TANKS

Taken from CVX Gray Manual

100 Overview of Tank Design

Abstract
This section covers the basic design requirements for atmospheric pressure and internal pressure (up to 2.5
psig) tanks. Company and industry specifications are discussed and the data required before sizing and
designing a new tank are listed.
Information on tank sizing is given, including procedures for determining safe operational height (SOH)
and low level alarms. High level alarms and high-high level shutdowns on tanks are briefly discussed.
For design of low pressure (up to 15 psig) and fiberglass tanks, see Section 1200.
Contents
110 Phases of Tank Engineering
120 General Considerations
121 Atmospheric Pressure Tanks
122 Internal Pressure Tanks
130 Basic Data
131 Service-related Data
132 Site-related Data
140 Tank Sizing
141 Factors Limiting Tank Dimensions
142 Diameter versus Height
143 Safe Operational Height and Low Level Alarm Determination
150 Tank Overfill Protection
160 Industry Codes and Practices

110 Phases of Tank Engineering

The design and construction of a tank involves the following primary phases of engineering work before
work can begin:
1. Compiling the basic data (Section 130 and Appendix B)
2. Sizing the tank (Section 140)
3. Selecting type of bottom and roof (Sections 200 and 400)
4. Designing the tank (Sections 200, 300, 400, and 500), and
5. Selecting appurtenances (Sections 600, 700 and Appendix A).
6. Considering site layout (Sections 700 and 800).
Sections 200 and 400 discuss and illustrate the types of bottoms and roofs.
Advantages and disadvantages of the various designs are also given. Be sure to refer to Section 160 for
information about industry codes and practices that apply to tank engineering.

120 General Considerations

This section covers the basic design requirements for atmospheric pressure and internal pressure (up to 2.5
psig) tanks. Use of the company and industry specifications is discussed. Design considerations for low
pressure (up to 15 psig) and fiberglass tanks are covered in Section 1200.

121 Atmospheric Pressure Tanks

General Requirements
Tanks designed for atmospheric pressure usually have cylindrical shells with flat bottoms . For such a tank,
the primary stress on the shell is developed by the product hydrostatic pressure at the design fill height
called hoop stress. The hydrostatic pressure develops a significant stress in a flat tank bottom only
around the outer edge where it is joined to the shell. A ring of butt welded annular plates, with a thickness
greater than the lap welded bottom plates, is required under certain conditions.
Tank roofs are designed for the dead load weight of the roof plus a live load of not less than 25 psf.
A stiffening ring (top angle) on the shell is required at the junction of a fixed roof with the shell to support
the lateral force (discontinuity stress) applied to the shell by combined load on the roof. The top angles are
not there to support lateral forces.
A stiffening ring (wind girder) on the shell is also required on all open top tanks.

API 650 Requirements

For most flat bottom, vertical cylindrical storage tanks, API 650 is the standard of choice.
Using API 650 for water tanks retains the possibility of converting the water tank into a hydrocarbon
tank in the future, providing flexibility in a long term capital asset.
Use Appendix A gives simplified rules for the design and construction of small tanks that have shell
thicknesses not exceeding inch.
Use Appendix J gives simplified rules for the design and fabrication of tanks not exceeding 20 feet in
diameter that can be completely shop fabricated.
Tanks built to Appendices A and J can be obtained at lower cost, but the simplified design requirements
and construction details should be carefully reviewed with regard to reliability required for the tanks
service conditions.
Company Specifications and API 650. Large tanks constructed in accordance with API 650 and
Company Specifications (TAM-MS-967 Welded Storage Tanks, Fixed Roof or Open Top and TAM-MS968 Floating Roofs and Internal Floating Covers) are highly reliable as long as service conditions are no
more severe than the design allows. These specifications significantly increase reliability by:
1. Requiring use of materials that resist brittle fracture at the design temperature.
2. Limiting welding procedures to those that are known to produce high quality welds.
3. Increasing the extent of radiographic inspection, and requiring magnetic particle inspection to assure a
high quality of fabrication.
4. Requiring hardness testing of production welds for critical service conditions when stress-corrosion
cracking can occur, and requiring ultrasonic inspection in addition to radiography.
5. Requiring more conservative design in seismically active locations.
This high reliability is especially important in environmentally sensitive and populous areas, and areas
where a tank failure could cause a major property loss or safety hazard.

API 12 Series Tanks

The API 12 series production tanks are usually found only at production facilities. These tanks provide the
production industry with standard size tanks of adequate safety and reasonable economy. The economy is
achieved by limiting the material specifications for plates and other components and allowing safe but
lower standards for welding, inspections and, in some instances, testing.
Similar to Appendix J of API 650, the API 12 rules for design and construction are relatively simple, and
tanks designed to these codes are relatively inexpensive.
Capacity is limited to 10,000 bbl maximum, and the tanks cannot be considered to be as reliable as API
650 tanks. They are most suitable for remote production sites, where the highest reliability is not required
and anticipated service life is relatively short.
API 12B is for field assembled tanks of bolted construction and is very useful for the installation of tanks
at sites where hot work (welding) cannot be safely performed, or at remote locations where properly

qualified welders are not available. API 12D and F are for field welded and shop welded tanks
respectively.
Company Specification. TAM-MS-4813, Small Production Tanks, supplements API 12B, D and F
primarily in the material requirements for fabrication.

122 Internal Pressure Tanks

Several API codes cover design of closed top (fixed roof) internal pressure tanks where temperature is
below 200F:
For atmospheric tanks use API 650.
For higher pressure, not exceeding 2.5 psi, use Appendix F to API 650.
For low internal pressures between 2.5 - 15 psi, use API Standard 620.
For internal pressures higher than 15 psi use ASME Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII, which is
covered in the Pressure Vessel Manual.
Frangible roof joint calculations will be the same for tanks with internal pressures up to 2.5 psi. The
emergency venting calculations are the same with the exception that the vents are changed to hold
pressure before opening. This will help prevent rupture and release of contents in the event of
overpressure. It is recommended that both emergency venting and a frangible roof joint be provided,
whenever possible.
Furthermore, either the uplift at the base of the shell resulting from the internal pressure must be less than
the total weight of the shell plus the roof, or anchoring to a ring wall must be provided along with some
other restrictions that limit the tanks to relatively small sizes. This limits the frangible roofs to tanks larger
than 20 40 feet.
Tanks designed for low pressures, up to 15 psi, according to API 620 tend to have (on larger tanks) more
complex geometries compared to cylindrical flat bottom tanks for atmospheric pressure. Low pressure
tanks are covered in Section 1200 of this manual.

130 Basic Data

This section discusses the data required to size and design a new tank. It briefly discusses use of the
Company Data Sheets TAM-DS-967 and TAM-DS-968 located in the specification section of this manual.
Construction of a new tank should begin by careful consideration of operational needs, maintenance
requirements, and jurisdictional regulations. The following information is needed for optimizing the
economics of tank design and construction, including tank sizing and site use:

Service-related Data
Overfill protection
Planned and potential service
Required operating capacity
Liquid properties
Anticipated corrosion rates
Required hydraulic head
Fill and drain rates

Site-related Data
Air and ground water quality regulations (now and near future)
Local earthquake and weather conditions
Site conditions
Fire protection requirements

131 Service-related Data

Planned and Potential Service
Future service sometimes dictates tank selection rather than the liquid properties and required capacity of
the first stock to be stored. Service most often will affect choice of roof type. For example, finished jet
fuel may need to be stored in a cone roof tank equipped with an internal floating roof, to maintain product
specifications with respect to water content. Also, crude storage tanks at refineries normally have floating
roofs so the tanks can accept many types of crude oil in the future.

Required Operating Capacity

Often a comparison of processing unit capacity versus ability to ship product is important in order to get
an accurate fix on required storage capacity. An error in determining the amount of storage required can
result in unnecessary and costly plant slowdowns or shutdowns.
Tank capacity is defined three ways:
1) nominal capacity is the total volume of the tank to the top of the shell expressed in round
numbers;
2) gross capacity is the same volume accurately stated; and
3) operating capacity is usable volume from low level alarms to SOH (Safe Operational Height).
The difference between 2) and 3) represents storage which is unavailable because of limitations on both
the maximum fill height and the low pump out. The designer should always assume that the capacity
given to him for determining tank dimensions is the operating capacity unless it is clearly stated
otherwise. Unavailable inventory should be held to a minimum and must not be overlooked in sizing a
tank.
Unused Storage VolumeTop of Tank. Most operating organizations have standards which specify the
safe overflow or damage height for new tanks, and these standards will fix the unused storage volume at
the top of the tank.
For cone roof tanks, this storage will generally be 6 to 12 inches below shell height. A value of 6 inches
below rafter connections or any shell opening is recommended when the specific standard is not known.
In a floating roof tank, the seal and centering mechanisms set the highest roof position because of 1)
concern for mechanical damage should they rise above the top angle of the tank and 2) the need to
maintain a constant seal to meet air quality regulations.
Individual tank vendors seal designs should be examined to establish the highest allowable roof elevation.
This elevation should be used in determining maximum usable tank volume. The value of any additional
storage available in a particular design should be taken into account when evaluating vendor proposals.
For tanks located in earthquake Zones 3 and 4, consideration should be given to increasing the unused
volume at the top of the tank to allow for sloshing of the contents that may occur during an earthquake
thus avoiding stock spillage and damage to the roof and upper shell. Generally, a freeboard of 2 feet will
be sufficient.
In considering whether to provide this freeboard, the probability of occurrence of an earthquake with a full
tank and the probable loss due to sloshing if freeboard is not provided should be weighed against the value
of the unused storage capacity. Normally, freeboard for sloshing may be justified for tanks which are full
or nearly so for extended periods of time, such as for seasonal storage, but is not justified for tanks which
are almost continually being drawn down and refilled.
Generally, the secondary seal design requires greater reduction of SOH than does sloshing.
Unavailable InventoryBottom of Tank. The portion of the tank height that should be allocated to
unavailable inventory at the bottom is set by a combination of conditions, many of which are within the
designers control. In the final design, every reasonable and economic consideration should be given to

minimizing this inventory. Crude oil tanks, where more unavailable inventory is needed to accumulate
water, are an exception.
The minimum operating level for a cone roof must satisfy the suction requirements of the withdrawal
pumps. For tanks with a cone down bottom and center sump, or a cone up bottom with bottom nozzle, the
unavailable inventory can be reduced to nearly zero in some cases.
The minimum operating level of a floating roof is limited by internal appurtenances such as mixers and
suction and fill lines or by the landed roof position. The most economical minimum roof level can be
achieved by weighing the cost to modify internal appurtenances against the value of any additional
inventory obtained by the modification. Roof legs should also be factored into the design.
Section 143 gives procedures for determining SOH including high and low level alarms.

Liquid Properties
Data on the following liquid properties is required for both tank selection and design:
Specific gravity
True vapor pressure, psia
Corrosiveness
Flash point
Viscosity
Knowing the vapor pressure and flash point of the stock is very important in choosing type of roof. Some
stock may require pressurized storage. If your stock does, the design process for pressurized storage is
covered in Section 1200.
Some stock such as high-viscosity or high-pour-point crudes have special requirements such as heated,
insulated storage to make the stock pumpable.
Another characteristic of heavier oils is their tendency to stratify or layer out when uncirculated. To
provide a uniform mixture within a storage vessel it is sometimes desirable to install mechanical mixers.
These devices are often found on tanks in gasoline service where additives are slugged into the tank and
require thorough mixing into the product.

Anticipated Corrosion Rates

Corrosion rates can be determined from the following sources:
Inspection data for similar services at that location
Data collected in Section 300 of this manual and Section 700 of the Corrosion Prevention and
Metallurgy Manual
Consultation with the CRTC Materials and Equipment Engineering Unit

Required Hydraulic Head

Hydraulic head requirements from upstream and downstream facilities can impact tank location and
elevation, tank height, and possible pumping requirements. The engineer must work closely with
operations or engineers in these facilities to determine these requirements. Examples are:
Feed pump suction pressure requirements for process plants
Discharge pressure of product pumps
Ship loading or discharge pressures and rates

Fill and Drain Rates

The short-range process or shipping requirements should be analyzed so that an accurate fill/drain rate can
be determined. Fill/drain rates determine breathing and venting requirements. These requirements are
especially important for cone roof tanks installed with special vent devices. These devices relieve the
pressure or vacuum which may be generated during the fill/drain operation. Since the vents installed on a
cone roof tank are a purchased item, overdesign of venting requirements will result in unnecessary cost.
Also, an over-sized breathing valve may chatter and become damaged. On the other hand, a low

estimate of venting requirements could result in a shell failure caused by overpressuring (when filling) or
pulling a vacuum (when emptying).

132 Site-related Data

The following site-related data must be gathered before sizing and designing a new tank:

Air and Groundwater Quality Regulations

Government regulations impact almost every aspect of tank location and design. It is critical that the
engineer understand all of the federal, state or local regulatory requirements which affect the
project.

Local Earthquake and Weather Conditions

Refer to Section 100 of the Civil and Structural Manual for the seismic and wind classifications of your
area. Section 500 of the same manual gives rainfall quantities in many of the key areas of the Company.
Consult your local weather bureau if your area is not included in these tables.

Site Conditions
Know your site conditions. The allowable soil bearing pressure may be the controlling factor in selecting
tank height. Nonuniformity of soil conditions may also limit tank height. Some differential settlement
between the tank periphery and the center of the tank normally can be accommodated, and uniform
settlement over the entire area is seldom a problem except in the design of tank lines. However, very little
differential settlement around the periphery of the tank can be tolerated, particularly for floating roof tanks
where binding of the roof may occur. Refer to Section 350 for specific recommendations on permissible
settlements.
In seismically active areas, the site should be investigated to determine the potential for liquefaction
during an earthquake. Tanks should not be located on sites subject to liquefaction, or such sites should be
stabilized through densification of the underlying soils, if feasible. Similarly, where appropriate, sites in
seismically active areas should be investigated for landslides or tsunamis. For the design of tanks to resist
earthquakes, see Section 530.
Other site conditions may affect tank dimensions:
The amount of land available often sets diameter restrictions on the tanks to be installed. Also, how near
the proposed tank can safely be put to adjacent structures and tanks often limits its size. (See Section 800.)
Topography and required earthwork may limit tank diameter and thus increase tank height.
Prevailing height in an established tank field may dictate tank height, to maintain uniform access
between tanks and general appearance of the group.
Topography will also have a major impact on the drainage and impounding system design.
Local regulations often affect maximum tank height.

Fire Protection Requirements

Section 800 lists requirements that affect tank dimensions, site selection, location and spacing . These
requirements include:
Spacing between tanks and minimum distance from property lines. (Refer to NFPA 30.)
Type of roof required for certain services. For example, floating roofs are required on tanks with stock
having a flash point lower than 100F, unless vapor recovery or padded gas/inert systems are used. The
padded gas/inert system requires additional maintenance.

140 Tank Sizing

This section helps the engineer determine the most practical and economical dimensions for the required
capacity. It discusses factors which may limit the dimensions. It contains procedures for determining SOH
and low level alarms.

141 Factors Limiting Tank Dimensions

Site Limitations
A specific number of tanks may be required in an area of limited available land space, especially in
multiple service areas where different stocks are stored for separate process streams. Available land space
can, therefore, limit the diameter of a tank and favor increasing its height to obtain the required capacity.
Consideration should also be given to leaving land space available for future tank construction, and to
providing adequate space for piping and sufficient access for maintenance equipment.
It is desirable to have overhead walkways connect multiple, relatively small tanks that are close together
to facilitate gauging. Therefore, it is most convenient to design all of the small interconnected tanks the
same height and obtain the required capacity by adjusting tank diameter.
Also evaluate the hazards that tanks and adjacent equipment or property present to each other, to assure
the most efficient use of available site space. This evaluation should emphasize personnel safety.
Consideration should be given to fire danger, chemical contamination, odor nuisance, and noise emission.
Section 820 discusses location and spacing in more detail.

Economic Considerations
Economic factors can influence the choice made between diameter and height for the design capacity of a
tank. Both the initial investment and long-term operating and maintenance costs should be considered. Let
the vendor propose the costs for the Company to evaluate. Some general trends are discussed below, but
they may not always hold true. Plant locations, tank design, and type of service can change the relative
magnitudes of the economic factors. Therefore, individual plants should make a separate economic
analysis for each category of tank.
Costly real estate would favor reducing the diameter and increasing the height, despite the availability of
sufficient land space for a larger diameter and the possible disadvantages of greater height noted above.
Furthermore, larger diameter tanks require thicker shell plates, which may increase materials and
construction costs.
Also, some steel mills may not stock the thicker (more than about 1.25 inch) plate. Smaller diameter tanks
usually have a lower foundation cost for the same tank capacity, because of the smaller circumference
ringwall and area of compacted fill under the bottom. Insulation and coating or painting costs are
generally higher for larger diameter tanks, due to the greater surface area of the shell.

Seismic Design Limitations

In seismically active areas, earthquake design criteria may limit tanks to heights below what would
otherwise be economical. For small tanks (under about 4000-bbl capacity) greater height-to-diameter
ratios can be used by anchoring the tank.
However, anchoring is generally not recommended because the anchors impose large local loading on the
tank shell. Figure 100-1 gives the maximum height-to diameter ratio for tanks in four seismic zones,
described in Section 100 of the Civil and Structural Manual. Do not use the height-to-diameter ratios
listed for assessing existing tanks. Refer to Section 530 of this manual for more detailed information on
seismic and wind design. Normally, seismic requirements will govern design limitations.

Mechanical Design Limitations

Maximum size can be restricted by one or both of the following:
1. Thickness of the bottom course or ring, which is restricted by API 650 to a maximum of 1 inch.

2. Load bearing capabilities of the soil supporting a tank, or the cost of a piled foundation.

Fig. 100-1 Tank Height-to-Diameter Ratio, by Seismic Zone

142 Diameter versus Height

Choosing the optimum diameter/height combination involves tradeoffs. Consider the following:

Higher, Thinner Tanks

Technical factors favoring reduced diameter and increased height are:
Minimized unavailable stock. The tank must always remain filled above the low level alarms during
operation, which is a fixed distance above the bottom of the tank (see Section 143) regardless of the
diameter. Therefore, a smaller diameter reduces the amount of unavailable stock.
Maximized head in tank. Increased height of stock level above the low level alarms increases the head
available to assist with the transfer of stock out of the tank.
Reduced cost of floating roof. The cost of a floating roof is proportionally higher than that of the shell,
for a given tank capacity.
Increased mixing efficiency. Mixing energy dissipates across large diameter tanks.
Easier removal of sediment and easier cleaning. Outside wash and siphon hoses can function across
entire bottom of small diameter tanks.
Better water draw. Reduced bottom surface area and shorter maximum distance to sump minimizes
formation of birdbaths.
Reduced vapor space in fixed roof tanks. The volume above the top of the shell under the roof increases
with increasing diameter.
Higher foundation loads. Affect size and cost of foundation.
Lower foundation loads. Affect size and cost of foundation.

Shorter, Wider Tanks

Technical factors favoring increased diameter and reduced height are:
Better resistance to overturning during earthquake. A larger overturning moment is developed in tanks
with a large height-to-diameter ratio.
Reduced floating roof maintenance. The speed and distance of floating roof movement, when filling or
emptying, is reduced by increasing the diameter, which reduces wear on the seal assembly.
Reduced depth of sediment. The same volume of sediment is distributed over a greater surface area in a
larger diameter tank.

Guidelines
8

The information in this section gives rough guidelines for initially choosing height, assuming that other
factors do not limit you. With few exceptions, tank height is a multiple of 6 or 8 feet. (A multiple of 10
feet is one acceptable exception.) Tank fabricators generally prefer the larger multiple since it reduces the
number of field circumferential welds. Figure 100-2 may be helpful in selecting the preliminary size.
Fixed Roof Tanks. Fixed roof tanks are available in many sizes. For fixed roof tank capacities less than
25,000 bbl, the economical height is generally 40 feet or less. In the capacity range of 25,000 to 100,000
bbl, the economical height will generally be 48 feet. In this range, there is little difference in steel cost
between 40-foot and 48-foot tanks. Usually, 48 - 52 or 60 feet can be economical. Check with vendor for
price information.
Floating Roof Tanks. The economical height for floating roof tank capacities up to 200,000 bbl will
generally be one course (8 feet) higher than for a fixed roof tank of the same capacity . This is due to the
higher unit cost of the floating roof in comparison to the shell costs. For capacities over 200,000 bbl, the
economical height will generally be 56 to 64 feet.
Tanks with Internal Floating Roof. The economical height of a fixed roof tank in which an internal
floating roof will be used generally will be the same as for a floating roof tank of the same capacity.

143 Safe Operational

Determination

Height

and

Low

Level

Alarm

As discussed in Section 130, many factors affect the SOH and low level alarms of the tank. It is the
engineers responsibility to work closely with operations to develop SOH and low level alarms which will
permit safe operation of the tank while minimizing the unavailable space in the tank. These dimensions
should be recalculated any time work done on a tank could affect the SOH or low level alarm.

Safe Operational Height

For new tanks or tanks not limited by shell strength (see Section 630), the SOH shall be limited to the
lowest value determined among the following factors:
Six inches below the top angle.
Six inches below the bottom of the lowest opening in the tank shell through which oil might overflow.
Six inches below the lowest girder, rafter or other support which might restrict the flow of foam over the
oil surface. Where the total reduction is more than 12 inches below the top angle, or other overflow point,
the individual case should be analyzed.
Top edge of sealing strip on secondary seals (for tanks so equipped) must be no closer than six inches
from the tank shell rim.
Any other special conditions (operational or mechanical) which govern, such as height at which a
floating roof might hang up or otherwise fail to operate freely.
Form TAM-EF-880 gives a simplified procedure for calculating SOH. Again, this procedure assumes that
the SOH is not limited by shell strength.

Low Level Alarms

Low level alarms and or shutdowns should be determined using the following factors:
Fixed Roof Tanks:
Six inches above the level where the normal suction line on the tank would lose suction (this could be six
inches for bottom drawoff nozzles).
Six inches above the top surface of the fill line deflector or suction line vortex breaker.
At any level acceptable to the operators with their acknowledgment of the potential cavitation and loss of
suction.
Floating Roof Tanks:
Six inches above the level where the mechanical vacuum breaker leg would contact the bottom. (The
mechanical vacuum breaker leg should always hit before the legs of the roof.)
Six inches above the level where the floating roof operating legs would contact the bottom (or six inches
above the level where the floating roof would land on its fixed supports).

