ADNAN QADIR

What Does "Soil" Mean?

Soil can be sweet smelling when freshly plowed and crumbly to touch . Soi
can be black in color and rich in nutrients or pale brown and lacking in
nutrients.
Soil has character. It is composed of mineral and organic materials in which
plants and other organisms grow. Soil is the skin of the earth that the life
on our planet depends on for food

"Soil"
Soil is a complex medium that sometimes is
forgotten part of the environmental picture.
Dirt is soil out of place. Our planet
depends on soil for its lifeblood, not dirt.

People who use soil in their careers

include:

Soil Scientist
A soil scientist thinks of the soil as a
natural body composed of mineral and
organic matter, air, and water. These
soil scientists are determining the soils
horizons and suitability of the soil for
plant growth.

Soil for Different Professionals

Geologist
Call soil a loose material, regolith to differentiate it from hard
rock. Because the soil will be acted on by the 5 Soil Forming Factors the
soil will gradually change with time and develop layers we call horizons.

Soil for Different Professionals

Greens Superintendent
Golf Greens are also often
made from manufactured
soil. Golf course greens are
generally made from 85 %
sand and a mixture of soil
and peat. This is needed to
withstand the compaction
of the golfers and the
mowing equipment.

Soil for Different Professionals

Engineer
Engineers deal with soils because they
want to build on soils, rather than
growing plants. Many times soils are not
suited for building houses, roads or
landfills, and modification of the site can
be expensive. Knowing where good soils
are located can aid in the planning of
better and more environmentally friendly
communities. Soil which is suited for
construction is often removed and placed
in areas where the soils are not suitable.

Soil for Different Professionals

Green House Manager
In some instances people
who use soil often need to
manufacture a soil rather
than use the soil made by
the soil forming processes.
Green house managers
often build soil from peat,
topsoil, and sand for use in
growing flowers or
vegetables.

Composition of the mineral

Soil
The composition of the mineral soil on a volume basis is
considered to be 50% solids (mineral or organic) and 50% nonsolids (air or water). Solids are from the weathering of rocks and
minerals and the decomposition of plant and animal remains. In
an "ideal" soil, the air and water are each 25%. However, the
proportion will vary on an hourly, daily and monthly basis.

ROCKS

Rocks and Soil

Rocks
Rocks make up the mineral matter of soils (sand, silt, &
clay). The products of rock weathering that are near surface
of the earth produce the solid mineral particles of the soil.
Rocks are any mineral or aggregate of minerals that form an
essential part of the earth - or rocks are a combination of
minerals.
Rocks, can be defined as extensive mineral bodies, composed
of one or more minerals in varying proportions. The
chemical formula for one chunk of rock, may vary widely
from the another chunk of rock, even though the two rocks
were broken off from the same outcrop.

The Rock Cycle

Types of rocks
Igneous Rocks
Metamorphic Rocks
Sedimentary Rocks

How Igneous Rock Is Formed

Igneous rocks are called fire
rocks and are formed either
underground or above
ground. Underground, they
are formed when the melted
rock, called magma, deep
within the earth becomes
trapped in small pockets. As
these pockets of magma cool
slowly underground, the
magma becomes igneous
rocks.

How Igneous Rock Is Formed

Igneous rocks are also
formed when volcanoes
erupt, causing the magma
to rise above the earth's
surface. When magma
appears above the earth, it
is called lava. Igneous rocks
are formed as the lava
cools above ground

Kinds of Igneous rocks

There are 5 kinds of igneous rocks, depending on the mix of minerals
in the rocks.
1. Granite contains quartz, feldspar & mica
2. Diorite contains feldspar & one or more dark mineral.
Feldspar is dominant.
3. Gabbro contains feldspar & one or more dark mineral. The
dark minerals are dominant.
4. Periodotite contains iron and is black or dark.
5. Pegmatite is a coarse-grained granite with large crystals of
quartz, feldspar and mica

Examples of Igneous Rocks

Granite rocks are igneous
rocks which were formed
by slowly cooling pockets
of magma that were
trapped beneath the earth's
surface. Granite is used for
long lasting monuments
and for trim and decoration
on buildings.

Examples of Igneous Rocks

Scoria rocks are igneous
rocks which were formed
when lava cooled quickly
above ground. You can see
where little pockets of air
had been. Scoria is actually
a kind of glass and not a
mixture of minerals.

Examples of Igneous Rocks

Pumice rocks are igneous rocks
which were formed when lava
cooled quickly above ground. You
can see where little pockets of air
had been. This rock is so light, that
many pumice rocks will actually float
in water. Pumice is actually a kind of
glass and not a mixture of minerals.
Because this rock is so light, it is
used quite often as a decorative
landscape stone. Ground to a
powder, it is used as an abrasive in
polish compounds and in Lava
soap.

Examples of Igneous Rocks

Obsidian rocks are
igneous rocks that form
when lava cools quickly
above ground. Obsidian is
actually glass and not a
mixture of minerals. The
edges of this rock are very
sharp.

Sedimentary Rocks
For thousands, even millions of
years, little pieces of our earth
have been eroded--broken down
and
worn
away
by wind and water. These little
bits of our earth are washed
downstream where they settle to
the bottom of the rivers, lakes,
and oceans. Layer after layer of
eroded earth is deposited on top
of each. These layers are pressed
down more and more through
time, until the bottom layers
slowly turn into rock.

Examples of Sedimentary Rocks

Limestone Rocks
Limestone rocks are
sedimentary rocks that are
made from the mineral
calcite which came from
the beds of evaporated seas
and lakes and from sea
animal shells. This rock is
used in concrete and is an
excellent building stone for
humid regions.

