

to

prove

it for the

fifth order.
Call the

two

squares

P, S

of the

and

the

complements Q, R.

Then

if

complements,as Q, hav"- :"11 its constituents zero, I say,

and F=P
R is ineffective,
S, justas if R also had all its constituents
of FB when
For every
term
zero.
fullyexpanded, has the form
where mu/n/r an-,
taken
from
two
I, '2, :",I, 5 and no
are
ajbncpdqer,
of
Hence
a
nd
the same.
(the constituents
R) are necesajb4c4
"66ftcfi
in Q, mid
snrilymultipliedby one or nih"T ,,f il
'l.cjlf.^
one

FOR

all

the
of

products

the

second,

vanish.
the

ALL

ORDERS.

if

Consequently,
F

in

is

question

"2

c2

a.

6.

c.

is

equivalent
0

a2

of

the

third

order

and

to

00
00

000
000

and

might

If

theory,

arise

Spottiswoode
he

first

from

two

did

not

investigated

equations

plant
the

the
laws

separately,

first
and

germ

exhibited

yielding

of

this

its

very
vast

P
=

0,

valuable

power.

and

V.

TRACT

INTRODUCTION

these

To

Tables,

solely

Table

I.

series

the

their

because

2, 3, 4,

the

applying

n,

we

and

continued

places.

odd

the
until

Numerical

two

verification

decimal

20

to

added

numbers
is about

A~n

is elementary.

Here

means

from

61

to

77;

vanish.

to

To

formula

reader

The

the

and

II.

AND

...

verify, use

in

compilation

60,

to

up

1, 2, 3,

means

have

of A~"

values

gives

...

and

Tracts

Elementary

four

I.

TABLES

TO

convince

may

it, for instance,

2~n

and

apply

the

of

case

must

himself
when

A"11

to

how

3~n, where

the

is this

searching
37

when

or

Tablets

give only

odd

by

test,

71.

Only

values

of

formula
A

~2m~1

"

(A~l

A~3

A~5

+A-*m~l)

+
...

Table

II. has

"02, '03, '04

values

up

to

insignificant.

The

than

'50

of

xn

and

formula

with

12

decimal

is continued

of

"

places, where

is

means

1, 2, 3,... until

from

verification

A.

(with

ra

any

xn

integer

is

less

r)
(at* +

xm+l

aT"

+
.

compiled

this

table

while

working

(1
at

x)

x"

af* '.

Spence's integral

it has

but

One

much
who

fur himself
ease

jury

give

than

he
fn"m

error

any

L,ri"

wider
is

sagely

tablet
could

use.

incredulous

of

he

disposed

which

the

compose

muCOpying

is

or

tablet.

misprinting,

printed
to

with

use

Thus,

tables

too, he

against

which

verity

can

much

greater

would
I

dct"
can

""

-t

leasl

TABLE

I.

TWENTY

DECIMALS.

55

TAl'.I.K

I.

TWENTY

DECIMALS.

TABLE

I.

TWENTY

DECIMALS.

TABLE

I.

For

TWENTY

i6~"

look

DECIMALS.

to

TABLE

I.

TWENTY

DECIMALS.

59

60

TABLE

I.

For

TWENTY

"

25

look

DECIMALS.

to

5 2".

TABLE

T.

TWENTY

DECIMALS.

Gl

62

TAl'.T.K

I.

TWENTY

DECIMALS.

35-"

i
2

3
4

6
7
8
9

37"

'02857 14285 71428 57142

81 63265 30612
24489
2
33236 i5l6o 34985
6663 89004 58142
39685 84518
190
5

73

02415

J5542

60069

0743"

68783

36251

10

ii

1036

ii

12

29

12

64938

97421

10533

look

12566
05745

27182

16951
86945

284 69917
7

69457
20796
562

13

36""

02702

10

For

27027

89919
67295
72089
20867
89753

144

43991

12

70270

04601
5335

444

"02702

to

6'

TABLE

I.

TWENTY

DECIMALS.

(54

TAl'.LE

I.

TWENTY

DECIMALS.

TABLE

TWENTY

I.

For

"

49

look

DECIMALS.

to

7'

66

TABLE

I.

TWENTY

DECIMALS.

TABLE

I.

TWENTY

67

DECIMALS.

63-

i
2

3
4

8
9
10

"01587 30158
25 19526

73015
32905

87301
01385

48141 34942
39992
634 80129 22777
10
07621 09885
98569
15993
253 87279
4

02973

i
2

3
4

23

66863 9"532
54438
364J3 29085 11607
56" 20447 46333
8 61853 03789

6
7
8

6396
101

"01538 46153 84615 38461

27751
203
3

98888
J3829
4828
75

10

5"2

68

T.vr.LE

I.

TWEXTY

DECIMALS.

II.

TABLE

TABLE

II.

Powers

of

TWELVE

-02,-03,-04,

...

A3a? + "c., when

69

DECIMALS.

does not

up to -50,useful to compute
exceed

(Twelve Decimals.)

J.

TABLE

II.

TWELVE

DECIMALS.

TABLE

II.

TWELVE

DECIMALS.

1-1

TABLE

II.

TWKLVE

DECIMALS.

TABLE

II.

TWELVE

DECIMALS.

73

74

TABLE

11.

TWELVE

DECIMALS.

TABLE

II.

TWELVE

DECIMALS.

75

76

TABLE

II.

TWELVE

DECIMALS.

TABLE

IT.

TWELVE

DECIMALS.

77