150 Tank Overfill Protection

Tank overfill protection system is a special application of high level alarms and high-high level shutdowns
on tanks. As a result of two major fires at marketing terminals, NFPA revised its Flammable and
Combustible Liquids Code (NFPA- 30) to provide a higher degree of safety for terminals receiving Class
I liquids (flash point below 100F and vapor pressure not more than 40 psia at 100F) from mainline
pipelines or marine vessels.
Section 2-9 of NFPA-30 states the methods of protection, which are briefly summarized below:
1. Frequent gauging by personnel continuously on the premises and in communication with the supplier.
2. High level detection devices independent of tank gauging equipment. Alarms located where personnel
can promptly arrange for flow stoppage or diversion.
3. Independent high level detection system to shut down or divert flow.
Methods 2 and 3 require a tank overfill protection system. API Recommended Practice 2350, Overfill
Protection for Petroleum Storage Tanks, gives information on equipment, installation, alarm level
settings and procedures. Local ordinances may specify the overfill protection method(s).
Since 1982, Chevron has installed many new overfill protection systems at Chevron USA Marketing
Terminals. Most of these installations were engineered by CRTC.
Detailed designs are available.
Marketing has determined that tank overfills can create such dangerous hazards that it conducted a Safety
Operational Analysis that resulted in adding an additional layer of protection for tanks (automated
shutdown system).
Click this link:
CPL-Mkt Overfill Calculator to go to an example spreadsheet that Marketing and Chevron Pipeline has
developed to help describe and calculate overfill alarm settings.

160 Industry Codes and Practices

Company tanks are normally designed and fabricated according to one of the specifications or standards
listed below. Refer to Section 120 for when to use API 650 and API 12 series specifications. The
asterisked (*) documents are included in the manual. Copies of the other documents may be obtained from
the addresses at the end of Section 160.

*API Specification 12B, Bolted Tanks for Storage of Production

Liquids
This specification covers material, design, fabrication, and testing requirements for vertical, cylindrical,
aboveground, closed, and open-top bolted-steel storage tanks. Tanks are in standard sizes with nominal
capacities of 100-10,000 bbl.

*API Specification 12D, Field Welded Tanks for Storage of Production

Liquids
This specification covers material, design, fabrication, and testing of vertical cylindrical aboveground,
closed-top, field-welded storage tanks in nominal capacities of 500-10,000 bbl.

*API Specification 12F, Shop Welded Tanks for Storage of Production

Liquids
This specification covers material, design, fabrication, and testing requirements for shop fabricated,
vertical, cylindrical, aboveground, closed-top welded steel storage tanks in nominal capacities of 90-500
bbl.

*API Specification 12P, Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic Tanks

10

Covers minimum requirements for material, design, fabrication and testing of fiberglass reinforced plastic
tanks.

API Standard 620, Recommended Rules for Design and Construction

of Large
Welded, Low-Pressure Storage Tanks
These rules cover the design and construction of large, welded, field-assembled storage tanks used for
products operated at gas pressure of 15 psig or less. Storage temperatures may range from 200F to minus
270F.

*API Standard 650, Welded Steel Tanks for Oil Storage

This standard covers material, design, fabrication, erection, and testing requirements for vertical
cylindrical, aboveground, closed, and open-top welded steel storage tanks in various sizes and capacities.
API 650 tanks may be designed for an internal pressure not exceeding 2.5 psig. Standards for external and
internal floating roofs are also included.

API Recommended Practice 651, Cathodic Protection of AboveGround Petroleum Storage Tanks
This RP starts the reader off with corrosion fundamentals, and progresses to discussions concerning how
to determine the need for CP based on tank service, corrosion history, soil conditions, environmental
regulations, etc. Effects on the reliability of CP by external forces such as foundation design and
secondary containment are addressed. The advantages and disadvantages of sacrificial vs. impressed
current anode systems, and deep well vs. shallow and ribbon anodes are also discussed.

API Recommended Practice 652, Lining of Above-Ground Petroleum

Storage Tank Bottoms
This RP deals with the need for linings based on tank service, corrosion history, location, environmental
regulations, metal thickness requirements, etc. The RP discusses thin- and thick-film linings bases on
epoxy, polyester, and glass-flake. Inspection procedures and equipment are discussed as are techniques for
spot repair and relining.

API Standard
Reconstruction

653,

Tank

Inspection,

Repair,

Alteration,

and

This standard provides requirements for maintaining the integrity of aboveground storage tanks after they
have been placed in service. It covers maintenance, repair, alteration, relocation, and reconstruction of
such tanks. In cases where this standard overlaps with API Standard 650 (for new tanks), this standard
should be followed for tanks which have already been placed in service.

API Recommended Practice 1615,

Petroleum Product Storage Systems

Installation

of

Underground

This publication is a guide for the installation of underground tanks and piping typical of a service station.
It covers all aspects of the installation process including materials and equipment, cathodic protection,
leak detection and system inspection and testing.

API Recommended Practice 1631, Interior Lining of Underground

Storage Tanks
This publication recommends procedures for the interior lining of underground tanks used for the storage
of petroleum-based motor fuels and middle distillates. In general, it outlines requirements, procedures and
operating conditions to be followed by contractors, mechanics and engineers. Methods for gas-freeing
tanks, removing sediment and cleaning interior surfaces of steel tanks are also included.

11

*API Standard 2000, Venting Atmospheric and Low-Pressure Storage

Tanks (Non-refrigerated and Refrigerated)
This standard covers the normal and emergency venting design requirements for aboveground liquid
petroleum storage tanks and aboveground and below ground refrigerated storage tanks designed for
operation at pressures from oz. per sq. in. (22 millimeters water column) vacuum through 15 psig
(1.034 bar gauge). The requirements of the standard do not apply to floating roof tanks.

API Recommended Practice 2003, Protection Against

Arising Out of Static, Lightning, and Stray Currents

Ignitions

Described in this publication are some of the conditions which have resulted in oil fires ignited by
electrical sparks and arcs from natural causes, as well as the methods that the petroleum industry currently
is using to prevent ignitions from these sources.

API Publication 2015, Cleaning Petroleum Storage Tanks

This publication describes precautions and procedures to clean non-portable, nonrefrigerated atmospheric
and pressurized petroleum storage tanks. It includes the use of suitable mechanical equipment and
protective clothing, use of proper cleaning methods, elimination of potential ignition hazards, and
provision of a means of emergency exit. These procedures are essential for personnel safety and health
and for preventing property damage.

API Publication 2027, Ignition Hazards Involved in Abrasive Blasting

of Tanks in Service
This publication identifies the ignition hazards involved in abrasive blasting of the exteriors of
hydrocarbon storage tanks that are in service, including those whose vapor space contains a mixture that is
flammable or that can become flammable when air is added. It provides operational guidelines that
significantly reduce ignition risks during abrasive blasting.

API Publication 2023, Guide for Safe Storage and Handling of Heated
Petroleum Derived Asphalt Products and Crude Oil Residua
The publication discusses precautions to be followed for the storage and handling of asphalt products in
heated tanks.

API Publication 2207, Preparing Tank Bottom for Hot Work

This publication outlines safety precautions for preventing accidental fires and explosions while making
hot-work repairs to tank bottoms.

API Recommended Practice 2350, Overfill Protection for Petroleum

Storage Tanks
This recommended practice suggests methods of preventing petroleum storage tanks from being overfilled
and covers manual and automatic systems that provide protection against tank overfills, as well as safety,
environmental protection, optimization of the work place, maintenance, and installation and training.

API Bulletin 2516, Evaporation Loss from Low-Pressure Tanks

12

Breathing, working, and leakage losses encountered in low-pressure tanks (atmospheric to 15 psig) are
discussed in this bulletin, which also provides equations for calculating these values.

API Publication 2517, Evaporation Loss from External Floating Roof

Tanks
A method of estimating total evaporative stock loss from volatile stocks stored in external floating roof
storage tanks is presented along with a description of roofs and seals and details of loss analysis.

API Bulletin 2518, Evaporation Loss from Fixed Roof Tanks

This bulletin contains the correlation and evaluation of test data for evaporation loss from fixed roof tanks.
The information has been used to develop methods of estimating breathing and working losses from
gasoline and crude oil tanks. Also included are a loss calculation summary and sample calculations.

API Publication 2519, Evaporation Loss from Internal Floating Roof

Tanks
This publication contains a method for estimating total evaporative losses and/or the equivalent
atmospheric hydrocarbon emissions from freely vented internal floating roof tanks containing multicomponent hydrocarbon mixtures, as well as single component stocks.

API Bulletin 2521, Use of Pressure-Vacuum Vent Valves

Atmospheric Pressure Tanks to Reduce Evaporation Loss

for

This bulletin describes the use of pressure-vacuum vent valves to reduce evaporation loss of petroleum
and petroleum products stored at essentially atmospheric pressure in aboveground fixed roof tanks and
variable vapor-space systems. It also presents factors to be considered when selecting vent valves and
serves to increase the awareness of operation and maintenance requirements.

API Standard 2550 (ASTM D 1220-65), Measurement and Calibration

of Upright Cylindrical Tanks
Covers procedures for calibrating upright cylindrical tanks larger than a barrel or drum, including
procedures for making necessary measurements to determine total and incremental tank volumes and the
recommended procedure for computing volumes.

API Standard 2555 (ASTM D 1406-65), Liquid Calibration of Tanks

Covers standard procedure for calibrating tanks, or portions of tanks, larger than a barrel or drum by
introducing or withdrawing measured quantities of liquid.

Guide for Inspection of Refinery Equipment,

Atmospheric and Low-Pressure Storage Tanks

Chapter

XIII,

This chapter covers the inspection of atmospheric storage tanks that have been designed to operate at
pressures from atmospheric through 0.5 psig, and of low pressure storage tanks that have been designed to
operate at pressures above 0.5 psig through, but not over, 15 psig. Such details as reasons for inspection,
frequency and time of inspection, methods of inspection, and of repair, and records are included.

API Manual of Petroleum Measurement

This booklet gives API Standards for tank calibration and gauging. See Chapter 2Tank Calibration (by
conventional strapping and optical methods) and Chapter 3Manual and Automatic Tank Gauging.

13

ANSI/ASME Standard B96.1, Welded Aluminum-Alloy Storage Tanks

This standard contains rules for the design, fabrication, and testing of aboveground welded aluminum
storage tanks.

AWWA Standard D100, Welded Steel Elevated Tanks, Standpipes,

and Reservoirs for Water Storage
This American Water Works Association standard outlines the general requirements associated with design
loads, earthquakes, allowable stress, and testing of tanks designed for water storage.

NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code

This National Fire Protection Association code discusses tank spacing, impoundage and drainage
requirements and minimum fire protection facilities for tanks.

NFPA 78, Lightning Protection Code

Chapter 6 of this document provides guidelines on lightning protection of aboveground tanks.

UL 58, Steel Underground Tanks for Flammable and Combustible

Liquids
UL 142, Steel Aboveground Tanks for Flammable and Combustible
Liquids
These Underwriters Laboratories, Inc. (UL) standards cover the design, fabrication, and testing of shop
welded horizontal or vertical tanks. The maximum capacity of UL tanks is approximately 1000 bbl.

Addresses
Write to the following addresses to obtain copies of any of the above listed codes or standards. Note: All
ASME, AWWA, NFPA, and UL standards can be ordered from ANSI.
American Petroleum Institute (API)
Publications and Distribution Section
1220 L Street Northwest
Washington, D.C. 20005
(202) 682-8375
American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
Publications Orders
1430 Broadway
New York, NY 10016
(212) 642-4900
American Water Works Association
Publications Orders
6666 W. Quincy Avenue
Denver, CO 80235
National Fire Protection Association
Batterymarch Park
Quincy, MA 02269
Underwriters Laboratories, Inc.
Publications Orders
1655 Scott Blvd.
Santa Clara, CA 95050

14

400 Roof and Seal

Selection and
Design
Abstract
This section of the manual addresses the design requirements for atmospheric
storage tank roofs. Company and industry specifications are discussed as well as the
data required to determine the most appropriate type of roof. Information on the
different types of roofs used for atmospheric storage tanks (fixed, floating, and
dome roofs) is covered in this section. It discusses the different types of seals used
for both external and internal floating roofs and provides guidelines for selecting the
proper seal. Roof repair and replacement philosophies are also presented.

410 Roof Selection

The roofs of aboveground atmospheric or low-pressure storage tanks are of three
types: 1) a fixed roof design where the area above the liquid level usually contains
concentrated vapors of the liquid being stored, 2) a floating roof design where the
roof floats on top of the liquid, and 3) fixed roofs with internal floating roofs.
When storing volatile liquids, floating roofs have three advantages over fixed roofs:
1. Loss of stock while filling, due to the expulsion of saturated vapors, is
eliminated.
2. Breathing losses due to thermal expansion and contraction are reduced.
3. Hazards of lightning and fire are reduced.
This section provides guidance on service limitations and other factors that should
be considered in selecting the best roof for a particular service. Figure 400-1
illustrates the different roof configurations and gives advantages and disadvantages
of the common types. Section 420 details the design of these roofs.
Note Figure 400-1 appears at the end of this section.

411 Factors to Consider When Choosing a Roof

Several factors will influence your choice of roof: government regulations,
evaporation loss, fire protection, explosion hazard, and vapor space corrosion. Each
of these factors is discussed next.

Government Regulations
For higher vapor pressure stocks (over .75 psia) EPA or local regulations will often
dictate the roof design. When the vapor pressure of an organic liquid is above 1.5
psia true vapor pressure, then a floating roof must be used. NFPA 30 does not
mandate floating roofs, but treats tanks with floating roofs differently in terms of its
hazard and therefore siting and spacing requirements.

Evaporation Loss

We prevent evaporation loss both for economic reasons and, more importantly now,
to comply with government regulations on emissions.
The filling losses of fixed roof tanks are proportional to the throughput, and

15

breathing losses are roughly proportional to the volume of the vapor space in the
tank. Floating roofs with a tight-fitting primary and secondary seal virtually
eliminate these evaporation losses. Floating roofs cut down on evaporation by
reducing the surface of the liquid that is exposed.
Fixed roofs fitted with internal floating roofs can be expected to provide equivalent
vapor emission control to floating roofs with a tight-fitting primary and secondary
seal. Their selection is generally based upon other considerations such as quality
control, avoidance of runoff contamination and the reduction of snow or rain
loading. The major drawback to internal floating roofs is they are hard to inspect
and repair.
API Manual of Petroleum Measurement Standards Chapter 19.1, Evaporative Loss
from Fixed Roof Tanks and Chapter 19.2, Evaporative Loss from Floating Roof
Tanks provide a method for estimating total evaporative losses from external
floating roof tanks containing multi-component hydrocarbon mixtures such as crude
oil and gasoline. The loss estimating equations were developed by API based on
laboratory pilot tank and field test data. The bulletin will help you evaluate the
factors necessary in selecting a seal system. These factors include operational
considerations as well as evaporative loss potential.

Fire Protection
Fire protection is not a basic consideration in the selection of a roof except for tanks
over 120 feet in diameter. For these tanks, floating roofs are required for any stock
having a flash point lower than 100F, and heavier stocks stored at temperatures
within 20F of their flash point.

Explosion Hazard
All fixed roof tanks containing volatile stocks at times have flammable mixtures in a
portion of the vapor space. When the mixture is flammable at the liquid surface for
long periods of time, and when the stock is of the type capable of accumulating
static charges on the liquid surface, a special hazard exists. Stocks having a true
vapor pressure of 0.2 to 0.9 psia at the temperature of the liquid surface will form
flammable mixtures. As a rule, the classification is limited to certain naphthas,
thinners, solvents, and refinery intermediates, as well as Jet-B fuels. Floating roofs
are sometimes put on such tanks as a safety precaution, even though they may not
be warranted by evaporation savings.
Crude oil cannot normally accumulate surface charges of static electricity and is,
therefore, not considered a static hazard. It is, however, a fire and explosion hazard
since it gives off flammable vapors.

Eliminating Vapor Space Corrosion

Shell corrosion in the vapor space of a fixed roof tank that holds sour stocks can be
a serious problem. The use of a floating roof which eliminates most of the sour
vapor should be considered in these circumstances. Roof underside coatings are
often employed to help minimize corrosion, particularly for tanks handling sour or
warm stocks.
Roof supports can make effective coating of roof undersides a serious challenge. An
alternative to facilitate coating is to install a self-supporting dome or an externally
supported fixed roof and coat the vapor space.

412 Fixed Roofs

A steel fixed roof (a cone or dome roof):
is the least expensive and most maintenance-free method for covering a tank.
has a high potential for evaporation loss.
This characteristic generally limits its use to relatively low-vapor-pressure

16

stocks where the savings in evaporation loss is not enough to justify the higher
investment of a floating roof.
can either be self-supporting or have column supports.
Column-supported roofs are always found on large diameter tanks. Selfsupporting
roofs are found on smaller diameter tanks and characteristically
have much more slope than column-supported roofs.
In many localities, air quality standards override economic consideration and further
limit the use of a fixed roof, or require the use of an internal floating roof.
The high potential for evaporation loss from a fixed roof does not necessarily
preclude its use where a group of tanks is involved. It may be more economical to
interconnect the vapor spaces to a common vapor recovery system than to provide
separate floating roofs.

413 External Floating Roofs

External floating roofs are currently of three general types:
pontoon
double deck
pan (not used today)
The current trend is toward pontoon and double deck roofs. Pan roofs are not
recommended due to their susceptibility to sinking. Manufacturers supply various
versions of these basic types of roofs, which are tailored to emphasize some
particular feature such as full liquid contact, load carrying capacity, roof stability, or
pontoon arrangement.
Specification 967 and Section 3.10 of API 650 give requirements for cone roofs,
while Specification 6 gives requirements for replacing existing cone roofs. Specification
4812 and Appendix G of API 650 give requirements for structurally
supported aluminum dome roofs.
EPA standards limit the maximum allowable true vapor pressure of a product to
11.1 psia for storage in a floating roof tank. Pressure storage is required for products
exceeding this limit.

Pontoon Roofs
The pontoon roof has an outer circular ring with an upper and lower deck, and a
single deck center section. The annular doughnut or pontoon is compartmented for
buoyant integrity. Appendix C of API 650 requires that the roof be designed to
remain floating with the center section and any two pontoon compartments
punctured. The principal variation in pontoon roofs is the percentage of total roof
area dedicated to the annular pontoon. Pontoon roofs cannot be equipped with open
type (emergency) drains.
The weight of accumulating rain water would cause the stored liquid to flow out
onto the roof before the rain water level reaches the top of the emergency drain.
These roofs are designed to hold a certain amount of water (usually 10 inches) and
they rely on the operator to open the roof drain before this point is reached. Failure
to do so may cause the roof to sink.
As a rule of thumb, avoid having a pontoon area of less than 30% of the total roof
area. This percentage should be reviewed and evaluated for each situation. The final
choice depends on climatic and operating conditions. Annual rainfall and storm
intensity will be important considerations.
This type of pontoon roof is not used extensively since the incremental cost of a
double-deck roof is small. As discussed in a following paragraph, the double-deck
roof has other advantages which generally justify the higher cost.
Low Deck Pontoon Roofs. Most pontoon roofs have the center deck attached to the

17

pontoon section at or close to the bottom edge of the inner pontoon rim plate. This
design places the deck in contact with the stored liquid and eliminates vapor space
where corrosion could be a problem. In this position, the center deck also provides
additional buoyancy. The primary disadvantage of the low deck pontoon roof is that
the center deck is flat and does not drain well. However, the absence of the vapor
space with its insulating effect will tend to keep snow loads from accumulating on
the roof.
High Deck Pontoon Roofs. Some pontoon roofs have the center deck attached near
the top of the inner pontoon rim plate. These roofs, called high deck pontoon roofs,
create a vapor space beneath the deck, and the roof is subject to corrosion if the
vapors are corrosive. Because of this, the Company has little use for this type of
roof. The roof derives its buoyancy entirely from the pontoon. Center pontoons are
sometimes used on tanks larger than 60 feet in diameter to control sagging, since the
liquid surface cannot provide support. One advantage of the high deck pontoon roof
is that the deck can be designed to provide good drainage since it need not conform
to the liquid surface.

Double-deck Roofs
The double-deck roof has an upper and lower deck over the entire roof area. The
outer annular section remains the primary buoyancy pontoon and is compartmented
to the same degree as a pontoon roof. Bulkheads in the center area, which are
usually circumferential, are primarily for supporting the upper deck and contribute
to the structural strength of the entire roof. The bulkheads should be designed to be
liquid and vapor tight (i.e., they should be seal welded on one side all the way
around).
The double-deck roof combines the advantages of both the high deck and the low
deck pontoon roof. It provides good drainage, eliminates the vapor space, has a
smooth, clean deck surface for minimum maintenance, and provides insulation from
the direct heat of the sun. The clean surface deck can be a disadvantage in cold
climates where the accumulation of snow can become an operating problem.
The double-deck roof is the most expensive type of floating roof. The incremental
cost over a pontoon roof is greater for tanks from 30,000 bbl to 250,000 bbl. The
increment decreases for large tanks due to the additional steel required for pontoon
rim plates and center deck stiffening to give the pontoon roof adequate structural
strength to resist buckling.

Pan Roofs

The pan roof, as its name implies, is nothing more than a single metal sheet with an
upturned outer rim that floats on the liquid surface. It has no positive buoyancy and
is seldom used today. It is not recommended for any Company service because it is
very susceptible to sinking and is not acceptable in some areas due to increased
vapor emissions caused by the hot pan surface during the day.

414 Internal Floating Roofs

Internal floating roofs (IFR) are relatively lightweight covers which float on the
liquid surface within a fixed roof tank. These roofs are especially well-adapted to
the conversion of existing fixed roof tanks to floating roof service. Currently, such
conversion is necessary in many locations in order to meet emissions standards.
Appendix H of API 650 gives requirements for several types of internal floating
roofs. Of the types of IFRs discussed in Appendix H, the Company does not
recommend metallic pan roofs and metallic bulkheaded roofs. They are not
positively buoyant and, therefore, are very susceptible to sinking. The Companys
Specification TAM-MS-968 supplements API 650, Appendix H. In addition, these

18

roofs do not qualify for rim area fine foam systems per NFPA.