Kinds of sedimentary rocks

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

There are 6 main kinds of sedimentary rocks depending on the appearance of

the rock.
Conglomerate rock has rounded rocks (pebbles, boulders) cemented together
in a matrix.
Sandstone is a soft stone that is made when sand grains cement together.
Sometimes the sandstone is deposited in layers of different coloured sand.
Shale is clay that has been hardened and turned into rock. It often breaks
apart in large flat sections.
Limestone is a rock that contains many fossils and is made of calcium
carbonate &/or microscopic shells.
Gypsum, common salt or Epsom salt is found where sea water precipitates
the salt as the water evaporates.
Porphory rock is when jagged bits of rock are cemented together in a matrix.

Examples of Sedimentary Rocks

Shale Rocks
Shale rock is a type of
sedimentary rock formed
from clay that is compacted
together by pressure. They
are used to make bricks and
other material that is fired
in a kiln

Examples of Sedimentary Rocks

Gypsum Rocks
Gypsum rocks are
sedimentary rocks made up
of sulfate mineral and
formed as the result of
evaporating sea water in
massive prehistoric basins.
It is very soft and is used to
make Plaster of Paris, casts,
molds, and wallboards.

Examples of Sedimentary Rocks

Conglomerate Rocks
Conglomerate rocks are
sedimentary rocks. They
are made up of large
sediments like sand and
pebbles. The sediment is so
large that pressure alone
cannot hold the rock
together; it is also
cemented together with
dissolved minerals

Examples of Sedimentary Rocks

Sandstone Rocks
Sandstone rocks are
sedimentary rocks made
from small grains of the
minerals quartz and
feldspar. They often form
in layers as seen in this
picture. They are often
used as building stones.

How Metamorphic Rock Is

Formed
Metamorphic rocks are rocks
that have "morphed" into
another kind of rock. These
rocks were once igneous or
sedimentary rocks. How do
sedimentary and igneous rocks
change? The rocks are under
tons and tons of pressure, which
fosters heat build up, and this
causes them to change. Close
Examination of metamorphic
rock revealed that some of the
grains in the rock are very
flattened

Types of Metamorphic Rocks

1.

Foliated metamorphic rocks have layers, or banding.

Slate is transformed shale. It splits into smooth slabs.

Schist is the most common metamorphic rock. Mica is the most common
mineral.

Gneiss has a streaky look because of alternating layers of minerals.

2.

Non-foliated metamorphic rocks are not layered.

Marble is transformed limestone.

Quartzite is very hard.

Examples of Metamorphic Rocks

Schist Rocks
Schist rocks are
metamorphic. These rocks
can be formed from basalt,
an igneous rock; shale, a
sedimentary rock; or slate,
a metamorphic rock.
Through tremendous heat
and pressure, these rocks
were transformed into this
new kind of rock.

Examples of Metamorphic Rocks

Gneiss Rocks
Gneiss rocks are
metamorphic. These rocks
may have been granite,
which is an igneous rock,
but heat and pressure
changed it. The mineral
grains in the rock are
flattened through
tremendous heat and
pressure and are arranged
in alternating patterns.

IDENTIFICATION OF ROCKS:
Is the rock good foundation material?
Will it stand in road cut?
Can it be ripped rather then blasted?

IDENTIFICATION OF ROCKS
Properties
Color

Texture

Mineral
constituents

Igneous

Sedimentary

i)Light (acid)
(granite,felsite)
ii)dark(basic)(gabb
ro, basalt)

Color of earth

Crystalline
Granular
Equigranular
In equigranular

CLASTIC
Rodaceous(>2mm)
(visible from naked eyes)
Arenaceous(harsh feeling)
Argillaceous(smell)
NON CLASTIC
(limestone)

Foliated
layered(slate,
schist)(gneiss)
Non foliated
massive

Calcite (limestone)
Quartz (sandstone)
Cementing material (gives
strength)
CaCO3,Fe2 O3

Same as of
parent materials

Feldspar

Metamorphic
Light (more
depth)

Dark

(marble)

Contd..

IDENTIFICATION OF ROCKS
Properties

Igneous

Sedimentary

Metamorphic
Reorientation
(shale to slate) Recrystallization
(sandstone to quartzite)
limestone to marble

Mode of
occurrence

Intrusive
Intermediate
extrusive

Non clastic
(precipitation)
Clastic
(mechanical

Importance
to highway
Engineer

Produces a top
quality aggregate,
road metal and
good sub grade
Stable road cut

Limestone is
used as road
metal, base and
subbase Material
and sand
It is cheaper and
easily available in
Pakistan.

Compressive
strength
(Kg/cm2)

1000-2500

300-2500

1000-2500

Contd..

IDENTIFICATION OF ROCKS
Properties

Igneous

Sedimentary

Metamorphic

Apparent specific gravity

2.53-2.67

2.5-2.8

2.4-2.8

Porosity

0.4-4 %

0.4-4.4%

0.3-2.1%

Unit weight (pcf)

158-167

156-175

150-175

Absorption (%)

0.2-1.5

0.1-1.7

0.1-1.8

USES OF ROCKS FOR CIVIL ENGINEER

Rock

Utility

Granite

Ornamental Work

Slate

Flagstones, blackboards, billiard table tops

Limestone

73 % source of crushed stone

Basalt

10 % source of crushed stone)

Alluvial and glacial

deposits

Sand and gravels

Sandstone

For foundry molds, glass (93% needed), filtering

medium

Mudstone

Clay is used in bricks, pipes, tiles, pottery

Kaolinite ceramics, bentonite for drilling in
mud soil