Preferred Types

The preferred types are the noncontact and the contact floating roofs. The noncontact
floating roof rests on tubular floats (pontoons) above the liquid. This metallic
roof usually has a saturated vapor space between the deck skin and the stock. The
contact floating roof consists of a metallic honeycombed panel, 1 inches thick,
sandwiched between metal sheets or skins, in full contact with the liquid. The
contact floating roof is more rigid and easier to walk on than the pontoon-type roof.
It is almost unsinkable and is more expensive than the pontoon-type roof. Specification
TAM-MS-5 specifies the materials, design, fabrication, and installation of both
types of IFR for aluminum roofs and Specification 968 gives requirements for steel
IFR.
API 650 does require that all internal floating roofs be designed to safely support at
least two men walking anywhere on the roof while the roof is floating or resting on
its supports. Also, roofs must have buoyancy to support at least twice their dead
weight. Bulkheaded, double-deck and pontoon roofs must be capable of floating
after any two compartments are flooded. Adhesives are used in the construction of
some internal floating roofs. These adhesives should be investigated for
compatibility with the liquid being stored.
Internal floating roofs are equivalent to other types of floating roofs from a
conservation standpoint. They have the following additional advantages over the
more conventional floating roofs:
They are protected by the fixed roof from severe weather conditions,
particularly rain, snow, and ice.
They eliminate product contamination from rain water and melting snow.
They may be less expensive than conventional floating roofs.
Consideration should be given to serviceability and maintenance in addition to first
cost in deciding between these alternatives. Internal roofs are very difficult to access
safely when the tank is in service.
For fire code purposes, tanks with internal floating roofs that have positive
buoyancy, adequate ventilation at the eaves of the fixed roof, and are fabricated of
metal can be considered a floating roof tank. Tanks with other types of internal
floating covers should be considered a fixed roof tank. (Refer to NFPA 30.)

Aluminum Floating Roof vs. Steel Floating Roof

Figure 400-2 gives information to help with the decision to use an aluminum or a
steel floating roof.
Fig. 400-2 Aluminum vs. Steel Floating Roofs

19

(1) Liquid on roof, damaged roof, sunken roof

(2) Fire on roof due to liquid on roof or full fire due to sunken floating roof
(3) Definition of floating roof tank causes tank spacing to change and hence requirement to replace roof or move
tank or store another
liquid

415 Aluminum Dome Roofs

Introduction
This section covers the aluminum dome roof, its applications, use guidelines, and a
comparison of alternative tank-covering methods. Figure 400-3 shows an aluminum
geodesic dome plan and elevation.
Aluminum geodesic dome roofs, or storage tank covers, offer two unique advantages
over other covering material:
1. They are clear-span structures meaning that the support of the structure is
provided at the periphery only, without the need for column supports inside the
projected plan area of the roof. Clear spans of up to 300 feet or more are
possible.
2. They are economically competitive and in many cases the lowest cost option
for covering a tank.
Originally aluminum geodesic dome roofs were used to convert external floatingroof
tanks to internal floating-roof tanks, minimizing the effects of weather on
maintenance and operation. By the late 1970s the aluminum geodesic dome roof
gained widespread use as a cover for both retrofitted and new tanks. Following the
implementation of the Clean Air Act, the aluminum dome roof enjoyed a resurgence
as a means of reducing air emissions. Today there are several thousand dome roof
tanks in existence.

20

Applications
Weather Covers. Tank covers or roofs are used to reduce many weather related
problems associated with external floating roof tanks. External floating roof tanks
must be periodically drained to eliminate the bottom water layers that form when
rainwater runs down the inside wall of the tank shell and past the roof seals. This
water must then be treated to remove environmentally unacceptable materials before
it is discharged. Additionally, external roof drains are subject to freezing, plugging
with debris, and require frequent inspection to assure that they are working. An
aluminum dome roof eliminates all of these problems. Figure 400-4 shows this
schematically.

21

Product Purity. Many diesel fuel tanks are covered to reduce water infiltration. Too
much water in the tank can lead to turbidity and off-spec material. To purge the fuel
of water, the tank must be allowed to settle then water coalescing units (or other
types of water removal system) must be used.
Keeping water out of fuels is particularly important for materials which do not
easily phase-separate in tanks. Examples include alcohols, such as motor fuel
oxygenates. It is preferable to store products such as MTBE (Methyl Tertiary Butyl
Ether, a gasoline oxygenate additive) in covered tanks because water content may
cause the product not to meet specifications.
If aluminum is compatible with the product being stored, these domes should be
considered for fixed roof tanks that have been internally coated to eliminate product
contamination problems resulting from iron, iron salts or rust contamination as a
result of shell corrosion.
External Corrosion Resistance. Because aluminum dome roofs are corrosion
resistant in most atmospheres, they can be used in any geographical area. However,
in marine environments the aluminum roof must be located at least 200 yards from
seawater or shoreline.
Internal Corrosion Resistance. Due to its corrosion resistance to hydrogen sulfide,
an aluminum dome roof is potentially useful for some sour product services.
However, aluminum roofs have experienced pitting failures, in services where
contaminated (e.g., chloride or iron) water vapor condenses on the underside of the
roof. This type of failure has been most prevalent in warm or agitated (e.g., mixers)
tanks handling light hydrocarbon stocks like avgas, napthta and ethanol. Consult
Company materials specialists for the latest recommendations and Company experiences
before selecting aluminum for roof construction.
In steel roof applications where underside corrosion is a problem, corrosive vapors
condense and get into the crevices of lap welded joints, initiating corrosion. To
prevent corrosion in these applications, steel roofs are designed as follows:
A reverse shingle layout is often used to minimize condensing liquid on the
underside of plates and in crevices.
Seal welding the laps on the bottom side is another alternative.

22

 Some roofs use external rafters so that the there are no crevices (API 650 does
not allow welding the roof plates to the rafters).
Emission Reduction. An internal floating roof tank suffers less evaporation loss
and emissions than a comparable external floating roof tank. Emission and losses
from roof seals are effected by wind speed. Since the wind speed above the seals in
an internal floating roof is almost zero, the emission of air pollutants is minimized.
Either a conventional steel roof or a dome roof will have the same effect on
emissions. However, the geodesic dome has an advantage that is not available with
a conventional roof. Large steel roofs, on internal floating roof applications, must be
supported by columns. These support columns must penetrate the roof. At each
penetration there are some emissions. Because the geodesic dome roof is a clearspan
structure, or a structure that is supported entirely at the perimeter, there is no
internal roof penetration.
Pressurized Applications. Applications that may involve pressure are usually
fixed-roof tank applications with inert gas blanketing under some small pressure
(less than 2" wc) or in vapor recovery systems. Although API 650, (Appendix G)
allows pressures under the dome of up to 9 inches wc, this is never used in practice.
The typical values are around 2 inches of water column maximum. Problems with
leakage have been significant above this pressure and larger tanks are not designed
to handle more pressure. Dome manufacturers are, however, making improvements
to the joint details of domes, and increased pressure allowances are becoming more
common.
In vapor tight, pressurized-hydrocarbon services, or fuel-gas blanketed services,
silicone seal materials should not be used. The migration of hydrocarbon into the
joints has caused many problems. Neoprene or Secoflex polysulfide used around
hub covers and baton strips work well as sealants.
Fire Susceptibility. Because external floating roof tanks are subject to rim-seal fires
caused by lightning strikes, covering the tank reduces the possibility of fires.
However, lightning-caused fires have occurred in aluminum dome covered tanks.
Such fires occur because flammable vapors accumulate above the floating roof and
are ignited by a lightning strike to the circulation vents. This occurrence is
extremely rare and is usually caused by some kind of plant upset. Normally the
venting specified by Appendix H of API 650 is adequate, even under low wind
conditions, to maintain all flammable petroleum products well under the lower
flammable limit.
It should be noted that no fires have occurred that have significantly heated the
interior vapor space of an internal floating roof tank. Because aluminum loses its
strength at relatively low temperatures compared to carbon steels, a temperature rise
in the vapor space could cause the dome to collapse onto the floating roof.
Because fire probability in dome-covered floating roof tanks is low, fixed fire
fighting equipment need not be installed on these tanks. If they do occur, fires may
be fought through the hatches or light panels in the roof. In spite of having a dome
roof, some fire regulations call for installation of fixed foam systems on tanks with
flammable materials.

700 Appurtenance Design

721 Shell Manways
API standards specify manways in sizes of 20, 24, 30 and 36 inches. The API
specification has two attachment details for manways as shown in Figure 3-4A of
API 650. Most commonly used sizes are 30- and 36-inch round manways. Larger

23

manways are necessary for installation of heaters, access for cleaning and repair
materials, and installation of membranes. Manways should be evenly spaced around
the tank. The usual practice is to provide the number of shell manways shown in
Figure 700-3.

Chevron recommends at least 1 - 24" x 36" shell manway be installed on any tank
over 30 in diameter (additional shell manways can be 24"). This will allow tools
and equipment, especially swing pipe joints, to be moved through the shell. (Up to
8-inch joints can be conveniently moved through this size manway.) This manway is
used also on cone roof tanks when a larger shell accessway is required. See Standard
Drawings GB-D1285 and GB-D1286.

730 Roof Appurtenances

731 Cone Roof Appurtenances
This section is limited to the actual roof openings and their uses. Discussion of tank
gauging, sampling and venting systems is covered in subsequent sections.

Cone Roof Manways

The primary function of roof manways is to provide a means for ventilating a tank
before and during entry by workers and to provide light while work is being done.
These manways may also be used as access to the end of swing pipes, an inspection
hatch for a tank gauge, or a base for emergency venting hatches.
Standard API Roof Manway. API 650, Figure 3-13, provides 20-inch and 24-inch
diameter roof manways. The 20-inch manway is satisfactory for most applications.
Figure 700-5 shows the number of roof manways needed to provide light and
ventilation. Manways should be evenly spaced around the tank periphery.

Rectangular Manway. For larger tanks a 24-inch 36-inch manway is sometimes

preferred because it gives more light and ventilation and easier access during
maintenance. Standard Drawing GC-D78705 provides fabrication details. API 650
Figures 3-14 and 3-15 give details on flanged and hinged covers. From one to three
of these manways are usually installed, depending on tank diameter.

Window Sheets

A large roof opening (up to 5-foot 8-foot) called a window sheet is sometimes
used. It permits lowering of large equipment through the roof and allows a large
amount of natural light and ventilation. Its construction is similar to the 24-inch
36-inch roof manway with a 4-inch angle frame for additional reinforcement.

24

On tanks that will seldom be opened, cold cutting and patching of the roof may be
an economical alternative.

Gauge Float Inspection Hatch

A gauge float inspection hatch is required for interior inspection of the tank gauge
and float only if an opening is not otherwise provided for the purpose.
Manufacturers standard hatches are generally satisfactory. When a tank roof is to
be insulated, specify the hatch height to be at least 4 inches.

API Roof Nozzles

Flanged roof nozzles are used for gauge hatches, sampling, inspection openings and
the mounting of tank vents. Roof nozzle heights given in Figures 3-16 and 3-17 of
API 650 are not satisfactory for mounting of tank vents. When roof nozzles are
intended for use with venting equipment, the height of the nozzles should be
increased as shown on data sheet TAM-DS-967. When a threaded nozzle is
required, the API standard heights shall be used, but threads must be specified
instead of the flange. Screwed couplings are not recommended as nozzles.

732 Floating Roof Appurtenances

This section is limited to discussion of the accessories and appurtenances needed for
operation and maintenance of the floating roof. Discussion of gauging and fire
fighting systems is covered in subsequent sections.

Manways
Pontoon Inspection. These manways are required to provide access for inspection
of each pontoon interior. The 20-inch diameter manways should be provided with
covers that are gasketed to be liquid tight and held in place by bolting or, preferably,
other means suitable for quick removal without tools.
Covers should be equipped with a welded vent pipe no less than 1-inch nominal
diameter, extending to the same height as the leg sleeve (allows for maximum fill
height) and terminating in a manner to prevent the entry of rain. Manways are sometimes
provided with higher trunks as an added precaution against flooding of
pontoons in case the roof is flooded. An acceptable design developed at El Segundo
is included in the OPCO Drawings section (SD-121856).
Tank Access. API 650, Figure 3-13 illustrates 20-inch and 24-inch diameter roof
manways. Larger manways (30-inch or 36-inch diameter) can be specified to
provide better access for crew and equipment. Floating roofs need the same number
of manways as cone roofs. See Figure 700-5.
Manways should be evenly spaced around the tank periphery except, with three or
more manways, one of them should be located close to the center of the roof.
One manway should always be at least 36 inches in diameter and be provided with
brackets that will allow a portable wooden ladder to be tied off while the tank is
open for inspection or maintenance.
If there is no rolling ladder access to the floating roof, at least one manway should
have a 30-inch diameter two-way cover that can be opened from the top or bottom.
An additional option for convenience and safety is to provide the 36-inch manway
with a permanently installed steel ladder that will reach to within 6 inches of the
tank bottom when the roof is on low legs. An El Segundo Refinery drawing
(SA-121158) is included in the OPCO Drawings section. This option will not work
if the floating roof has multiple leg settings.
Shell Seal Plates for Manways. When pontoon notches are used on floating
roofs equipped with wax scrapers, the cutting edge of the scrapers or the roof seal
may come below the top of shell manways when the roof is in its low position. This
arrangement can cause the scraper to get caught in the manway opening or the seal

25

to be damaged. The use of shell seal plates will eliminate this possibility.
Seal plates are light plates bent to the shell curvature to fill the upper portion of the
manway opening. They are attached to the manway cover with gusset plates.
The manway cover should be marked on its outer surface so that the position of the
seal plate is correctly indexed when the cover is bolted up.

Roof Drains

Open-type. Open ended emergency drains and open siphon drains may be used
only on double-deck or high deck roofs where the lowest point of the roof is always
above the stock level. Both types of drain permit rainwater to drain into the stock
and drop to the tank bottom; hence, contact between water and stock must be
permissible.
Proper functioning depends upon difference in specific gravity; stock with a density
very close to or greater than that of water cannot be stored with an open drain.
Before choosing these types of drain, the engineer should consider the possibility
that the tank may hold different types of stocks during its life.
Open emergency drains (Figure 700-7) for double deck roofs are insurance against
the sinking of roofs due to plugging of closed roof drains. A minimum of three
should be installed, and should be evenly spaced on the roof. The top of the drain
should be approximately 6 inches above the lowest point on the roof surface and the
open end should extend at least 6 inches into the stock.
To minimize stock evaporation the drains can be fitted with a removable flexible
seal that allows accumulated rainwater to drain while preventing vapor loss.
Fabrication details are shown on Standard Drawing GB-D1131.
Do not install siphon-type drains. They are designed to be an alternative to closed
pipe drains. Two types are currently in use by the Marketing Department in gasoline
servicemercury seal and water seal. Neither gives truly satisfactory performance
and they are being replaced with closed roof drains. The mercury seal is subject to
loss of mercury during heavy rainfall and the water seal must be regularly attended.
Loss of the seal in both cases results in the tank venting to the atmosphere and
possible deck flooding on single deck roofs.
Closed-type. Closed drains are required on all external floating roofs. Two types are
in common use; flexible pipe and swing jointed pipe. Both the swing-jointed and
flexible pipe drains are acceptable for closed drain systems where the stock temperatures
do not drop below 32 F. The minimum recommended size is 3-inch diameter.
Generally the swing-jointed pipe drains are more expensive than the flexible pipe
drains in the smaller sizes. A rule of thumb for flexible pipe is: for pipe sizes less
than or equal to 4 inches, flexible pipe will be less expensive than the comparable
carbon steel pipe. For sizes greater than 4 inches, the flexible pipe is more
expensive than the comparable carbon steel pipe.
For tanks over 120 feet in diameter, multiple drains (3 minimum) should be used to
alleviate ponding on the roof caused by spot loading of the roof ladder (one drain
must be provided below the rolling ladder), or natural warpage.
Closed Flexible Pipe Drains. Flexible pipe drains have gained wide acceptance in
the industry and are used extensively. The Company has had good experience with
Coflexip flexible pipe. This system has a woven stainless steel carcass covered by
an outer nylon or other elastomer sheath. The Coflexip literature notes that the
nylon swells slightly in benzene at temperatures above 100F. This swelling can
lead to attack by aldehydes, which will deteriorate the outer sheath. Hoses should
have a fluoro-elastomer cover to protect against aromatic deterioration.
Manufacturer should provide drawings that show layout and details of flexible pipe
roof drains. Standard Drawing GD-D1072 shows layout and details for a Mesa
Industries system, but Chevron has experienced problems with this type of system.

26

A possible variation of flexible pipe roof drains that can be considered for severe
services in tanks larger than 70 feet in diameter is the flexible solid steel pipe drain
patented by Pittsburgh-Des Moines, Inc. for use primarily in the pipeline industry.
However, the Company has no experience with this design at the present. The
engineer should investigate industry-wide experience before adopting this design.
Potential advantages are the elimination of chemical incompatibility, complete
system drainage and possible lower cost.
Closed Swing Jointed Pipe Drains. Joints can be of the central or offset type.
Standard Drawing GD-D1130 shows two designs using ball bearing swivel joints.
Vendor details for the connection of the drain line to the roof drain basin should be
carefully reviewed. Richmond had a roof drain nozzle failure on a 750,000-barrel
tank due to a poorly designed support.
Swivel joints require careful alignment during installation to ensure that the joint
will not leak after the tank is in service. Also, the roof should be centered to avoid
subjecting the assembly to forces during normal operation.
A disadvantage of rigid pipe drains is that as the roof elevation changes a nominal
side thrust is always imposed, which tends to move the roof off center.
An acceptable manufacturer of central-type swivel joints is Chicksan with Brundage
external seals. There has also been good experience with the Shand & Jurs offset
swivel joints in 3-inch to 24-inch sizes.
Swivel joints should always be purchased with Ni-Resist bushings. The standard
brass and bronze bushings are eventually attacked by any NaOH in the stock,
become difficult to operate and develop leaks.

733 Internal Floating Roof Appurtenances

This section discusses internal roof appurtenances only. Gauging and fire protection
systems are discussed elsewhere.

Manways

Manway requirements for fixed roofs on internal floating roof tanks are similar to
those for cone roof tanks. API 650, Appendix H specifies at least one 24-inch diameter
manway is to be supplied. A larger manway is required for ladder access to
internal floating roofs.
The floating roof should have at least one 24-inch manway installed. On steel roofs,
a 30-inch manway is preferred. Good practice is to install a roof manway near each
shell manway for ease of roof top access. At least one manway should be designed
to be removable from below. Loose manway covers are acceptable if the height of
the neck is sufficient to prevent stock from flowing onto the roof.

Drains
At least one roof drain on steel roofs and one per section of aluminum roof should
be installed to handle condensation and stock blown past the seal system. Roof
drains should extend at least 4 inches into the stock. These drains are similar to
emergency drains on external floating roofs.

Vents
Floating Roof. The roof must be supplied with vacuum-only breather vents. These
vents must be adequate to relieve any vacuum created underneath the roof after it
settles on its supports during withdrawal operations.
Fixed Roof. API 650, Appendix H Paragraph 6.2.2 lists specific requirements for
circulation vents.
With the use of removable weather shields, the tank circulation vents that are open
to the atmosphere can double as inspection hatches for the internal floating roof
and seal.

27

For new tanks air circulation vents are generally mounted on the roof. Older tanks
had roofs supported on stilts above the shell (similar to a chimney cap) providing
approximately an 8-inch to 10-inch gap between roof and top of shell. This gap was
used for both air circulation and protection against overfilling.

Grounding
To avoid static buildup, the internal floating roof should be electrically bonded to
the tank by flexible cables from the tank fixed roof, or bottom. All movable metal
parts, such as column sliding cover plates and loose manway covers, should be
bonded to the floating roof. Grounding is discussed in more detail in Section 800 of
this manual, and in Section 900 of the Electrical Manual.

Support Legs

The internal floating roof is normally supplied with adjustable support legs of
carbon steel. The legs should be high enough so the bottom edge of the roof or seal
assembly clears the top of the shell manways, or, if height is not adequate, shell seal
plates can be installed in the manway.
Requirements for reinforcement, sealing and clearance from internal appurtenances
are the same as for external floating roofs.

Shell Overflow

The shell should have one or more overflow openings to prevent the internal roof
from touching the fixed roof. The openings should be sized to handle the maximum
tank filling rate, and be provided with wire mesh screen and rain hoods.

Anti-Rotation Devices
Tanks with only one roof column should be supplied with a means to keep the
internal floating roof from rotating. This can be the gaugewell pipe for small steel
internal floating roof or aluminum IFR, or a vertical -inch stainless steel aircraft
cable secured to the fixed roof and bottom. The cable should pass through a
stainless steel sleeve mounted in the internal floating roof.

740 Vapor Relief and Vents

This section discusses venting and vacuum relief on cone roof tanks. It also
discusses briefly vacuum relief on floating roof tanks. The discussions include:
Venting requirements for fixed roof tanks
Open vents (fixed roof tanks)
Breather valves (fixed roof tanks)
Emergency venting for fixed roof tanks
Venting and vacuum relief on floating roof tanks
Miscellaneous concerns
It does not discuss vapor relief systems in detail.

741 Venting Requirement for Fixed Roof Tanks

Normal venting is caused by filling and thermal expansion while vacuum conditions
are caused by pumpout and thermal contraction. Emergency venting occurs when
the fixed roof tank is exposed to fire. Fixed roof tanks must be designed for both
normal and emergency venting.
API Standard 2000, Venting Atmospheric and Low-Pressure Storage Tanks,
discusses the design criteria for pressure and vacuum relief in cone roof tanks.
Engineers should refer to this standard when sizing the pressure and vacuum relief
equipment. API Standard 2000 also contains guidelines for thermal venting. Venting
equipment should be sized to handle the combined thermal, stock vaporization (in
the case of filling of low flash point stock), and stock movement effects. Consult
vendors when selecting the size of venting and vacuum relief equipment.

28

All cone roof tanks require some kind of venting, whether the tank is being filled,
drained, or is idle. It is common to vent tanks based on the fill and drainage
requirements but, sometimes the thermal requirements are overlooked. Depending
on the difference between the day and night temperatures, the thermal effect on the
tank can cause damage due to overpressuring or creating a vacuum and sucking in
the tank shell. It is important to insure that adequate venting is always provided and
that the vents are kept in working order and are not blinded off during tank
maintenance. Tanks have been damaged due to thermal contraction by blinding off
roof breather vents during tank maintenance work.
During filling, tanks need to be vented to insure that the internal pressure does not
exceed the design pressure of the tank. The breather valve pressure setting should be
set between 0.865"wc(0.5oz.) to a maximum of 1.75"wc(1.0oz) depending on the
design pressure of the tanks. We suggest the pressure settings be low enough to
prevent the roof plates from lifting off the rafters which would typically be about
0.865"wc(0.5oz) for a roof with a 3/16" plate. If the tank is gas blanketed the
pressure setting would have to be adjusted to approximately 1.75"wc(1.0oz.) to
accommodate an inert gas system pressure with a setting of approximately
0.865"wc(0.5oz.).
During draining, tanks need to be vented to insure that the internal vacuum does not
exceed the design of the tank. The breather valve vacuum setting should be set at
0.865"wc(0.5oz.). The tank breather valve vacuum settings should be set as low as
possible, typically 0.865"wc(0.5oz.) for most brands of breather valves.
For normal venting on fixed roof tanks, we use open vents or breather valves. These
are discussed in detail in Sections 742 and 743 respectively. For emergency venting,
we recommend that all new fixed roof tanks be constructed with frangible roof
joints. See Section 744 for a discussion on frangible roof joints and other types of
emergency venting equipment. See also Section 420 for design information.

Multiple Vents

Multiple vents should be avoided. If the venting capacity requires multiple vents,
they must be located adjacent to and within 6 feet of each other to prevent cross
venting. Cross venting is the circulation of air from one vent to another. It occurs
when vents are located far apart from each other and wind blows across them
creating a differential pressure across the tank. It should be prevented because it will
draw an excess amount of air into the tank and may dilute the hydrocarbon vapor
space to within explosive limits.

Single Vents
Single vents should be mounted on the highest point of a tank. This will minimize
stock loss due to venting since hydrocarbon is heavier than air. It will also reduce
vapor space corrosion at the center of the roof. Mounting the vent near the
gauging platform, to make it more convenient for maintenance access, should
be avoided. Installing a horizontal baffle below the vent nozzle provides a barrier
between the incoming air and the hydrocarbon vapor reducing the vapor loss.
Drawing GA-D1026 shows a typical baffle design.

742 Open Vents

(Fixed roof tanks and fixed roof portion of internal floating roof tanks, only)
Due to current environmental and safety concerns, open vents should only be used
as a last resort for venting tanks. See Section 743 for preferred venting devices.
Where vapor emission standard permits, open vents can be used for tanks that
handle high flash point stocks (flash point > 100F), for heated tanks where the oil
storage temperature is below the oil flash point, for tanks with a capacity of less
than 59.5 bbl (2500 gal) used for the storage of any product, and for tanks with a

29

capacity of less than 3000 bbl (126,000 gal) used for the storage of crude oil.
Per API 2000, open vents with a flame-arresting device may be used in place of
p/v (pressure/vacuum) valves on tanks in which oil with a flash point below 100F
is stored and on tanks containing oil which is heated above the flash point of the oil.
In sizing the vent nozzle on the tank, assess whether the tank may change its service
to handle lower flash point stocks (below 100F) in the future. If so, the vent nozzle
should be sized for the larger vent size required. Consult vendor catalogs to size
open vent nozzles.
Open vent designs are simple. Figure 700-10 shows two versions. Open vents are
most susceptible to cross venting. If you must use multiple open vents, follow the
guidelines for multiple vents in Section 741.

743 Breather Valves

(Fixed roof tanks only)
Breather valves, commonly referred to as p/v (pressure/vacuum) valves, are
designed to relieve excessive internal and external pressures in cone roof tanks.
They minimize the amount of venting and therefore reduce the vapor loss. P/v
valves are the preferred method of venting cone roof tanks storing oils within 20F
of the oils flash point, or where fire and vapor-emission standards do not allow
open vents. They are usually set to begin opening at ounce per square inch and be
fully open at 1 ounce per square inch pressure or vacuum. Smaller tanks can
usually safely withstand higher working pressure and vacuum because of the use of
minimum-thickness materials normally specified for rigidity and other
considerations.
There are three types of p/v valves commonly available: solid/diaphragm pallet,
pilot-operated, and liquid seal valves. All p/v valves require periodic inspection and
maintenance.
The solid pallet and diaphragm pallet valves are the recommended types of p/v
valves. They are very similar in design. They are available in either a side-byside
pressure-vacuum arrangement or a stacked arrangement. Figure 700-11

30

shows a simplified sketch for each design. There is a throttle action on these
types of vents due to the valve design. They will begin to vent at the set point
and their venting capacity will increase as the differential pressure increases
and lifts the pallet higher. Therefore, in selecting these valves make sure that
the valve will achieve its designed venting capacity before the tank is overpressurized.
Pilot operated valves are not recommended because the pilots can plug up.
Liquid seal valves are not recommended. Mercury and water are the common
seal liquids used. With mercury seals, the loss of mercury can contaminate the
stock. With water seals, the seal level requires continuous maintenance. Both
require careful operation and upkeep without any significant improvement in
performance over the pallet-type valves.

Leakage

As with any other equipment, p/v valves must be periodically checked to ensure
their proper operation. Simple methods such as audio and visual observations and
odor (during warm days) can only detect gross leakage from a p/v valve. Per API
2521, a more meaningful test would be to cover the vent outlet with a deflated
plastic bag of known volume and then measure the leakage rate. In general, a p/v
valve is acceptable if the leakage is less than cubic foot per hour for 6-inch and
plastic bag method is hard to conduct on windy days.
Commercial units are also available for testing vent leaks and set points. Call
vendors for the latest technical details.

744 Emergency Venting for Fixed Roof Tanks

When a fixed roof tank is exposed to fire or when the p/v valve fails, emergency
venting will be required. In the former case, the vent rate will be far in excess of the
normal thermal and stock movement vent rates. In either event, the construction of
the tank will determine whether additional venting capacity must be provided.

Frangible Roof Joint

For fixed roof tanks API Standard 2000 does not require any additional venting if
the roof-to-shell joint is weaker than the shell-to-shell and bottom-to-shell joints. In
case of over-pressurization, the roof-to-shell seam will part and thereby relieve the
internal pressure. API Standard 650 specifies the design requirements for a frangible
roof connection. The Company recommendation is described in Section 420. The
operator or tank inspector must check the tank bottom-to-shell joint regularly to
ensure that corrosion has not weakened that joint enough to cause it to become the
first joint to fail under excessive internal pressure.
If a tank is built inside a building or enclosure, a frangible roof joint is NOT an
acceptable means of providing emergency venting. Also, recognize that some
operating management philosophy and local ordinances do not consider a frangible
roof to be a means of emergency venting for 20-foot diameter or smaller tanks.
For tanks in hot service or service where it is possible the tank will be filled with a
lighter than normal stock, a dry-type pressure/vacuum manway cover should be
provided in addition to the frangible roof joint. Depending on size of tank, several
may be required.

Other Types of Emergency Vents

Existing fixed roof tanks without a frangible roof joint may need emergency vents if
the existing vent cannot handle the fire venting rate specified in API Standard 2000. It
can be provided by (1) altering the roof-to-shell joint so that it is a frangible roof
joint as specified in API 650 [this is not always possible on smaller tanks, that is
tanks less than 50]; (2) installing a larger or additional p/v valve(s); or
(3) installing gauge hatch/manways with covers that are designed to lift under
abnormal internal and external pressure.

31

The best way to provide emergency venting is by using a dry-type pressure/vacuum

manway cover with elastomer seats. Many manufacturers have similar designs.
The hatches are usually 20 or 24 inches in diameter and are normally set to begin
relieving at the same pressure that fully opens the breather valve.

745 Venting on Floating Roof Tanks

Floating roof tanks should not vent during normal operation. Venting only occurs on
initial filling (until the roof floats).
A vacuum condition may exist under the floating roof if pumpout continues after the
roof legs have reached the tank bottom. Roof vacuum breakers are normally
provided to allow air to enter during pumpout when the roof is at its lowest position.
The roof nozzle must not project below the underside of the roof to allow the proper
volume of air into the tank. The breaker should be sized for 125% of the maximum
pumpout rate to provide some margin of safety. See Figure 700-13.

746 Miscellaneous Concerns

Flame Arrester
32

When an open vent is used on tanks that may contain flammable mixtures, a flame
arrester is normally provided to prevent flash-back into the tank. Several flame
arrester designs are available: wire mesh (40 mesh or finer), parallel metal plates,
and parallel tubes. The mesh-type arrester is least expensive but it is prone to
plugging and it is not as effective. Flame arrester requirements are discussed further
in Section 800 of this manual and in the Fire Protection Manual. The Health,
Environmental, and Loss Prevention staff should be consulted on designs related to
fire prevention facilities.

Vapor Recovery System

This system minimizes stock losses during normal venting of storage tanks. It
collects vapor from tanks and processes it to re-capture the hydrocarbon. A good
payout can be obtained if the vapor systems of groups of tanks are tied together.
Vapor recovery systems have sensitive pressure controls to remove vapor as
pressure builds up inside the tank. When the tank is under a vacuum, some systems
replenish the tanks with fuel gas or natural gases to exclude air entrance. Other
systems will just rely on vacuum breakers to fill the tanks with air. Figure 700-14
shows a typical system.
In installations where the vented gases may be hazardous, such as a sour water tank,
the design often manifolds the vents and routes the gas to a suitable location or to a
gas treatment facility.

760 Connecting Lines

This section discusses the basics of external tank piping. Discussions will include:
Flexibility requirement for external piping connections,
Common means to provide flexibility,
Support for attachments to tank shell,
Manifold design for initial fill and final draw, and
Miscellaneous items such as thermal relief and valve accessibility.
Only specific concerns for tank connections will be covered. Refer to the Piping
Manual for details on piping design.

764 Initial Fill and Final Draw

During initial fill through the regular fill nozzle the product will splash around the
tank bottom until the level is high enough to cover the fill nozzle and provide
adequate dampening. During this period, the high turbulence can cause static
electricity to accumulate in the stock, which can lead to fire hazards. It can also stir
up sediments on the tank bottom and contaminate the product. Designing for a fill
velocity of 3 ft./sec. or less will minimize static electricity buildup and mixing of
tank bottoms sediments. Similarly, during final draw, the tank cannot be emptied
below the draw nozzle. In some cases, the residual has to be manually removed.
(See Section 751 for diffuser designs for initial fill, and Section 722 for designs of
nozzles for final drawoff of product.)

770 Gauging and Sampling

This section discusses the gauging and sampling appurtenances commonly used on
cone roof and floating roof tanks. Discussions will include:
Tank gauging
Gauge hatches
Sample hatches
Sampling systems

771 Tank Gauging

Manual gauging systems are discussed here. For automatic gauging systems
(equipment design and selection) refer to Section 900 of this manual.

33

Instead of an autogauge, some of the older or smaller tanks have a simple float and
cable attached to a target board readout. Figure 700-19 shows a typical float-type
level indicator with a board readout. Normally the cable is located 36 inches from
the shell.
Other tanks may have only a hatch through which the operator manually does tank
gauging. On these tanks the datum plate on the tank bottom and reference point at
the top of the hatch (normally referred to as the hold off distance or HOD) allows
the operator to measure the liquid levels easily and accurately.

Method
Note It is most important to ground the tape throughout the gauging procedure to
avoid static electricity sparks.
The operator applies a hydrocarbon-soluble paste along the length of the tape where
liquid level is anticipated (1 foot). The tape is then lowered into the tank and the
entire section where the paste changes color is measured. This section is known as
cut. The difference between cut length and tape length lowered into the tank is
subtracted from the hold off distance to give stock level. This measurement is
accurate to within 1/8 inch.
The same procedure is used to measure water level, with a water soluble paste
applied to the end of the tape instead.
In both cases, the operator obtains the volume of stock via a level-volume table for
the tank. This table is provided by the tank calibrator.

772 Gauge Hatches

Gauge hatches provide access for manual tank gauging and in some cases for
sampling. However, measurements and sampling through solid gauge wells is not
accurate. On all gas tight tanks with breather valves (see Section 740), a
commercially available hinged gas tight cover or a gas tight gauge hatch, as in
Standard Drawing GD-D1083, should be used. Gauge wells are required on all
floating roof tanks. They are also required on tanks where accurate (-inch) level
readings are necessary and for tanks 20 feet high. The gauge well helps to keep the
gauging tape vertical and can help prevent horizontal movement and rotation due to
internal stock movement or external forces.

Type of Gauge Well

It is recommended that slotted, not solid, gauge wells be used on all tanks. In the
past, solid gauge wells were used, especially on floating roof tanks where vapor
emission was a concern. However, experience has shown that they are not always
accurate. In instances where the gravity of the liquid in the tanks varies, the lighter
product will not be able to flow into a solid gauge well. Instead, it will displace
some heavier product into the gauge well. Due to the hydrostatic gradient, the liquid
level inside the gauge well will be lower than the true tank level. Operators have
over-filled tanks due to this. Refer to the following drawings for gauge well design:
Cone roof tanks GC-D99763
Floating roof tanks GF-D1133

Vapor Emission Problems

Where floating roof tanks are governed by air quality rules, slotted gauge wells may
cause a vapor emission problem. Placing a float plug inside the gauge well will
control vapor emission. The float plug must be removed by a cable during the
gauging operation. To avoid float hang-up as well as the possibility of jamming
the cable between the float and wall, removal of any weld burrs inside the well
(usually found at the joint seams) is recommended. Refer to Standard Drawing
GF-D1133.
Slotted gauge wells can also be used for sampling in place of a side sample system

34

or sample hatch, but the sample bottle may scrape off rust scale from the gauge well
and contaminate the stock.

773 Sample Hatches

Both floating roof and cone roof designs usually have one sample hatch located at
the gauging platform. In services of heavy sediment buildup (recovered oil or crude
oil, etc.), 2 to 5 additional sample hatches may be required: samples taken from
various hatches will ascertain when sediment level is unmanageable. Sample
hatches should have standpipes extending at least 6 inches below the roof with an
inverted funnel at the bottom to guide sample bottles.
Two types of hatches are commonly used: recoil-reel-operated (for floating roofs)
and funnel-type (for fixed or cone roofs). The recoil-reel-operated sample hatch (see
GD-D1083) at the gauging platform does not require roof access during sampling,
thereby eliminating the need for a backup operator. Funnel-type sample hatches are
designed to catch drips from gauge tapes and sample bottles. On floating roof tanks,
gas tight hatches shown on Standard Drawing GD-D1083 are used. For all fixed
roof tanks the design shown on Standard Drawing GC-D1136 should be used.

774 Sampling Systems

Stock samples preferably should be taken through sample hatches. If they are taken
through a gauge well, the sample bottle may scrape off rust scale accumulated on
the gauge well and contaminate the sample or the stock. Two additional sample
systems are discussed below.

Continuously Flushed Side Sampling System

Taps located at different heights of the tank are manifolded together at ground level
for easy operator access. A pump, also at ground level, circulates product from the
tap(s) back into the tank. Samples are then withdrawn via a slipstream of the
circulation return line. See Form TAM-EF-878. It is recommended that product
circulation occur for approximately 2 minutes before withdrawing a sample. This is
to ensure that any old stock left in the tap legs (pipe between tap and grade level)
is flushed into the tank and that fresh product is actually being circulated. In viscous
service, steam or electric tracing of the sample lines should be considered to prevent
plugging of lines.
A continuously flushed sample system is environmentally the best since no oil is
spilled before the sample is taken. Its two drawbacks are cost and product
contamination from rust and scale in the small sample lines.

Side-draw Valve System

In this system, taps are also located at different heights of the tank and are always
near the staircase for operator accessibility. Though this system is simpler and less
costly than the above-mentioned system, it is burdensome for the operator (he may
have to climb up and down tank staircases several times a shift) and spillage can
occur. Locating the taps at ground level is not a solution since adequate flushing of
the tap legs before sampling may not be assured.

780 Mixers
Fluids in tanks are mixed to prevent stock stratification and during tank
maintenance to clean the tank. This section discusses the various means of mixing
fluids in tanks. Discussions include:
Propeller-type mixer
Driver horsepower determination for propeller-type mixer
Mixer specifications and data sheets
Mixing nozzles
Miscellaneous mixing methods

35

781 Propeller-type Mixer

The side entry propeller-type mixers are the most commonly used tank mixing
device. Side entry mixers are available with either a fixed-angle or a variable-angle
mount. Fixed-angle mixers are used to prevent stock stratification. The variableangle
mount allows the mixer to rotate horizontally as much as 30 degrees to the
right and left of the manway access. This feature makes the mixer much more
effective in keeping sediments off of the tank bottom. The engineer should consult
with the vendor on the specifics of mixer angle. It is important to note that some
mixers are supported from the tank shell. Large bending forces can be introduced
into the tank shell as a result of this support style and should be addressed by the
engineer.
A mixer will induce high stock velocity and may result in erosion (or abrasive wear
where particulate is present in the product) of the steel plate around it. Using a
deflector stand (for fixed angle mixers) or wear plates on the bottom (for variable
angle mixers) and on the shell behind the propeller for both types of mixers, can
provide some protection to the tank shell and bottom. Standard Drawing GD-D1135
shows typical deflector plate and wear plate designs for both fixed and variable
angle mixers.
Mixers and internal nozzles may limit the low position of a floating roof. To relieve
this situation pontoon notches/indentations may be fabricated into the underside of
the roof. Larger (wider) roof cutouts are required for variable-angle mixers than for
fixed angle mixers. See Standard Drawing GD-D1071.

782 Driver Horsepower Determination

The mixer horsepower requirement depends on many variablestank size, tank
shape, fluid properties such as viscosity, miscibility, and density difference, desired
mixing time, initial state of separation, propeller speed, size, location, number of
mixers used, just to name a few. Therefore, the horsepower determination is often
left to the vendor. However, this may complicate the bid evaluation considerably
since the proposed driver size may vary significantly. It is recommended that the
driver size be specified in the quotation request on the mixer data sheet (MAC-DS1854 in the General Machinery Manual) and that you ask vendors to propose an
alternate if they feel the specified driver size is inadequate.
There are two standard mixer propeller speeds, 420 RPM and 280 RPM. The 280
RPM mixers draw substantially less horsepower for a given job than 420 RPM
mixers. Figures 700-20 through 700-22 help determine mixer horsepower
requirements for various services. When using the three figures the engineer should
keep in mind the limitations listed next.

Limitations

Obtain horsepower requirements from mixer suppliers instead of the figures if:
Viscosity of blend at mixing temperature is above 200 cs for Figure 700-20 and
above 1000 cp for Figure 700-22
Tank size is above that shown on the figures
Diameter-to-height ratio of tank is greater than 4 or less than 0.8
Liquids are immiscible or have high density differences
Slurries are to be mixed
Vertical mixers are required
In addition, if the resultant horsepower from the figures is less than 0.2 HP per
1000 bbl of tank capacity, use 0.2 HP per 1000 bbl instead. If tank cleaning or
BS&W service is anticipated, the minimum horsepower should be 0.25 HP per
1000 bbl of tank capacity.

Discussion of Figure 700-20

36

This figure is the graph for determining the 420 RPM mixer horsepower requirement
for gasoline blending. Sometimes the engineer must adjust the horsepower
requirement calculated from the graph. If the viscosity of the fluid is higher than
that of gasoline (kinematic viscosity of gasoline is generally less than 1 centistoke at
room temperature), use the formula in the figure to make adjustments.

Determining Mixer Horsepower

Gasoline Service. For gasoline blending service determine mixer HP required directly
from chart.
BS&W Service. For BS&W service (keeping bottom sediment and water in suspension)
determine gasoline HP
required for 8-hour gasoline mixing and multiply by 0.85. In addition, correct for
viscosity if required.
Viscous Oils. (Oil stocks with viscosity higher than gasoline) Determine HP for gasoline
blending service and
correct for viscosity as follows:

(Eq. 700-1)
where:
HP(gaso.) = HP from chart for gasoline service
cs = Viscosity of blend at mix temperature in centistokes (should be <200 cs to use
this chart)
HP(viscous) = Total HP required at the blend viscosity
Asphalt Service. Refer to mixer supplier for HP recommendation

37

Discussion of Figure 700-21

This figure shows the driver horsepower requirements for 280 RPM mixers for
services in which the tank is filled with the gasoline components prior to mixing.
This figure assumes a component density difference of no more than 7 degrees API. If
the density difference is higher, the engineer can use the insert graph to adjust the results.

Discussion of Figure 700-22

38

Fig. 700-22 Requirements for Side-entering Propeller Mixers, 280 RPM, Oil and Viscous
Service

Mixer horsepower is calculated using these

charts from the general expression
where:
M = Mixer horsepower at 400 CP viscosity
and 10API density variation read
directly from the chart
Cv = Viscosity correction factor from Table
I. Correction factor may be used for
10-1000 CP range.
V = Viscosity difference in centipoise
between the actual final viscosity and
the chart viscosity of 400 CP. If the
actual viscosity is greater than 400,
the sign of Cv is positive. If less than
400, the sign of Cv is negative. Do not
use for stocks with viscosity over
1000 CP (max. Cv = 600).
CD = Density variation correction factor
from Table II

This figure shows the horsepower requirement for crude and other viscous service.
The following are assumptions incorporated into this figure:
Component viscosity of 400 centipoise and a component density variation of no
more than 10 degrees API. The correction formula given in the figure can be
used to adjust the horsepower requirement if viscosity and/or density are
different. However, if any component viscosity is higher than 1000 centipoise,
the engineer should consult vendors on the horsepower requirement.
Mixers are operated during tank fill and continue after filling for the specified

39

blend time. If mixers are only turned on after the tank is filled, use half of the
specified blend time to determine the horsepower requirement.
A tank height (H) to tank diameter (D) ratio of the following:
Tank Capacity Maximum H/D Ratio
10,000
1.0
20,000
0.80
30,000
0.70
40,000
0.60
50,000
0.55
60,000
0.50
80,000
0.45
100,000
0.40
140,000
0.37
180,000
0.35
220,000
0.33
260,000
0.31
300,000500,000
0.30
If the tank has a higher height-to-diameter ratio, the engineer should consult vendors
on the horsepower requirement.

Vendor Recommendations

Horsepower recommendations per Figures 700-20, 700-21, and 700-22 are given
only for side-entering propeller-type tank mixers and for viscosity ranges normally
encountered in refinery services. Mixer speeds other than 420 or 280 RPM are not
covered. For cases beyond the limitations of our data, we must rely on mixer
suppliers for their horsepower recommendations. In special cases such as heavy
slurry mixing, grease blending, etc., tests may be justified to determine the
horsepower required.
To ensure that the mixer will perform as expected, follow the vendors
recommendations for installation and operation. Areas where the recommendations
should be closely checked are:
Grouping of mixers when more than one is used in a tank (internal obstructions
such as heaters and swing lines may influence mixer locations)
Mixer shaft offset angle (usually 10 degrees and should complement the natural
circulation of the tank)
Minimum gap between propeller and tank shell or bottom (minimum gap is
usually 3 to 8 inches)
Number of Mixers to Use. The number of mixers to be used in a given application
is a function of:
Total mixing horsepower required
Tank geometry
Load carrying capabilities of tank manways
Number of manways available
Maximum horsepower of available mixers
In general, the advantage of using multiple smaller mixers versus one larger mixer
is that a lower pump-out level (i.e., less unavailable stock in tank) can be achieved.
This is because propeller diameter is smaller in the smaller mixers.
The advantage of using one mixer is that it is less expensive since fewer manways
will be required on the tank. For variable angle mixers, the advantage of using one
mixer versus multiple mixers is that an activator can be used. The activator
continuously changes the angle of the mixer while it is in operation. Two or more
activators could counter the mixing effectiveness.

40

783 Mixer Specifications and Data Sheets

NCM-EF-594 (in the Noise Control in Designs Manual) is the equipment noise data
sheet. Mixer noise at any location 3 feet from the mixer and its connected piping
should not exceed 85 dbA. Normally, mixer noise is not a problem. However, for
large mixers some acoustic treatment may be necessary. Form NCM-EF-594 should
accompany Form DS-1854 and Specification EG-1854 when purchasing a mixer.
Form DS-1854 is the data sheet for mechanical mixers. It covers most of the
operating data for a mixer. Use Specification EG-1854 for the standard purchase and
construction of mixers.

784 Mixing Nozzles

Mixing nozzles are another means of agitating fluids in tanks. This is normally done
by taking suction on the tank in the normal manner and manifolding the transfer
pump to recirculate the product through the mixing nozzles. The resultant jet
streams can be directed to agitate the product. This method is simple and the
equipment cost is minimal.
However, consider its limitations before you choose this method. Mixing nozzles
will create high turbulence in the product. This can cause static electricity to
accumulate on the surface of the product if there is free space above it. (A cone roof
tank without an internal floating roof would be vulnerable to this potential hazard.)
Depending on the product, the free space may be within the explosive range and can
be ignited by the discharge of static electricity. Before you decide to use mixing
nozzles, consider the present and any possible future applications of the tank to
make sure that the space above the product would not be within the explosive limits.
Since mixing nozzles can create potential hazards, we recommend their use only
when propeller-type mixer installation is prohibitive. Mixing nozzle vendors (e.g.,
Butterworth) should be contacted for sizing.

785 Miscellaneous Mixing Methods

Several other methods can also mix products in tanks. They are normally less
effective. However, because of their simplicity, they are practical for occasional
mixing needs.
Circulation Through Swing Pipe. For tanks equipped with swing pipes, mixing
can be done by circulating through it. Better mixing will result by raising and
lowering the swing pipe during the circulation.
Air Injection. Air injection will agitate the product and result in mixing. However,
the operator must be careful not to over-pressure the tank and cause tank failure.
Hydrocarbon emission is also a major concern that may prevent the operator from
using this method. This method is a common technique in the asphalt airblowing
process. It is also used in lube oil tanks.

800 Fire and Safety Design

Abstract
This section contains guidance and requirements for tank and tank field design
which reduce the risk of fire and improve the ability to fight a fire. It presents
information on tank spacing, drainage, and impoundage and helps you determine the
need for, and design of, fixed extinguishing systems. It also lists design
considerations and methods that reduce the risk of fire. Both designer and
management can use the section to determine design criteria beyond national, state
and local codes and regulations.

810 General Considerations

41

Tank fires occur at a rate of around 3 x 10-3 fires per tank year (or three fires per
year for every thousand tanks). Compared to other types of equipment in the oil and
chemical industries, this is a relatively low frequency. On the other hand, tank fires,
when they occur, can be very spectacular, attract plenty of unwanted attention, and
can be very costly. Therefore, a well-thought out balance of prevention, suppression
and acceptable level of risk is the recommended approach to fire protection on
tanks.
Overall, the design concepts for protecting tankage from fires are based on the
following objectives:
1. Minimize the occurrence of tank fires.
2. Avoid conditions that can result in major spills, major vapor releases, frothovers,
or boilovers.
3. Contain spills, leaks, or overfills to minimize their effect on other tanks and
associated equipment.
4. Control fires at the tank and limit their spread to other tanks or facilities.

811 Typical Causes of Fire

Knowing the cause of past tank fires helps us prevent future fires. Some common
causes of tank fires and methods to prevent them are given below:

Lightning Ignition

See Section 430 for a discussion of tank grounding.

Seals on Open-top Floating Roof Tanks. Prevent these fires by properly designing
and maintaining shunts for primary and secondary seals, and insulated pantograph
hanger sections where applicable. (See Section 420.)
Internal Floating Roof Tanks. Ignition has occurred at vent openings due to
flammable vapors in the vapor space. The flammable vapor space can be caused by:
A sunken roof
Filling the tank after the roof has been set on its legs
Volatile liquids entering the tank due to process upset
A separated roof seal
Use of a buoyant roof, routine monitoring of the vapor space, and procedural control
during lightning storms will prevent such fires (see Section 420). Internal floating
roofs are not vulnerable to lightning ignitions at the seals, and shunts are not
required.
Cone Roof Tanks. On tanks with flammable vapor space, ignition has occurred
when there have been openings through the roof. To prevent these incidents, use
pressure/vacuum valves on the tank vents (see Section 743), assure the gaging and
sampling hatches have been closed, and use proper maintenance to ensure that no
corrosion openings exist in the tanks vapor space. It is recommended to use floating
roof or internal floating roof tanks for flammable liquids and for liquids stored at or
above their flash point (with the exception of hot asphalt tanks).

Overfill of Tanks Storing Flammable Liquid

Overfilling can cause vapors to reach ignition sources outside the diked area (see
Exterior Ignition Sources below). Overfills are prevented by sound operating
procedures and controls. Engineering can assist by providing necessary gaging
equipment, level alarms and shutdown equipment to carry out these procedures.
This equipment should be designed and installed so that it is easy for the operator to
test and maintain it. (See Section 900.)

Ignition While Performing Hot Work

Prevent these fires by detailed preplanning to identify and avoid potential risks
when removing tanks from service and during maintenance work. Engineering can
reduce risks during these operations by: (1) providing liquid-tight pontoon

42

compartments (See Section 420) and (2) designing internal piping and structural
members with positive drainage to minimize risk of flammable liquids being
trapped (See Section 700.)

Hot Asphalt Tank Fires

These fires are caused mostly by cracking and rapid oxidation at excessively high
temperatures. They primarily are prevented by operational control keeping storage
temperatures below 400F. Suitable temperature indicators and alarms must be
provided. An alternate approach is to use inert blanketing for hot tanks.

Large Vapor Releases

These releases result from stocks with excessively high vapor pressure (over 14.7
psia true vapor pressure) entering atmospheric tankage. External sources have
provided the source of ignition (see External Ignition Sources below). Suitable
instrumentation on process equipment and in gasoline blending systems will
minimize the release potential. Large vapor releases also have occurred from slop
tanks where naphtha-type slops have been introduced into heated slop tanks.
Segregated piping and tankage should be provided to avoid mixing light and heated
heavy slops.

Tank Froth-overs

Froth-overs occur when water enters hot tanks (over 212F) or when hot streams
enter tanks with water bottoms. The resulting massive froth releases have travelled
significant distances to reach exterior ignition sources (see below).
Tank froth-overs can be minimized by (1) designing process limit cooling water
systems to operate at a lower pressure than the hot process streams. This method
prevents water from leaking through the cooler bundles into hot rundown streams;
(2) providing proper instrumentation on rundown lines to tankage operating below
212F, preventing these rundown streams from exceeding that temperature (usually
200F is the tank temperature limit, see Section 1230); and (3) by designing
facilities to make it easy to regularly remove any water which accumulates in the
bottom of the tank.

Pyrophoric Ignitions
These spontaneous ignitions occur when iron sulfide deposits oxidize in the
presence of a flammable mixture in the vapor space of tanks. Such iron sulfide
deposits can form on metal in the vapor space where the hydrogen sulfide content is
high and there is no oxygen. Upon introduction of air, such deposits oxidize and
create an ignition source.
During normal operation of sour stock tanks, the risk can be minimized by using
floating roof tanks or by inert blanketing of fixed roof tanks. When removing sour
tanks from service, use careful procedural control until the tanks are gas free and all
built up deposits removed. Tank design should provide a means to evacuate gas and
sweeten the tank.

Static Electricity Ignitions

Such ignitions usually occur during initial filling, mixing, sampling, and gaging in
fixed roof tanks. Refined stocks with conductivities lower than 50
picoSiemens/meter (pS/M), and which can have flammable mixtures near the liquid
surface are particularly vulnerable. The use of floating roof tanks in these services,
with roofs properly bonded to the shell (see Standard Drawing GB-D1082 for
bonding details) basically eliminates these potentials except during the initial fill
period until the roof is floating.
Higher flash stock tanks, where hydrogen or light hydrocarbon vapors can enter
with rundown streams due to process upsets, are also vulnerable. Some preventive
steps which can be taken are:

43

Floating Roof Tanks:

Fill the tanks with water until the roof is floating before you introduce the
product, or
Until roof is floating during initial fill, reduce fill rate to less than 3 ft/sec
through inlet diffuser.
Make the vapor space beneath the roof inert before filling.
Fixed Roof Tanks (handling refined stocks which can have flammable mixtures
near the liquid surface):
During initial fill, reduce the fill rate to less than 3 ft/sec through inlet diffuser
until diffuser is covered by 6" of product.
Provide gaging and sampling wells or
Provide blanketing in the vapor space (could be inert, N2 flue gas, or natural or
refinery gas).
Contaminated High Flash Stock Tanks:
Closely control process operations, particularly stripping, to minimize carryover
of hydrogen or light hydrocarbon into tanks.
Regularly sample rundown streams and test for product contamination.
Periodically test vapor space of these rundown tanks to determine if
flammability exists.
Provide gaging and sampling wells in these fixed roof tanks.

Exterior Ignition Sources

Sources such as motor vehicles, energized electrical equipment, hot surfaces from
pump bearing failure, and open flames can start fires. These ignitions usually occur
with high vapor releases caused by overfilling or high-vapor-pressure stocks
entering tanks. A similar problem exists when froth-overs occur.
Within the immediate vicinity of the tanks and their associated impounding and
drainage areas, control is accomplished through proper electrical area classification
and work permit procedures. It is impractical to protect against ignition for the
major release situations. They are avoided through process controls, safe operating
procedures, and training.
Equipment with a higher fire risk, especially pumps, should be located outside of
tank impounds.

812 Design Considerations for Firefighting

The design must provide for containment of the tank contents and for the safety and
effectiveness of firefighters during a tank fire. The basic fire protection design
concepts for tankage areas require the movement of personnel, foam generating
equipment, and portable hoses and equipment to the fire area. It is important to
consult with the local fire fighting agency on available equipment and fire fighting
techniques during the design phase. See Section 830 for a discussion of tank fire
fighting.

Accessibility
Accessibility is the key factor, both in the movement of the mobile equipment to the
fire site and the effective, safe use there. Some of the primary overall considerations
in this regard are:
Roads. Two or more road accesses from different directions should be available to
each tank field area. A road should be provided on at least one side of all low flash
stock tanks. The roads must be wide enough or have sufficient turnouts to allow
efficient maneuvering of firefighting vehicles.
Mains, hydrants. Fire water mains and hydrants should be located along these
roadways, with hydrants positioned on the roadside of any dikes, pipeways,
drainage ditches, or other obstructions. As appropriate, walkways or accessways

44

should be provided over wide pipeways or other obstructions to allow for running
hose lines into the tankage areas.
Dikes. Dike heights normally should be limited to six feet above the surrounding
land to allow ease of access over the dikes by firefighters. Stairways or other
operator accessways normally would be provided over both sides of the dike near
the roadside for operations control.
Stairways. The bottom of the tank stairway should be located on the tank near the
operator access point. For operation as well as firefighting considerations, locate the
top of the stairway on the prevailing upwind side of the tanks where practical.
Where dikes must be higher than six feet for earthen construction or four feet for
concrete, an additional stairway on the opposite side of the dike enclosure is desirable
for easy egress.
Some specific design considerations for different types of anticipated fires are:

Seal Fires in Open-top Floating Roof Tanks

For larger tanks (greater than 120-foot diameter), handrails on wind girders for
emergency access around the tank, and foam dams on the roof, are required.
The wind girder walkway can also be used for seal inspections.
Foam dams as shown in Figures 800-6 and 800-7 are also required, although it
is recognized they may present a hindrance to maintenance work.
Firefighters need good access to the tank stairway for ascent to the roof
platform.

Cone Roof Tank Vent Fires

Firefighters must carry portable equipment to the roof and need a minimum
stairway width of 30 inches.
Locate the vents near the roof apex, or provide handrails in areas where vents
are located near the roof edge.

Water Drawoff Fires

Sumps, under drawoff connections, should be connected to a closed drain
system to limit the area of any spill fires associated with these connections. The
drain line should contain a liquid seal to prevent vapor and fire transmission
into and/or from the sewer system.
The drawoff connection should be located at least 15 feet from the main tank
valve manifold to avoid manifold involvement in case of a drawoff fire. Where
water drawoff lines are connected to the suction or fill lines, an additional valve
should be provided at the suction or fill line connection to allow isolation in the
event of a fire.
In case of leakage and fire around the manifold area, the drawoff connection
can be used for injecting water into the bottom of the tank.

Spill Fire/Impounding Basin Fire/Tank Overfill

Firefighters need access to inside of diked areas to:

Deliver foam by portable hose streams to cover small spill fires.
Deliver water to cool exposed downwind tanks.
Drainage design is important to minimize exposure from spills to other tanks,
piping, or other facilities. Remote impounding to contain the fuel carried away from
tanks and piping is good fire protection design practice.

Fully Involved Tank Fire

Firefighters need access to diked areas to cool shells of downwind-exposed

equipment.

Crude Tank Fires with Boilover Potential

Store crude in floating roof tanks to avoid boilover potential. Experience also
indicates that boilover during fires in small crude tanks is not likely.

45

 If a cone roof crude tank fire should occur and boilover results, firefighters
must evacuate the immediate area during that occurrence and then return to
handle wide area spill fires. Overall layout should provide for such evacuation
and subsequent access needs.
Many of the designs in the sections on drainage, layout, spacing and fire
suppression systems improve the effectiveness of firefighting efforts and minimize
the spread of fire.

Fire Protection Requirements

Inherently, many of the features of tank design and construction are related to minimizing
fire losses. The welding and tank foundation requirements are designed to
provide basic integrity to the tank. The steel materials of tank construction as well
as the valve connections provide for high resistance under fire exposure. The
spacing and layout requirements as well as drainage and impounding provisions are
tied directly to fire containment and control. All such items cannot be included, but
several key considerations are listed for emphasis. Reference should be made to the
appropriate sections elsewhere in the Tank Manual for details relative to their design
and installation.
General Design Requirements.
High-level alarm(s) for protection against tank overfilling (see Section 900).
These can be an important backup for operator control during tank filling.
Acceptable types of fire resistant valves for connections below the liquid
surface and in drainage and impounding areas (see Section 850). Suitable valve
materials (normally steel) are necessary to avoid failure under fire exposure and
additional liquid release to the fire. Also, valve closure might be required after
fire exposure to stop fuel release. Specifically, no brass or bronze valves and no
wafer butterfly valves with exposed bolts should be used on the tank and in the
drainage and impounding areas.
Acceptable design arrangements for piping flexibility near tanks including fire
resistance and mechanical flexibility (see Section 700). To avoid failures or
leakage, piping must be flexible enough to accommodate settling of tanks,
shifting of foundation, expansion and contraction from temperature changes
and soil movement. If mechanical joints are used, they should not fail during
fire exposure.
Tank sampling connections, where installed below the liquid level, should have
a root valve against the tank (normally closed except when sampling), readily
accessible by the operators. For tanks with circular stairways, these valves
should be accessible from the stairway or at a centrally located manifold (see
Section 700).
Drains for spill pads under sample connections or mixers should be tied to the
area drain system through a sealed connection. This reduces the build-up of
spilled oil which creates housekeeping and fire risk problems.
Tank nozzles for filling/withdrawal, water drawoff, and sampling should not be
installed beneath the stairway. This protects stairway access if a spill from one
of these nozzles should catch fire. Also, these nozzles should be separated from
each other (see Section 600).

Safe Practices
In addition, there are a number of safety/fire prevention practices associated with
tank maintenance and operations. Items falling into this category are:
Safe operating practices to prevent overfilling tanks. Clearly developed and
enforced procedures are essential in establishing firm operator control to avoid
overfilling.
Procedures and controls for filling, sampling and gauging. Static can

46

accumulate during filling, and restraints must be imposed during initial filling
and during sampling and gauging of certain types of tanks to avoid introduction
of an ignition source. Refer to API Recommended Practice 2003, Protection
Against Ignitions Arising Out of Static, Lightning, and Stray Currents.
Procedures for drawing water and minimizing oil losses which include operator
coverage at all times. Properly controlled water drawoff reduces the chance of
significant oil spills and resultant potential for fire.
Hot work on tanks in or out of service. Special precautions and procedures need
to be established to properly eliminate or control ignitable materials at tanks
where mechanical hot work is to be performed. Refer to Section 1100.
Procedures for in-service testing and maintenance of level and alarm systems.
Such instrumentation must be regularly tested to assure continued reliability.
Testing must include the entire system from primary level sensing element
to the alarm in the control room. Where tanks must be removed from service
for necessary testing or maintenance, there is risk of continuing operation of
tanks without workable level control instrumentation. Refer to Section 900.
Maintenance procedures for gas testing and entering tanks. Carefully developed
cleaning, gas freeing, and gas testing procedures are essential to assure safety
of personnel entering or working on tanks, both from a fire risk and toxic
exposure standpoint. These procedures will vary based on tank type and
material previously stored. Refer to Section 1100.
Provisions for gas testing of floating roof pontoon compartments. Liquid or
vapor leakage into pontoons can occur from inadequate top seam welding,
improperly sealed manway covers, or corrosion. Before hot work can be started
in these areas, there must be assurance that flammable or combustible materials
are not present. Refer to Section 1100.
Provision for draining internal piping and structural supports when gas freeing
before mechanical work. An overlooked accumulation of hydrocarbons in
internal piping or supports can create a potential fire hazard.
Provision for draining or pumping into or out of a tank during a fire. In certain
tank fire situations, this may be the best approach to minimize losses. It should
be considered in the emergency planning.
Labeling is required on tanks in certain locations, based on legal or local
requirements, to identify contents which may be flammable, combustible, or
toxic. Refer to NFPA 704.

Requirements for Nonmetallic and Special Service Tanks

Nonmetallic tanks or tanks in special services require procedures or design
considerations:
Use of nonmetallic tanks is limited generally to services where flammable
materials are not being handled or to remote producing areas where failure or
loss would be an acceptable risk.
Plastic tanks should be protected from lightning and static ignition, if flammable
vapors can occur. Lightning protection can be provided by lightning
rods, conducting masts, or overhead ground wires. For details, see NFPA 78.
Static electricity may be a problem for plastic tanks holding conducting as well
as non-conducting fluids. All metallic objects such as manway openings, fluid
connections, or gauging instruments, even if not in contact with the liquid, must
be bonded together and grounded. Avoid having any metal projections inside
the tank that create a spark gap with a rising liquid level. These projections
provide a focal point for sparking from the liquid surface.
Internal coatings, such as plastic or paint, <80 mil (2mm) thick in metal tanks
do not create any added static hazard. Their resistivities are of the same order of

47

magnitude as the oil, and they create no barrier to the flow of static charge.
Special requirements for hot tanks. Controls must be established to prevent
water entering or developing in such tanks to avoid steam formation and
resulting froth-over. Tank temperatures should be maintained above 250F for
this purpose. To avoid potential for self-igniting oxidation, maximum
temperatures should be 400F unless the tank is blanketed.
Special requirements for slop tanks. In general, light and heated heavy slops
should be segregated in separate systems to avoid significant vapor generation
when light hydrocarbon enters a heated tank.
Vapor recovery systems require special design based on many factors including
layout, type and size of tankage, and hydrocarbons involved. The overall
arrangement should not permit flammable mixtures to be drawn through
compressors or long runs of piping.

820 Location and Spacing

821 Location

Tank location is influenced by a number of factors including:

Operating requirements,
Topographical features,
Fire protection considerations, and
Optimum use of property.

Operating Requirements

Operating requirements may dictate whether tankage is located close to or remote

from units which they serve. Generally tanks are uphill from their transfer pumps
and close to each other for ready access, short suction lines and minimum piping.
Sometimes stock characteristics, quality control, or other factors may require
location of tanks close to processing units. Generally these tanks should be limited
in size to meet processing needs rather than storage requirements.

Topographical Features and Fire Protection

The surrounding topography should be used to the best advantage to suit immediate
operating needs and to allow for expansion. Elevation, drainage, grading and
excavation costs, and soil characteristics need to be considered.
Drainage is of prime importance in tank field layouts, and should be considered
during initial designs rather than as a design detail after the layout is established.
Making plot plans showing existing, new and future tankage is always helpful.
Spills must be drained away from tanks and contained in remote impounds on
Company property. Also spills should not endanger other Company facilities,
including pumps, filters, major valve manifolds, major electrical equipment, or
other equipment which may be located in the tank field.
Differences in elevation should be used in meeting drainage requirements. From a
fire prevention standpoint, these considerations become even more important when
handling flammable liquids with flash points below 100F. For such low flash stock,
including crude oil, avoid locating impounding and drainage areas at higher
elevations than other facilities. This is especially true for public roads and other
offsite facilities, and in-plant facilities where personnel or equipment exposures
might be involved.
Adequate roads are needed to provide ready access to all tanks and should be
considered in the layout. These roads may be narrow, but they should be all-weather
roads and provided with turnouts at convenient intervals to accommodate multiple
vehicles involved in handing any emergency. There must be access so that tank field
operators can conveniently reach each tank without taking a motor vehicle into an
impounding basin area or across an open drainage channel that could contain

48

flammable liquid.

Optimum Use of Property

Locate tanks so that Company property is used to its maximum potential value as
plant and building sites. Tanks should be located so they are in harmony with the
planned development, or primary function, of the overall area. Consider aesthetics
when locating a tank; especially if the tank can be seen from public accessways or if
it changes the skyline. Also consider locating tanks away from easy public access
and away from sources of fire outside the fenceline.

822 Tank Spacing

Regulations

Tank spacing requirements are based on standards in the National Fire Protection
Associations Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code (NFPA 30). Company
standards have been developed by the CRTC Fire and Process Safety Team. These
standards for proximity of tanks to property lines are the same as the NFPA 30 Code
(1996 Edition). Shell-to-shell spacing is also the same as NFPA 30. This section
gives minimum layout requirements under normal situations. Greater spacing
should be considered where possible. The greater the spacing, the less likely other
equipment would be damaged as a result of a nearby fire.

Distance from Property Lines and Public Ways

Requirements for the location of aboveground tankage with respect to property lines
and public ways are based upon the following criteria:
Pressure limitation under emergency venting conditions,
Type of liquid stored and its behavior under fire conditions,
Type of tank, and the type of fire protection available.
Use Figures 800-1 through 800-4 to calculate distances. These figures give
minimum standards which are acceptable under normal conditions. However,
consider what is adjacent to the Company's property line. Major high volume
highways and buildings of high occupancy, may be at risk or be a source of high
risk to Company facilities. In those cases, additional spacings should be considered.
Alternatively, use of the area nearer the property line for finished product tanks
containing stocks with flash points above 140F would minimize risk.
Fig. 800-1 Aboveground Tanks for Stable Flammable and Combustible Liquids (Below 200F
Flash Point) Other Than
Crude Oil Reprinted with permission from NFPA 30-1996, Flammable and Combustible
Liquids Code,
Copyright 1996, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy MA 02269. This reprinted
material is not
the complete and official position of the NFPA on the referenced subject, which is
represented only by
the standard in its entirety

49

(1) Approved floating roof and frangible joint designs are defined in Section 420.
(2) Protection for exposures means fire protection for structures on property adjacent to liquid storage. Fire
protection for such structures
shall be acceptable when located (1) within the jurisdiction of any public fire department or (2) adjacent to plants
having private fire
brigades capable of providing cooling water streams on structures on property adjacent to liquid storage.
(3) Use this for producing areas where no fire water is on site and there is no public or private fire brigade to
respond
(4) For tanks over 150 feet in diameter use Protection for Exposures or None, as applicable.

Fig. 800-2 Aboveground Tanks for Class III B Liquids with Flash Points at or above 200F
Reprinted with permission
from NFPA 30-1996, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, Copyright 1996, National
Fire Protection
Association, Quincy MA 02269.

50

Fig. 800-3 Reference Minimum Distance for Use in Figure 800-1 Reprinted with permission
from NFPA 30-1996,
Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, Copyright 1996, National Fire Protection
Association,
Quincy MA 02269.

Fig. 800-4 Aboveground Tanks for Crude Oil Reprinted with permission from NFPA 30-1996,
Flammable and
Combustible Liquids Code, Copyright 1996, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy
MA 02269.

(1) Approved floating roof tanks and frangible joints are defined in Section 100 and API 650.
(2) Protection for exposures shall mean fire protection for structures on property adjacent to liquid storage. Fire
protection for such structures
shall be acceptable when located (1) within the jurisdiction of any public fire department or (2) adjacent to plants
having private
fire brigades capable of providing cooling water streams on structures on property adjacent to liquid storage.
(3) Use this for producing areas where no fire water is on site and there is no public or private fire brigade to
respond.
(4) It is NOT ALLOWED to store liquid with boilover characteristics (such as crude oil) in fixed roof tanks over 120
feet in diameter. See the

51

Fire Protection Manual.

Shell-To-Shell Spacing
It is generally Company practice to follow NFPA 30 Code requirements for
minimum spacing between aboveground storage tanks. However, for large tanks
having diameters over 120 feet but less than 150 feet, and for smaller fixed roof
crude oil tanks in remote locations having remote impounding, Company shell-toshell
spacing requirements are more conservative than NFPA 30. Greater spacing
will allow for adequate drainage of spilled oil away from tanks, limit the chance of
spread of a large tank fire and provide better access for handling fires in these large
tanks.
Figure 800-5 gives the Companys spacing requirements. In the figure, D1 and D2
are the diameters of any two adjacent tanks.

Spacing from and in Operating Facilities

An operating facility is typically an area containing operating equipment such as
furnaces, boilers, pumps, compressors, pressure vessels, separators, loading rack,
etc. For convenience, pipeways and access roads normally separate operating
facilities from tankage. The minimum recommended spacing requirements between
tanks and other operating equipment including operating facilities are:
A clear space of 100 feet from product tanks to an operating facility
A clear space of 200 feet from crude tanks to an operating facility
At least 200 feet from tank impoundment basins to flares (confirmed by radiant
heat calculations)
At least 75 feet from tanks to operations control buildings
At least 200 feet from tanks to cooling towers
At least 50 feet from small product tanks to drums, exchangers, loading racks
and transformers
Closer spacing may be adequate for small tanks in small plants
Other spacing requirements for producing tankage are given in the Fire Protection
Manual. For marketing plants, loading racks should be spaced a minimum of 50 feet from high flash
tankage (over 100F flash point) and 100 feet for flammable
liquid storage.
Fig. 800-5 Minimum Spacing (Shell-to-Shell) Between Aboveground Tanks for Flammable
and Combustible Liquids
Reprinted with permission from NFPA 30-1996, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code,
Copyright
1996, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy MA 02269.

52

Note Tanks used for storing Class IIIB liquids may be spaced no less than 3 feet apart unless within a diked area or
drainage path for a
tank storing Class I or II liquid, in which case provisions of this figure apply.
(1) A floating roof tank is defined in Section 100.
(2) Class I and II are liquids with flash point below 140F. Class IIIA liquids are liquids with flash point at or above
140F but below
200F. Class IIIB liquids are liquid with flash point at or above 200F.
(3) Crude oil tanks at production facilities in isolated locations having capacities not exceeding 126,000 gallons
(3,000 barrels) need not
be separated by more than 3 feet.
(4) Crude oil storage in fixed roof tanks over 120 feet in diameter is not allowed. See the Fire Protection Manual.

830 Fire Suppression Systems

This section discusses fire risk, the Companys resulting plan for suppressing fires
in various areas, and specific design information for built-in water and foam
systems. For more information, see the latest version of API 2021, Aboveground
Storage Tank Firefighting.

832 Fire Water Systems

This section covers sizing and location of fire water mains and location of hydrants
within the tank field area. For design details of overall in-plant fire water systems,
see the Fire Protection Manual.

Fire Main Sizing

The Fire and Process Safety Team recommends sizing fire mains around tank fields
for the largest of the following:
1. water for making the amount of foam needed for a rim seal fire
and/or
2. cooling of adjacent tanks in the event of a full surface fire in any one tank.
Full surface tank fires are very rare and, although this scenario should not be
considered when sizing fire mains, plans should be made on where water would be
obtained if needed. The plan could include calling in outside resources and boosting
water pressure from available public or private sources or drafting from streams or
ponds. If a tank site is so remote as to preclude water being boosted to the site,

53

consideration may be given to supplying a branch to the location.

For Foam Generation. Mains would supply enough water to make the amount of
foam needed to handle a single rim space fire at any one time on any one open-top
floating roof tank. (Rim area is assumed to be 2 feet wide.)
With foam dams: 3.0 gpm per ten square feet of rim area
Without foam dams: 5.0 gpm per ten square feet of rim area
For Cooling the Tank. Additional water should be available to cool the tank shell
surface above the level of the floating roof.
1.0 gpm per 10 square feet of the upper half of the tank shell for 50% of the
periphery
For Cooling Adjacent Tanks. For cone roof tanks, internal floating roof tanks, and
for the remote case where an open-top floating roof tank roof may be sunk, cooling
water would be provided for a maximum of 3 adjacent tanks. (Adjacent tanks are
those downwind of a burning tank within 1-1/2 tank diameters' distance and within
any one quadrant.) Application of water to these tanks will be by fire hose stream or
portable monitors.
1.0 gpm per 10 square feet of vapor exposed surfaces, limited to upper half of
shells and 50% of the periphery of one tank and 25% of periphery on each of
the other tanks.

Fire Main Layout

Layout in the tankage areas would follow the normal looped arrangement with
adequate valving to assure flow in case of fire main damage or failures. The normal
looped arrangement is described in the Fire Protection Manual.

Hydrants
In accordance with the Fire Protection Manual, hydrants should be:
On the streetside or accesswayside of all pipelines, fences, dike walls or
drainage ditches
Near accessways or walkways which cross drainage ditches hindering access to
the tankage
Located so that all parts of every tank shell will be within reach of a stream
from a hose no longer than 300 feet
Positioned along the road near the point of normal access to the bottom of the
stairway of open-top floating roof tanks
Located within 100 feet of any foam lateral run to the road for connection to a
mobile foam truck

833 Foam Systems

It is Company policy to provide the capability to apply foam to fight rim space fires
on open-top floating roof tanks as defined in Section 831. While roofs can sink, they
sink so infrequently that it is not Company policy to provide foam protection for a
total surface area fire.
This section covers foam attachments for open-top floating roof tanks. If, because of
local regulations or other special reasons, foam protection is to be installed on cone
roof or internal floating roof tanks, refer to NFPA 11 Low Expansion Foam And
Combined Agent Systems for design details. Overall foam design information
related to mobile vehicles, foam types and storage and portable equipment are
covered in the Fire Protection Manual. Also see that manual for various approaches
to fighting tank fires, including subsurface injection of foam through fill lines.

Materials
Hard-piped foam systems in salt water service have plugged from corrosion
products in a short time. For this service, piping should be epoxy-lined. Consult
with the appropriate CRTC specialist for an appropriate lining system.

54

Up to 120-foot-diameter Tanks
Hose can be laid up the stairs to the gaging platform and foam directed by hand. If
the hose won't reach all the seal from the platform, it can usually be taken down the
roof ladder, and, if necessary, onto the roof to extinguish any remaining fire at the
tank seal. Foam dams are normally justified on these smaller floating roof tanks
only in areas of high lightning frequency where tank appurtenances would interfere
with applying foam to the entire seal space from the gaging platform.

Over 120-foot-diameter Tanks

Because of their size, these tanks should have some semi-fixed or fixed facilities to
make it easier to start firefighting and to handle hoses. These facilities are described
below for various tank sizes. In addition, these large tanks should have the
following: their wind girders should have a clear width of 24 inches or greater and
handrails, so they can double as walkways; and a foam dam should be installed to
contain any foam applied in the rim space area.
On 121- to 150-foot-diameter Tanks. Foam solution piping can be routed two
ways. In the first way, a dry pipe riser is installed from ground level to a point just
above the wind girder. The riser should end below the shell top angle and be
accessible near the top of the stairway with two 2-inch valved outlets, one of
which should be equipped with a 1-inch reducer for a 1-inch fire hose. The
clearance between valve handles and the wind girder handrail should be 24 inches.
Alternately, the foam solution piping can be routed beneath the wind girder
(properly braced) to provide the hose connections at the outer edge of the handrail.
Depending on local conditions, this riser can start a few feet above ground level on
the shell of the tank or be extended to the road where it can be reached without
having to lay a hose to the tank (see Standard Drawing GC-S1005).
On 151- to 200-foot-diameter Tanks. These tanks should have two dry pipe risers:
one located near the gaging platform and the other spaced about 180 degrees from
it. The riser near the gaging platform should be fitted with a special foam maker
assembly. Applying foam beneath the platform will enable firefighters to safely
access the platform when they arrive and assess the best way to put out the fire.
Figure 800-6 shows the necessary appurtenances for the approach. The piping to the
foam maker should have a valve in it so it can be shut off from the wind girder if the
foam maker is not needed. The valve should normally be open so that if a seal fire
should occur in the vicinity of the platform the foam will run down the inside of the
shell and in to the seal space under the platform. This fixed foam maker should have
a capacity of at least 50 gpm of water-foam concentrate solution.

55

Over 200-foot-diameter Tanks. Because of their size, these tanks should be

equipped with permanently attached equipment for extinguishing fires in the seal
space. Over-the-top foam application is the preferred approach for both reliability
and cost. Figure 800-7 shows the conceptual layout for this system. Several other
effective methods are commercially available and could possibly be used. The Fire
Protection Staff should be consulted for details of design.

56

Over-the-top Foam Application

Header, Nozzles, and Splash Shield. This design consists of installing a properly
sized piping header or ring main around the outside wall of the shell on or near the
wind girder and connecting it to a series of foam makers, spaced at approximately
80-foot intervals, which discharge foam down the inside surface of the shell onto
the floating roof seal. A single pipe riser supplies the header from a hose connection
near the bottom of the tank shell or from the access roadway. The seal space is filled
rapidly with all foam makers being used simultaneously. The foam discharge
nozzles must be high enough to be above the roof in its most extended position.
This necessitates the installation of splash shields attached to the top angle of the
tank which will direct the foam downward along the shell into the seal space. Piping
design should provide for inlet pressure between 75 psi and 100 psi at the foam
makers.
Hand-held Hose Lines. Two dry pipe risers should be installed per Standard
Drawing GC-S1055: one located near the gaging platform above the wind girder
and the other about 180 degrees across the tank. These risers allow firefighters to
put out limited seal space fires with a hand-held hose from the wind girder without
having to activate the entire built-in system.
Also, high winds may prevent complete fixed systems from blanketing all areas.
The hand-held hose lines provide a ready means of covering these voids in the foam
blanket.
Application Rate. The minimum design rate of solution for this system would be
3 gpm per 10 square foot of the seal area surface. Considering the maximum
spacing of these foam makers around the seal area and the size of foam makers used

57

(50 gpm at 75 psi inlet pressure), the actual rate would be in excess of 3 gpm per
10 square foot of seal area surface. A minimum supply of foam concentrate should
be available to assure at least 20 minutes foam application at minimum rates for the
largest tank involved.

Foam Dams
These dams retain the foam at the seal area and provide for sufficient depth to cause
the foam to flow laterally to a point where the seal may have been ruptured. They
also prevent excess foam from flowing out onto the roof. Foam dams are required
for open-top floating roof tanks over 120 feet in diameter and for smaller tanks in
high lightning areas.
Location: Two feet from the roof edge to minimize amount of foam required to
cover the seal area.
Height: 2 feet minimum, with 6 inches elevation above the high point of weather
shields, secondary seals, collection trough for wax scrapers, or any other
appurtenance that might interfere with applying foam to the seal area.
Material: At least No. 10 U.S. Standard Gage galvanized steel sheet securely
fastened to the roof. No roof accessories such as vents or gage hatches should be
between the dam and the shell.
Drain Slots: The dam should have slots to release rainwater but the size should be
minimized to reduce the amount of foam lost during an emergency. Vertical slots, 1
inch high by inch wide spaced at 10-foot intervals will normally be adequate.
There should be no other openings on the bottom of the foam dam.
Attachment Method: The dam is to be attached to the roof by a 2" in 10" stitch
weld or other means to avoid leakage except at drain holes.

Foam Solution Piping

Galvanized pipe should be used in these systems. This piping, particularly where
salt fire water is used, is very vulnerable to scale and rust formation, with
consequential plugging of the small foam maker orifices. Periodic flow testing of
these systems is essential (see Fire Protection Manual). After testing, the system
should be fresh-water flushed.

Calculations to Establish Recommended Foam Supplies

The following are the formulas you need to calculate the amount of tank fire foam
you need:
Tank Size.
Tank diameter - (needed to calculate the surface area square feet)
D2 .785 = Surface area sq. ft. (needed to calculate the foam-water solution
application rate
Topside/Full Involvement.
.16 gpm Surface Area Sq. Ft. = Foam-Water Solution application rate for
tanks smaller than 150 ft. diameter.
.20 gpm Surface Area Sq. Ft. = Foam-Water Solution application rate for
tanks 150 ft. diameter and larger.
.03 (3%) Foam-Water Solution gpm application rate = Concentrate gpm
required.
Topside/Seal (6 in).
D2 .785 - ((D - 1)2 .785) = Surface Area Sq. Ft.
.3 gpm Surface Area Sq. Ft. = Foam-Water Solution application rate.
.03 (3%) Foam-Water Solution gpm application rate = Concentrate gpm
required.
Concentrate gpm 20 = Concentrate (gal.) required for a 20 min. application.
Topside/Seal (8 in).

58

 D2 .785 - ((D - 1.33)2 .785) = Surface Area Sq. Ft.

.3 gpm Surface Area Sq. Ft. = Foam-Water Solution application rate.
.03 (3%) Foam-Water Solution gpm application rate = Concentrate gpm
required.
Concentrate gpm 20 = Concentrate (gal.) required for a 20 min. application.
Subsurface Injection.
.1 gpm Surface Area Sq. Ft. = Foam-Water Solution application rate.
.03 (3%) Foam-Water Solution application rate = Concentrate gpm required.
Concentrate gpm 60 = Concentrate (gal.) required for a 60 min. application.

59

Fig. 800-8 Foam Calculations (1 of 3)

60

Fig. 800-8 Foam Calculations (2 of 3)

61

Fig. 800-8 Foam Calculations (3 of 3)

62

850 Drainage and Impounding

851 Drainage
Proper drainage design is a major factor in meeting tankage safety objectives. Tank
fields preferably should drain to a remote impounding area on Company property.
This will prevent a spill from endangering adjoining property and waterways, and
from exposing valuable Company property. This section is based on the standards in
NFPA 30.
Drainage can be by large drain pipes or surface drainage but is usually provided by
overland flow in shaped channels or swales. Surface drainage should slope away
from tank piping and other equipment at a 1% minimum grade. This helps prevent
underside corrosion and fire at the base of a tank. Surface drainage can use low
diversion walls and/or drainage ditches or channels to divert the liquid to the
impounding area. Where drainage channels go through pipes or culverts, a means
should be provided to direct overflow in case of pipe plugging or flooding. This can
usually be done by lowering a section of the elevated roadway or dike directly over
the pipe or culvert.
Drainage channels should be sized as a minimum to handle the largest stream of oil
that could result from a tank overfill or discharge from a broken pipeline under
maximum normal pump pressure or by gravity from one of the tanks. (Flow
channels and dikes are not usually designed for a tank rupture.) The other major
consideration for drainage runoff would be rainfall and fire water. Some guidance
on these quantities is given in Section 500 of the Civil and Structural Manual.
Rainwater from floating roof tanks should be directed into a drainage channel to the
basin and not piped directly to public waters. This allows an easy visual check that
the roof drain is functioning properly and prevents a spill from escaping into other
areas that possibly do not have large enough retention capacity.
It is important to locate electrical equipment outside of electrically classified
drainage areas (Section 840). It should also be located far enough away from liquid
drainage and impounding areas so that it is unlikely to be damaged if a fire should
involve the spilled liquid. Motor vehicle access for tank field operators should not
cross impounding basins or drainage channels that could contain flammable liquids.

852 Remote Impounding

Remote impounding basins are the preferred method of containing spills from tank
fields. The impounding area should be designed to hold, at minimum, the contents
of the largest tank in the tank field. At basin capacity, the impounded liquid should
be at least 50 feet from the nearest tank or any property line that can be built on.
Where remote impounding cannot be used to contain the total contents of a spill,
partial remote impounding is more desirable than diking to impound all spilled
liquid close to the tank and piping.
The basin should be sloped to drain to a low point where a drain pipe can release
accumulated rainwater. There must be a valve on the drain line outside of the basin
and it must be normally closed. The basin dikes are normally built of earth and
should be shaped to be durable and be easy to maintain. The dike can have an access
road on top but an access road at the outside base of the dike would be more useful
in an emergency.

853 Diked Enclosures

Where remote impounding cannot be used because of space or other limitations,
diking around the tankage may have to be used. The grading in such enclosures
should flow liquids away from tankage and piping at a 1% minimum grade to a low
point within the enclosure. This point should be remote from the tankage and
piping, where accumulated liquid can be drained or pumped out. This will tend to

63

minimize potential fire exposure in case of a spill fire. Similarly the surface
drainage within the enclosure should be arranged to quickly remove spilled
hydrocarbons from under pipeways to minimize involvement of the piping in case
of a spill fire. The outside base of the dike at ground level should be no closer than
10 feet to any property line that could be built on. The area between the dike and the
fence should be kept clear for access.
Diked enclosures should be able to contain the greatest amount of liquid that can be
released from the largest tank within the diked area. The capacity of the diked area
enclosing more than one tank should be calculated by deducting the volume of the
tanks other than the largest tank, below the height of the dike. However, if multiple
small tanks in the area could be overturned or damaged during an earthquake the
diked area capacity should be greater than the capacity of the largest tank.
Dikes must be liquid-tight and impervious to the stock. They can be constructed of
suitable earth, masonry, concrete, or metal depending upon the space available.
Diked areas located in extremely porous soils may require special treatment to
prevent seepage of hazardous liquids to low-lying areas in case of spills.
The average interior height of such dikes should not be more than six feet above
grade. If higher dikes are needed due to local considerations, special added design
features, such as remote operator valves, elevated walkways, or similar arrangements
may be required (consult NFPA 30).
Each dike containing two or more tanks should be subdivided, preferably by
drainage channels or at least by 18-inch high intermediate dikes, to prevent small
spills from endangering adjacent tanks within the dike area. Again NFPA 30 can
guide you on subdivision requirements.
In general, pumps, filters, and other equipment in the tank field, including major
valve manifolds, should be located outside of the dike areas where they will not be
affected by tank spills. In some cases it may not be feasible to protect this
equipment from the maximum possible spill, but it should be protected from a spill
of at least 10% of the largest tank in the impounding area.
Motor vehicle access for tank field operators would normally be excluded from the
diked areas of flammable liquid tankage. However, access must be provided into
these diked areas for maintenance equipment. This is usually accomplished by
ramped entries into the diked area. Vehicles need hot work permits to enter tank
diked areas.
Where provisions are made to drain water from the impounding area, a manual gate
valve operable from outside the impound area should be provided. It must
normally be closed.

Pipes Through Dike Walls

Openings where pipes pass through dikes must be carefully sealed. Also, the pipes
should be installed in sleeves for protection and ease of maintenance. Richmond
Refinery seals the annular space between the pipe and the sleeve with the T. D.
Williams Link Seal system. All links can be sealed with Link Seal Model LS
casing end seals. The inside diameter of the sleeve ends should be beveled to
facilitate installation of the link seal. Link seals can be ordered in accordance with
the following designations:
Designation Service
C Standard service -40F to +250F (insulating type)
S Corrosive service -40F to +250F
O Oil resistant service -40F to +250F
T High temperature service 67F to +450F
FD FS fire rated service (non-insulating)

64

Pyro-Pac To be used on lines entering firewalls, impound areas,

and on angled entrance sleeves.

1200 Special Types of

Tanks
1210 Elevated Temperature Tanks
Elevated temperature tanks are tanks containing stock above 200F. This section
discusses the hazards of operating elevated temperature tanks and design changes to
standard API 650 tanks which will minimize these hazards.

1211 API 650, Appendix M

API 650, Appendix, M gives guidelines for the structural design of tanks above
200F. It does not consider the hazards and design considerations discussed in this
section.

1212 Hazards of Operating Elevated Temperature Tanks

The primary hazards of operating hot tanks are:
1. Frothover caused by water being vaporized by the heat of the stock.
2. Accelerated corrosion both internal and external to the tank.
3. Pluming caused by introducing light stock into the hot tank.
4. Internal fires caused by iron sulfide buildup and subsequent combustion when
air is introduced into the tank.
The following sections discuss these hazards in more detail along with ways to
minimize the hazards.

1213 Frothover
Definition

Frothover is the overflow of a tank occurring when entrained or bottoms water is

vaporized by the heat of the stock. This is distinct from a boilover which occurs
from a tank on fire when a heat wave reaches the bottoms water and vaporizes it.
Boilovers are not covered here but further information on them may be found in
Section 642 of the Fire Protection Manual.

Conditions Necessary for Frothover to Occur

The tank must contain stock which will froth when agitated with boiling
waterusually a viscous stock such as a heavy residuum, asphalt, or road oil.
The tank must contain water. The water can be in the form of freewater or an
emulsion layer or dissolved or entrained water in the stock. Such water may
inadvertently be introduced into a hot oil tank by one or more of the following
means:
As condensate on the inside of the tank roof or shell from water vapor in
in-breathed air or blanketing gas.
As steam leaking from the tank heater.
As dissolved water in the stock stream due to direct contact of the stock
with steam in a refining process.
As dissolved or entrained water introduced into the stock stream from a
leaking process heater or cooler.
As slugs of water or wet stock accumulated in extraneous piping
connections, dead ends, etc., and introduced into the stock stream during
transfers.

65

 The temperature of the stock in the tank or entering the tank must be high
enough to boil water under the conditions in the tank.
Means must exist to transfer sufficient heat from the stock to the water to boil
it, under the conditions in the tank. Such means include:
Pumping water or water-bearing stock into hot stock in a tank.
Pumping hot stock into a tank containing a water layer, emulsion layer, or
wet stock. Pockets of water can be trapped by sediment, particularly at the
shell on coneup bottoms. There may be water in the bottom of a hot oil
tank, even when the bulk oil temperature is above the boiling point of
water, because of stratification of cooler, heavier fluid near the bottom
of the tank, and suppression of boiling by pressure of the liquid head in
the tank.
Transfer of heat by conduction or convection from a hot stock layer to a
water or water-bearing layer.

Severity of Frothover
The severity of frothovers is variable, depending upon the amount of water present
and the heat available to vaporize it. In some cases frothover may result only in
some oil being discharged through vents; in other cases, the roof of the tank may be
ruptured. In extreme cases, the release may occur with considerable violence and
the froth discharged may spread to surrounding areas.

Controlling Frothover

The following discusses ways to minimize frothover.

Minimize Water in the Tank. A hot tank must contain water to froth. This section
discusses ways to minimize sources of water at the tank. Obviously, proper
operation and maintenance of upstream units is critical to avoid process upsets or
equipment failure which could send water to a hot tank. Following are some good
procedures for preventing water from entering or accumulating in a tank.
Insulate the tank shell to prevent condensation of water vapor unless the tank is
designed to stratify cold and hot oil layers as outlined below. Insulate the tank
roof to prevent accelerated corrosion. See Section 1214 for more details.
Avoid internal tank heaters. Consider the installation of an external tank heating
and circulating system with the oil-side pressure greater than the steam-side.
Similarly, consider making or changing process heater or cooler installations so
that the hot oil side of heat exchange units is maintained at a higher pressure
than the wet side.
Avoid low spots and extraneous piping connections (dead ends, laterals,
alternate lines, etc.) in the piping system. Provide drains in unavoidable low
spots to eliminate settled-out water or water from hydrostatic testing. Consider
using high flash stocks as a testing medium when complete drainage of lines
cannot be assured.
Install a cone down bottom with center sump or a single slope bottom with
maximum allowable slope of 1% to 2% to prevent water from
accumulating.
Install an elbow-type bottom outlet at the shell so that water is continually
drawn off with the stock. Tanks too large in diameter for an economical single
slope design bottom should be cone down with center sump. The typical cone
down syphon outlet should be modified in accordance with Figure 1200-1.

66

Minimize the Effect of Heat Transfer in the Tank. Frothover occurs when heat
transfers between the hot stock and the water. This section discusses ways of
minimizing heat transfer.
Operate Below 200F, if Possible. Upstream and downstream plants should be
designed to operate the tank below 200F, if possible. Tanks should be operated
above 200F only if required for economic reasons or to keep the stock fluid.
Maintain Uniform Temperature Above the Boiling Point of Water. If it is necessary
to operate above 200F at any level in the tank, design facilities to ensure a uniform
tank temperature safely above the maximum possible boiling point of water under
the tank conditions. For safety, this temperature should be at least 10F above the
boiling point of water under the static pressure equivalent to a full tank. In
establishing the uniform minimum temperature at which a particular tank is to be
maintained consider the effect of fluctuations due to such factors as weather
extremes, thermometry errors, and operating upsets which may change the
temperature of stocks entering the tank. The uniform high temperature may be
reached and maintained by a combination of two or more of the following means:
Insulating the tank shell (See Section 1214.)
Heating and circulating the stock. Take suction on the bottom outlet line, pump
stock through an external heater and return to the tank through an insulated
externally mounted circulating line with multiple shell inlet nozzles. Shell
nozzles should have internally mounted directional nozzles designed to heat
and circulate the stock on the bottom of the tank. The tank fill system should
permit filling through the regular shell fill nozzle (hot feed) or the circulating
and heating system (cold feed).
Circulating stock by means of a shell mounted variable angle tank mixer
designed for high temperature service
Feeding and drawing the tank from connections at or very near the tank bottom
Introducing cold stock into a hot filling line at a location which will allow
thorough mixing before entering the tank
Installing Venturi-type inlet connections on the tank
Design for Stratification. If it is necessary to operate the tank at temperatures
below and above the boiling point of water under tank conditions, design an
installation which will prevent agitation of the cold stock with the hot stock
entering the tank, thereby maintaining a layer of cold stock in the tank. This cold
layer will insulate unavoidable water in the tank bottom against the hot stock layer.
An example of a satisfactory design is shown in Figure 1200-2, Schematic Layout
of Appurtenances for a Tank Operating Both Above and Below the Boiling Point of
Water. This design provides the following features:
A single slope or cone down bottom with a slope of 1% to 2% to drain all

67

water towards the water draw

A suction weir 3 feet above bottom
A filling swing pipe set to discharge upward not less than 5 feet above bottom
A 6-point temperature recorder to measure and record the temperatures from
the tank bottom to the 5 foot level at least 5 feet from the tank shell. In small
tanks (20 feet maximum diameter) and in insulated tanks, however, long
bayonet-type shell dial thermometers may give satisfactory temperature
readings.
In addition to fitting the tank with these features, it should be operated with the
low operational level in the range of 7 to 10 feet
Chemical Injection. Silicone anti-foaming agents sometimes reduce the hazard of
frothover. These materials, however, poison certain process catalysts, so their use in
specific cases must be thoroughly investigated.
Minimize the Effect of Frothover in Hot Oil Tanks. In locating and designing hot
oil tanks subject to frothover, attempt to minimize the effect of a frothover as
follows:
Locate new hot oil tanks in relatively isolated positions separated from other
tanks and facilities by the maximum distance practicable. Give consideration to
locations, if available, near non-hazardous low-lying drainage areas that could
contain major overflows.
Provide firewalls so that each hot oil tank is isolated from the next. Tanks of
40-feet diameter or less, however, may be suitably grouped to effect firewall
cost savings. Design the impounding basin to contain a volume at least equal to
that of the tank or tanks.
Arrange the layout of firewalls to direct possible overflow to a suitable
drainage area. Metal copings atop firewalls will turn the flow of oil back upon
itself and may be used on both tank and diversional firewalls.

1215 Pluming
Causes

Pluming, or visible emissions from the tank, can be caused by introducing low
specific gravity (light) stocks into a hot tank. These volatile emissions can be a
serious fire hazard if ignition sources are in the area.
The major ways light stock can be mistakenly routed to a hot tank are 1) by process
upsets or mismanifolding, or 2) by plant shutdowns and subsequent line washes.

Possible Ways to Prevent Pluming

While sound operational procedures are of utmost importance, the following design
changes can also be considered to avoid pluming:
Install manifolds which are dedicated to the hot stock(s). All other connections
should be blinded or disconnected.
Install temperature indicators and low temperature alarms on both ends of the
feed line to the tank. In addition to monitoring temperature changes in the line,
these indicators will also help the operators monitor line flushes.
Steam trace and insulate the line to avoid the need for flushing before shutting
down.

1216 Internal Fires

Causes

Pyrophoric iron sulfide fires can occur and are discussed in more detail in
Section 1260. Even tanks with nitrogen purge have had fires when air was
introduced through holes in the shell or roof that were hidden by insulation.

Minimizing the Possibility of Internal Fires

Consider using an inert purge with 5 to 6% oxygen to oxidize iron sulfide deposits

68

as they occur. The inert purge must be sized to keep a positive pressure on the tank
when the tank is being emptied at the maximum rate. This positive tank pressure
prevents air being sucked into the tank through the vacuum breakers.

1230 Underground Tanks

This section discusses the Companys experience with underground tanks, primarily
in marketing facilities. It focuses on fiberglass reinforced plastic (FRP) tanks
because, until very recently, FRP was the standard material for buried tanks.
Currently, composite tanks are used more often than FRP tanks. Composite tanks
have double steel walls with fiberglass resin over the outer wall. Some existing steel
tanks have been retrofitted with FRP liners. The inspection and quality control
requirements discussed in Sections 1000 and 1240 also apply to this section. Underground
concrete sumps and septic tanks are covered in the Civil and Structural
Manual, Appendix F.

1231 Environmental Considerations

Many state and local governments regulate the installation of underground tanks.
They require varying degrees of secondary containment, tank level monitoring, and
groundwater monitoring. It is essential that engineering and operations understand
these regulations when considering an underground tank installation.
In areas other than Marketing Service Stations, our philosophy should be to
explore all of the other options before installing an underground storage tank.

1232 Typical Services

Underground FRP tanks have been used extensively for fuel storage. The majority
of these applications have been for gasoline storage in service stations. The obvious
advantage of fiberglass over carbon steel is that fiberglass does not corrode as a
result of adverse soil conditions or water in the tank. Federal law currently prohibits
the installation of unprotected steel tanks except in locations where the electrical
resistivity of the soil is extremely high (thus the soil is presumed to be noncorrosive).
Fiberglass tanks comply with federal standards for external corrosion
protection. In addition, when properly installed, these tanks meet the requirements
of NFPA Standard No. 30, the Uniform Fire Code, and virtually all local codes
governing the storage of flammable and combustible liquids.
All FRP tanks must be compatible with the liquid stored. Marketing has test
requirements for qualifying resins. Most common fuels are readily stored safely in
FRP tanks, but some, like methanol, can break down fiberglass resins.

1233 Manufacturers
The two primary suppliers of underground FRP storage tanks are:
O/C Fiberglass
Fiberglass Tower
Toledo, Ohio 43659
(419) 248-6567
Xerxes Corporation
7901 Xerxes Avenue South
Minneapolis, Minnesota 55431
(612) 887-1890
Both manufacturers make tanks approved by Underwriters Laboratories, Inc., and
by Factory Mutual Laboratories. These tanks are available in many standard sizes
ranging from 550 to 12,000 gallons. Larger tanks can be fabricated for unique
applications.
The composite tank (also UL-approved) is supplied by:
Joor Manufacturing, Inc.
1189 Industrial Avenue

69

Escondido, California 92025

(619) 745-0333

1234 Design
The standard tank (FRP or composite) is now a double-walled tank with leak
detection for the annulus. This design is used to avoid groundwater contamination
from leaks. Piping is also double walled.

1235 Installation and Handling

FRP tanks are very susceptible to impact damage. During transportation and
offloading, they must be treated with more care than would be required for steel
tanks. Handling tends to be easier since a plastic tank weighs roughly one-third as
much as a steel tank of similar capacity. To ensure that tanks have not been
damaged, they should be tested when they arrive at the site as well as after they
have been installed.
Installation of FRP tanks requires an experienced contractor. The gravel or crushed
rock which is used for bedding and backfill must be carefully placed such that there
are no voids around the tanks. Since the FRP tank relies on the rock backfill for
much of its structural strength, poor backfilling could cause a tank failure.
Installation, handling and testing of fiberglass tanks should be carried out in
accordance with the manufacturers instructions. In addition, CUSA Marketing
Operations has developed detailed specifications and instructions covering
underground FRP tanks. See Section 1238 for a list of these references.

1236 Cost
As is the case for aboveground tanks, underground FRP tanks are generally more
expensive than carbon steel tanks. However, with the requirement for external
corrosion protection of underground steel tanks, the costs are now much more
comparable.

1237 Company Experience

CUSA Marketing has extensive experience with FRP tanks for storage of motor
vehicle fuel and used oil at service stations. The first fiberglass tank at a Chevron
station was installed in 1971, and their use became widespread throughout the
seventies. By 1979, it became Company policy to install only FRP tanks in service
stations. This development is typical of the industry as a whole, for virtually every
major oil company now uses FRP tanks for underground storage of motor vehicle
fuels.
In 1982, CUSA Marketing and CRTCs Materials and Equipment Engineering Unit
developed a detailed specification covering the fabrication of underground fiberglass
tanks to be used for product storage (see Section 1238). Among other things,
the specification requires that Company tanks have a greater cross-sectional wall
thickness than is standard for the industry. In addition, the tanks are lined with a
special vinyl ester resin, providing increased resistance to deterioration by alcohol
blend gasolines.
Underground fiberglass tanks installed according to this specification have
performed well. Failures are rare, and are largely confined to early generation tanks.

1238 Reference Documents

1. Chevron U.S.A. Inc. Marketing Operations, Underground Tank and Piping
Installation Drawings and Specifications, 81-HQ-160 through 81-HQ-178.
2. Chevron U.S.A. Inc. Marketing Operations, Specification MO-8000, Underground
Storage Tanks-Fiberglass.
3. Chevron U.S.A. Inc. Marketing Operations, Specification MO-8010, Doublewall
Steel Tank With Fiberglass Coating.

70

1240 Aboveground Vertical Nonmetallic Tanks

1241 Molded Polyethylene Tanks
Recommendation

Vertical, molded polyethylene tanks are generally not recommended for use. They
can be considered for temporary installations where the consequences of failure
would not be severe, and they can be used for permanent installations in smaller
sizes (up to about 200 gallons) where the Concerns and Deficiencies listed below
can be accommodated or accepted. The temperature limit for these tanks is only
100F. Because these tanks are made of a highly corrosion resistant material and are
inexpensive (less costly than metal or FRP tanks), they are tempting to use, and
have been used successfully for water treatment chemical storage.

Materials

Crosslinked polyethylene is preferred over non-crosslinked because the latter material

is more prone to tearing of the shell wall.

Tank Construction

The basic polyethylene tank is produced by the rotational molding process. This
process depends on mold movement, heat, and gravity to mold a part. No pressure is
applied. In the process, hollow molds are loaded with a predetermined weight of
powder. The weight is determined by the wall thickness required. The charged mold
is put into a hot air oven or other heat source and simultaneously rotated at slow
speed (1 to 20 rpm) on two perpendicular axes. As the mold heats, the powder sticks
to the mold surface to form the part. After all the powder has completely adhered to
the mold, additional heating time causes the powder to melt and fuse together to
develop the resin properties. Parts not properly cured (crosslinked) will crack or
shatter when impacted.
Controlled heating of the mold by adding insulating material to some of its exterior
will cause the amount of powder that sticks to the mold to vary in different locations;
in this way a tapered wall tank can be produced (thinner at the top than near
the bottom). After fusing, the mold is removed from the heat source, cooled, and the
part demolded. A separate mold is required for each tank size.
Fittings. Virtually all fittings are installed in the tank after demolding. Fittings are
of the bulkhead or thru-bolted type, installed by cutting a hole in the tank. Polyethylene
foam gasketing is used between the fitting and tank wall. Bulkhead fittings are
available in polypropylene or PVC; thru-bolted fittings are Type 304 or 316 stainless
steel with studs and nozzle neck welded to the inside plate. The nature of the
fitting requires a threaded end; a threaded flange could be placed on it. There is no
additional tank wall thickness for opening reinforcement.
Restraints. There are no tank hold-downs molded into the tank or attached later.
For vertical tanks the recommended restraint consists of steel posts installed around
the tank with a slack cable strung between the posts.
Design calculations. Design calculations are commonly limited to wall thickness
based on hoop stress and the post/cable restraint system for wind and seismic loads;
resistance of the tank wall to buckling from seismic loads (a frequent deficiency in
FRP tanks) is not normally checked.

Concerns and Deficiencies

Wall thickness cannot be carefully controlled. It is checked on nozzle cutouts
which are usually located at only a couple of elevations.
The vendors recommended restraint system for wind and seismic loads would
allow substantial tank movement with objectionable loads on piping, tank fittings,
and the tank wall. To lessen this problem, one equipment packager designed a close
fitting restraint system of steel posts with a rolled steel band welded to the posts;

71

another alternative is to pour a concrete ring around the bottom of the tank and place
steel hold-downs across the top of the tank that are tied to the concrete ring.
However, even with an improved restraint system, tank diameter grows enough
between empty and full condition that piping flexibility must be carefully
considered; flexible PVC pipe or hoses have also been used.
Tank fittings of both polypropylene and PVC have external threads to
accommodate the nut that cinches the fitting against the tank wall. There are three
problems with these fittings:
1. Although the threads approximately match pipe threads and are intended for the
attachment of threaded pipe fittings, they are straight threads; when a pipe
fitting (which has tapered threads) is attached, there is good contact only at the
first thread of the tank fitting, which makes a weak connection and does not
seal well.
2. Failures are chronic and premature at external threads in plastic fittings.
3. The gasket for the tank fitting is inside the tank; you must enter the tank to
replace the gasket.
Thru-bolted stainless steel fittings will solve the first two problems, but the piping
connection on these fittings must always be threaded because of the nature of the
fittings.
ClipsPolyethylene cannot be joined by adhesives. Therefore, piping support clips,
ladder clips, and platform clips could not be attached to the tank unless bolted
through the tank wall.
Flat, bolted-on tops always sag, so rain and wash water collects and then runs
freely into the tank through gaps around the access opening; the tank must be
entered to tighten or replace the bolts that attach the top to the tank.
Irregularities in tank molds produce offsets in the tank wall up to 5/8 inch and
noticeable hourglassing of some cylindrical sections.
Pinholes through the tank wall, the most common defect, are repaired by the
manufacturer with a hot glue gun. The material used for repairs is not defined.
Adhesives do not bond to polyethylene and are not a good repair material.
Improper cure (crosslinking) can result in poor impact resistance. Impact tests on
tank cutouts are not normally made but can be made at added cost.

Inspection
Shop inspection is not warranted on small tanks. For tanks over 500 gallons, one
shop visit for final inspection is sufficient. The Quality Assurance section of
Purchasing performs the shop inspection, which includes the following:
Visual inspection of all surfaces inside and outside for significant flaws
Dimensional check, including elevations and orientations of all fittings
Verification that tank fittings are the size and type specified
Witnessing of the hydrostatic test (may require separate visit)

1242 Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic (FRP) Tanks

Recommendation

Vertical FRP tanks can be used as a less costly alternative to high alloy or lined
carbon steel tanks for corrosive services or services where the contents of the tank
must not be contaminated with rust or mill scale. Shop fabricated tanks are
recommended. Shop facilities usually limit tank diameter to about 12 feet. Some
larger field erected FRP tanks have been built, but the Company does not have
experience with them. High alloy or lined carbon steel tanks have been used for
field erected tanks. Temperature limitations of FRP depend on the contents of the
tank and the resin used in construction; typically the upper limit is about 250F. For
many applications a complete design/construction package is warranted, as

72

discussed below.

Specifications, Standards, and Design

TAM-EG-3453 is the Company specification for vertical aboveground FRP storage
tanks. It covers design, construction, and inspection requirements for FRP tanks,
including calculation procedures for determining shell thickness and hold-down
bracket design to withstand seismic and wind loads. TAM-EG-3453 refers to several
basic industry standards; the most important is API 12P. API 12P is not very stringent.
TAM-EG-3453 corrects many of the shortcomings of API 12P but cannot
cover all design and construction details in depth. For this reason a complete
design/construction package should be prepared by an engineering firm with FRP
design experience for FRP tanks or equipment where:
1. Failure would pose a significant hazard to personnel or equipment.
2. Failure would cause substantial loss of revenue.
3. Contents of the tank are aggressively corrosive or over 200F.
4. The tank is subjected to internal pressure or vacuum.
In all other cases the quotation request should include:
1. TAM-EG-3453.
2. An outline drawing of the tank.
3. A Tank Data Sheet TAM-DS-3453, which includes a description of tank
contents and stock properties.
4. Standard Drawing GD-D1265, which gives standard construction details for
FRP tanks.

Tank Construction

Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic (FRP) is a composite non-homogeneous material

made of a thermosetting resin reinforced with glass fibers in various forms. Tanks
are normally made on molds that correspond to the inside surface of the tank.
Nozzles and other appurtenances are attached to the tank later, by means of overlays
of glass fiber material that is wetted with resin. The tank laminate normally consists
of an inner corrosion barrier (or liner) for corrosion resistance and a structural
layer for strength.
There are three principal methods of building the structural part of the tank wall.
1. Hand layup using chopped glass, often with interspersed layers of woven glass
filaments.
2. Filament winding using continuous glass filaments with a defined helix angle;
reinforcement in the axial direction is usually provided by interspersing layers
of woven glass filaments or unidirectional filaments in the axial direction.
3. Hoop winding using continuous glass filaments without a helix angle; this
construction always requires interspersing layers of glass for axial strength.
For all three construction methods the glass fiber material is thoroughly saturated
with resin before or during its application.
Hoop winding is the most commonly used method for the structural part of the tank
wall since it requires the least amount of material for required hoop strength and
permits a tank shell to be built quickly with low capital expenditure for the vendors
plant equipment.
The inner corrosion barrier is applied to the mold before the structural layer and
consists of glass or synthetics to reinforce this resin rich layer (pure resin is brittle
and would crack without reinforcement). Continuous filaments or woven filaments
are never used in the inner corrosion barrier.

Concerns and Limitations

The following limitations of vertical FRP tanks should be addressed when
considering their use for service.

73

1. FRP is easily damaged by impact.

2. The inner corrosion barrier is usually 0.1-inch thick; if part of it is lost through
corrosion, erosion, or mechanical damage, rapid failure of the tank can occur by
liquid wicking along the glass filaments in the structural layer.
3. Mating flanges must be flat faced with full face elastomeric gaskets. Flange
bolting procedures must be carefully controlled to avoid cracking flanges.
4. Piping must usually be independently supported to avoid damage to nozzles or
nozzle/shell joints.
5. Most FRP fabricators have limited engineering capabilities; most are unable to
make seismic or wind calculations to show that the tank wall will resist buckling
and that tank hold downs are adequate (these design deficiencies are found
frequently). Most FRP tanks have a height-to-diameter ratio greater than 1, so
hold downs are almost always required for seismic forces, wind forces, or both.
TAM-EG-3453 addresses this problem, but the fabricators calculations must be
reviewed thoroughly.
6. Extreme care must be taken in setting the tank on its foundation. A sound way
to set a tank is in cement grout that is not too stiff; then put 1 to 2 feet of water
in the tank to set it firmly into the grout. Excess grout is removed from around
the tank so that a grout dish is not formed that would collect spills and water.
Stiff grout must also be packed under hold-down lugs. The grout must be
allowed to cure before nuts on anchor bolts are tightened down. This precaution
prevents damage to the tank wall or the glass windings that fasten the lugs to
the tank.

1250 Underwriters Laboratories (UL) Tanks

This section covers the design and use of shop-fabricated steel tanks that meet the
Standards for Safety of Underwriters Laboratories, Inc., and are furnished by the
manufacturer with a UL label. Underwriters Laboratories, Inc., is a non-profit
organization that operates laboratories in the United States for the purpose of testing
various devices, systems, and materials for public safety.
Fiberglass reinforced plastic UL tanks, used almost exclusively for the underground
storage of products at service stations, are discussed in Section 1230.

1251 General
UL tanks are primarily intended for the atmospheric storage of non-corrosive flammable
and combustible liquids. They must be fabricated and tested before being
shipped from the factory. This requirement limits their size. The maximum diameter
of horizontal tanks is 12 feet and the maximum height of vertical tanks is 35
feet. The maximum capacity of a UL tank is about 1000 barrels.
Within their size limits, both horizontal and vertical steel tanks are used extensively
for aboveground storage in bulk plants. They may be acceptable for use in other
services such as small tanks in process plants. Vertical aboveground UL tanks are
frequently less expensive than the corresponding API 650, Appendix J tank, a result
both of less stringent requirements of UL standards and the standardization inherent
in UL tank designs.

1252 Codes and Standards

Steel Tanks
The Standards for Safety published by Underwriters Laboratories, Inc., are as
follows:
1. UL 58: Steel Underground Tanks for Flammable and Combustible Liquids.
(Also approved as ANSI B137.1).
2. UL 142: Steel Aboveground Tanks for Flammable and Combustible Liquids.
Copies may be obtained directly from Underwriters Laboratories, Inc. Their

74

address is given in Section 160 of this manual.

Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic Tanks

There are, at present, no UL standards for fiberglass reinforced plastic tanks.
However, underground storage tanks fabricated of this material with a UL label are
available from some manufacturers. (See Sections 1230 and 1240.)

Other Regulations
Tanks fabricated in accordance with the above UL standards comply with the Occupational
Safety and Health Standards (OSHA) of the U. S. Department of Labor.
They also comply with the NFPA 30 Flammable and Combustible Liquid Code.

1253 Design Considerations

General

Design factors discussed elsewhere in this manual can be applied to UL tanks. The
existence of the UL label does not remove the need to exercise good engineering
judgment. Underwriters Laboratories only provides audit inspections of production.
Unless previous experience with a manufacturer indicates that it is not needed,
limited Company inspection should also be conducted.

Material and Design Requirements

Users of UL steel tanks should recognize that the UL 58 and UL 142 Standards do
not specify material and design requirements as closely as API 650, Appendix J.
This statement is not intended to imply that UL tanks are not adequate or acceptable
for many services throughout the Company. It is mentioned only to highlight the
fact that there are different requirements that may affect the quality of the product.
The most significant of these are as follows:
UL standards specify that the tanks shall be constructed of commercial grade
steel of good welding quality as compared to specific ASTM specifications
designated in API 650.
UL standards permit various types of lap welded shell joints in addition to a full
penetration butt welded joint, the only type of joint permitted by API 650. Lap
welded joints increase stress concentrations and are difficult to inspect for
quality of welding. When ordering vertical aboveground UL tanks, you should
consider specifying butt welded shell joints.
Vertical UL tanks less than 10 feet in diameter do not have a frangible shell-toroof
attachment. Emergency venting should be provided on these tanks. Refer
to Section 744 for guidance.

Foundations and Supports

Underground tanks must be designed to withstand ground surface loads and resist
uplift due to ground water. Typically, for steel tanks the excavated hole is padded
with 6 inches of sand, and a minimum of 3 feet of cover is provided for tanks
located under paving. Where ground water might float the tank, the most commonly
used preventive measure is to provide a concrete slab immediately above the tank.
Alternate methods are to place a concrete slab under the tank and use screw-in-type
anchors; both of these require stainless steel straps to hold down the tank.
Pier foundations or supports for aboveground horizontal tanks must be designed to
adequately support the tank. Steel supports should be fire protected. Wood supports
are not recommended and, in the United States, are forbidden by OSHA regulations.

Wind and Earthquake Stability

Refer to Section 530 and the referenced Civil and Structural Manual, Section 100,
for information on design factors that will assure that aboveground UL tanks will
resist wind and earthquake forces.

Location and Fire Protection

Refer to Section 200 for a discussion of factors to consider in choosing location and

75

spacing of tanks and for grounding information. Although NFPA requirements are
widely recognized, they might not always be the limiting regulation.

1260 Sulfur Tanks

This section discusses the problems the Company has had with tanks storing liquid
sulfur. It lists the design changes made to minimize these problems.

1261 Past Problems

Past problems can be grouped into three basic areas: internal corrosion, external
corrosion, and pyrophoric iron sulfide fires.

Internal Corrosion

Moisture condenses in the tank, combining with H2S and SO2 to make acid which
attacks the carbon steel. Moisture can enter the tank in the following ways:
Through the steam smothering system
Through leaks in jacketed nozzles and lines
Through leaks in the internal steam coil
From air with high humidity
The steam tends to condense in areas where the shell or roof metal surface is
coolest. Cool spots can be caused by inadequate or water-soaked insulation, metallic
penetrations to the shell through the insulation, or by uneven heating in the tank.

External Corrosion
Water-soaked insulation on roof and shell causes severe external corrosion. It can
also cool the metal off enough to promote internal corrosion, as mentioned above.
The water soaked insulation results from:
Leaks from roof steam coil
Poor roof sealing and flashing
Leaks from jacket nozzles
Failure of the roof weathercoat system

Pyrophoric Iron Sulfide Fires

Iron sulfide (FeS) forms on the interior metal surface in the vapor space. If it is
allowed to build up, it will spontaneously ignite in the presence of oxygen. In most
cases, an SO2 plume is the only indicator of a fire. Iron sulfide fires cause:
Weakened roof supports which can buckle the roof
Increased corrosion because smothering steam is often used to stop the fire
Iron sulfide builds up in an inert atmosphere. Our objective should be to have
sufficient air sweeping through the vapor space so that the FeS oxidizes as quickly
as it builds up.
The following sections discuss the changes which can be made to an existing sulfur
tank or added to a new tank design to prevent these three problems and extend the
tank life (approximately 10 years).

1262 Foundation
Install the tank on a concrete pad to avoid settling in the center of the tank
Install a single slope bottom with a slope of 2 inches in 10 feet. This helps
empty the tank when it is being taken out of service. Any sulfur left in the tank
usually must be hydroblasted outwhich accelerates internal corrosion.

1263 Tank Bottom

Use butt welded plate with a 1/8-inch backing strip. Richmond used -inch
thick plate to give some corrosion allowance. The butt welded plate improves
the drainage.
Rough surfaces have been shown to be much more susceptible to pitting. El
Segundo grinds the butt welds flush and smooth, and dyechecks for porosities.

1264 Bottom Heater Coil

76

 A bottom coil is recommended over a bayonet heater because it provides much

more even heating of the tank.
Design the coil in multiple cells (Richmond used 4) to provide even heating.
Use 316L Schedule 40 pipe to prevent the external pitting and leaks
experienced with carbon steel.
Richmond used 2-inch pipe with rolled bends (18-inch diameter) to minimize
internal welds.
Install the coil the minimum distance from the floor that will still allow easy
drainage and cleaning. Six inches from the pipe centerline to the floor is
adequate. Minimize the height to prevent prolonged pluming when the tank is
being filled initially.

1265 Shell
Install the outlet nozzle flush with the bottom mounted on an API 650 flushtype
cleanout door. See Figure 1200-6. This arrangement helps empty the tank
and prevents damage from hydroblasting when the tank is cleaned. The outlet
nozzle must be completely encapsulated with insulation that is protected from
outside moistureespecially from ground moisture.
Be liberal with the corrosion allowance on the shell plate. Richmond used
inch.
For new tanks, minimize shell height. A large vapor space results in cooler
metal and increased corrosion at the top of the tank.
Consider a self-supporting stairway. Stairway-to-shell attachments can act like
fins cooling the metal surface and thereby accelerating corrosion.
Minimize the penetrations through the insulation. Insulate all necessary
penetrations.

1266 Roof
Corrosion Protection
Consider adding corrosion allowance above that normally required. This added
allowance increases the rafter size and gives more protection against corrosion
and damage to the roof during a fire.
If the diameter of the tank permits, install a self- supporting dome or externally
supported roof. This design allows coating of the internal surfaces of the roof,
eliminating iron sulfide corrosion.

External Roof Heater Coil

An external roof heater is needed to keep the internal surface above the
condensation temperature.
Consider using socket welded tubing, TIG welded per the Swagelock procedure.
Richmond used 0.065 inch wall, 316L tubing. The alternatives are tubing
with compression fittings, which historically have leaked, or socket welded
pipe, which is more costly to install.
The other advantage of socket welded tubing is that you can put a full hydrotest
(450 psig) on it compared to only a service test for compression fittings.
Use -inch tubing for the roof and -inch tubing with Thermon heat transfer
cement for the nozzles and vents.
Richmond added a condensate collection header on the roof to keep the tubing
runs shorter and more effective. Each tubing run was trapped. The number of
cells depends on the length of tubing run.

1267 Insulation
Shell Insulation

Normally use 3 inches of fiberglass insulation with aluminum weather

jacketing. See the Insulation and Refractory Manual Section 130 for guidelines

77

and specifications.
Install extra insulation on the upper part of the shell. This is needed to eliminate
the fin effect from the top angle. (See Figure 1200-7.)
Install extra insulation on nozzle and valve bodies to cut down on stockside
corrosion.

Roof Insulation

The standard Owens Corning Roof Deck insulation is used (see Insulation and
Refractory Manual). Richmond used 4-inch thick insulation.
Sealing is very important. In the past, a tar and gravel sealer has been applied
on top of the insulation. This sealer, however, does crack and allow moisture to
leak into the insulation; and it inhibits moisture already in the insulation from
permeating out.
As an alternative to tar and gravel sealer, Richmond used a Belzona Flexible
Membrane over the Roof Deck insulation. This membrane is flexible yet allows
some permeation of water vapor. Experience with this type of membrane is limited.
Other refineries have had some experience with a metallic Thermacon weathercoating
system held in place by cables. This looks like an excellent product. Consult
the CRTC Materials and Equipment Engineering Unit if you have any questions on
this subject.

Flashing
The roof-to-shell flashing design is extremely important. Figure 1200-7 shows a
cross section of the flashing detail at the roof-to-shell joint. The major feature here
is a 6-inch, 10-gauge, 304 stainless steel strip continuously seal welded to the top
angle. This strip prevents moisture underneath the roof insulation from migrating
under the shell insulation. This strip must also be insulated so that it does not act as
a fin and actually cool the shell, causing corrosion problems.

1268 Miscellaneous Features

Smothering Systems
If possible, use an N2 smothering system. This system eliminates a large source
of moisture in the tank. Size the system to make the tank inert in 10 minutes.
Use this system only to smother a fire.
If steam smothering is required, mount the control valve as close to the tank as
possible to eliminate the chance of a deadleg of condensate building up downstream
of the valve.

Blanketing
Some plants have used N2 blanketing to keep the tank inert. This is not
recommended because it allows pyrophoric FeS to build up, resulting in fire
when oxygen enters the tank.
We recommend installing six 8-inch vents on the roof every 60 degrees around
the tank. An eductor pulls an air sweep into the vents through the tank and out
the eductor line located at the center of the roof. This air sweep provides
enough oxygen to continuously oxidize the FeS, preventing it from building up.
The vents need to be capped to keep the rain out. The educted air usually goes
to a caustic scrubber for removal of the H2S.

1269 Operations
Operate the tank with a minimal vapor space. This method keeps the top warmer
and provides less volume to sweep.

1270 Aluminum Tanks

Introduction

Aluminum has a number of attributes that assure it a niche in the structural metals

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market: its light weight (approximately 1/3 the density of carbon steel, 0.1 lb/in 3)
and its corrosion resistance. While its light weight can be valuable, aluminums low
modulus of elasticity requires attention to control of deflections and buckling. By
alloying aluminum with other elements, physical properties comparable to carbon
steels may be achieved. Also, the reflectivity of aluminum may eliminate the need
for surface treatments. In non-structural applications, its high thermal and electrical
conductivity are well known. Aluminum may be formed, machined, joined, welded
and fastened by standard methods and equipment that are also used in carbon steel
fabrication.

Corrosion of Aluminum

Aluminums corrosion resistance is due to a thin aluminum oxide film which forms
quickly when aluminum is exposed to oxygen and some aqueous solutions. Anodizing
the surface by treating it with certain acids simply builds a thick oxide layer.
Because the tenacious oxide film forms so readily, it will renew itself when abraded
away or chemically removed.
Aluminum responds to crevice corrosion by building up voluminous quantities of
white rust or aluminum oxide. This is common where an aluminum surface is
tightly pressed against another surface. Potential for crevice corrosion is high in
tank bottoms because these are often lap welded and corrosion starts from the
underside.
The corrosion chemistry of aluminum is complex. For example, 0.1% water in
methanol prevents corrosion, even at high temperatures, whereas a trace of water
accelerates corrosion. However, because aluminum is immune to the corrosive
effects of many chemicals, it is a candidate for tank construction.
Aluminum tends to pit with water that has chloride ions in it. Levels as low as
.1 ppm of copper or of iron in water can react with aluminum, depositing metallic
copper or iron at local sites, which initiate pitting. Therefore, aluminum is not suitable
for any tanks which may have trace heavy metals in the stored liquid.
Cladding aluminum is an efficient way of reducing through-wall pitting. Alclad
products are high strength alloy cores, in sheet or tubing form, that have clad layers
of pure aluminum or aluminum alloys bonded to the core. The cladding is
engineered to be anodic, or sacrificial to the core, and essentially creates a built-in
cathodic protection system. The clad material is usually less than 10% of the
thickness of the total material and is non-heat treatable. Because of the sacrificial
cladding, the corrosion progresses through the cladding but stops at the core.

Alloys
Numerous alloys are available for industrial applications, each in a broad range of
tempers. The Aluminum Association has established a system of numerical
designations for all alloy grades in general commercial use. These designations
standardize the specifications and properties of the material, regardless of the
source.
The wrought alloys and temper designation are:
Aluminum
99% + pure
1xxx
Alloying Element
copper
2xxx
manganese
3xxx
silicon
4xxx
magnesium
5xxx
mag and silicone
6xxx
zinc
8xxx
other
9xxx
Temper Designations are:

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F = as fabricated
O = annealed
H = strain hardened
W = solution heat treated
T = thermally treated to produce stable tempers
other than F, O, or H
Aluminum as a pure element is relatively low strength. The strength is enhanced by
addition of small amounts of other elements, heat treatment and/or strain hardening,
or cold working. Heat treatable means the strength can be enhanced by heat treatment:
non-heat treatable alloys can be cold worked for strength enhancement.

Applications
Aluminum is commonly used in hoppers and silos for plastics and resin storage. It is
commonly used in the chemical industry for storage of fertilizers. Because
aluminum shows no low-temperature embrittlement, it has been used in cryogenic
storage. The non-spark characteristics of aluminum alloys make is useful for some
applications where flammability is involved. Figure 1200-8 is a list of chemicals
typically stored in aluminum.

Water Storage
Because aluminum is compatible with pure water, distilled water, deionized water,
uncontaminated rainwater and heavy water used in nuclear reactors, aluminum
storage tanks are a cost effective material for these applications. There is virtually
no metal contamination of waters. For potable water, the amounts of dissolved
aluminum and salts are considered safe. Because surface preparations and coatings
are not necessary, the aluminum storage tank will often be competitive with coated
carbon steel storage systems.
Fig. 1200-8 Typical Bulk Chemicals Handled in Aluminum Equipment
Acetaldehyde
Acetic Acid
Acetic Anhydride
Acetone
Acrolein
Acrylonitrile
Adipic Acid
Alcohols (except for dry
and
boiling)
Aldol
Alumina and its hydrates
Aluminum Chlorideria
Aluminum Potassium
Sulfate
Aluminum Silicate
Aluminum Sulfate
Ammonia
Ammoniated Ammonium
Nitrate Solutions
Ammonium Nitrate
Ammonium Sulfate
Ammonium Thiocyanate
Aniline
Anthracene
Baking Powder
Barium Carbonate
Benzene
Benzoic Acid
Bone Black
Bone Acid
Butyl Acetate
Calcium Carbide

Cyclohexane
Cyclopentane
Cyclopropane
Dairy Products
Dichlorobenzene
Ebonite
Essential Oils
Ester Gum
Ethyl Acetate
Ethyl Aceroacerate
Ethyl Alcohol
Ethylene Glycol
Fatty Acids
Feeds
Ferrous Sulfate
Flour
Formaldehyde
Furfural
Gasoline
Glucose
Glycerin
Grains
Grits, Hominy
Helium
Hexamine
Hydrocyanic Acid
Hydrogen
Hydrogen Peroxide
Isobutyric Acid
Lacquer and its solvents
Linseed Oil
Malt
Manganese Dioxide

Mono-chloro-difluoro
Mechane
Molasses
Naphthalene
Naphthenic Acid
Naval Stores
Nitric Acid (Concentrate)
Nitrocellulose
Nitrogen Fertilizers
Nitroglycerine
Nitrous Oxide
Nylon and Nylon Saits
Oils, Edible
Oleic Acid
Oxalic Acid
Oxygen
Paints, Varnishes & Paint
Materials
Parafins
Paraformaldehydes
Paraldehyde
Peanuts and Peanut
Products
Pentane
Perchlaroethylene
Petroleum Products,
Refined
Phthalic Acid
Phthalic Anhydride
Pitch
Polyethylene
Polystyrene
Potassium Carbonate

Rice
Rubber and Rubber
Products
Rye
Safflower
Salicylic Acid
Shelac
Soap
Sodium Bicarbonate
Sodium Carbonate
Sodium Chloride
Sodium Nitrate
Sodium Sulfate
Soybeans and Soybean
Products
Starch
Sugars
Sulfur
Sulfur Dioxide
Tail Oil
Tar
Tobacco Stems
Toluene
Trichlrobenzene
Trichlroethylene
Urea
Vegetable Oils
Vinyl Acetate
Vinyl Resins
Water, High Purity
Wood Chips
Xylene
Zinc Sulfide

80

Calcium Chromate
Carbon Dioxide
Carbon Disulfide
Carconic Acid
Caster Oil
Coal
Cod Liver Oil
Corn Syrup
Creosote
Cresol
Crotonaldehyde

Maple Syrup
Methyl Ethyl Kerone

Potassium Chloride
Potassium Iodide
Potassium Nitrate
Potassium Sulfate
Propane
Propionic Acid
Propionic Anhydride
Propylene Glycol

Fresh water is categorized as follows:

Waters containing heavy metals such as copper, nickel and lead. Aluminum is
not recommended for these services because the heavy metals may contribute
to high pitting rates.
Neutral or near-neutral waters. For waters in a pH range of 6 - 9 there need be
little concern about corrosion.
Alkaline waters. A pH range of 8.5 - 9 is acceptable.
Acid waters. A pH range of 4 or higher is acceptable.
Treated Water: Water containing dissolved gases such as carbon dioxide or oxygen
in condensate applications or water containing amines, chromates and
polyphosphates or other alkaline inhibitors. Aluminum may be used for these do not
adversely affect the use applications.
Recirculated water may become corrosive to aluminum because it picks up copper
and iron from various equipment such as pumps, pipes, and instrumentation. The
dissolved metals plate-out on the aluminum, causing localized pitting. If the water is
treated with inhibitors and cathodic protection, the problem can be controlled.
High purity water systems can be a candidate for aluminum storage systems.
Aluminum is often used to store heavy water from nuclear reactors.
Steam Condensate: If the water is free from boiler carry-over, aluminum may be
used as it is unaffected by condensate; however, alkaline water-treating compounds
may be corrosive.
Sea Water: Copper-free aluminum alloys are resistant to clean sea water. The
corrosion that occurs is usually localized pitting.

Design, Materials, Fabrication, Construction and Testing

The recognized standard that covers the details for cylindrical aluminum storage
tanks is ASME B96.1. Additional information about this standard is available from
CRTCs Tank Specialist.

Costs

Cost considerations for aluminum tanks include materials cost, labor costs and
recurring maintenance costs. From the long-term viewpoint, the recurring costs of
recoating or repainting becomes significant. From a short-term view, the initialinstalled
cost is all that matters. Other factors that could affect cost are plant
shutdowns caused by unexpected failure of materials due to corrosion, fatigue, or
mechanical failure.

Recommendations

For some applications aluminum may be cost-competitive with stainless steel tanks
if prices continue their downward trend. When aluminum tanks are shop fabricated,
the costs per-unit-volume of storage capacity should be lower because of the
controlled conditions needed for welding and fabrication of aluminum. Another
significant advantage to shop fabricated tanks is that the bottom may be coated so
that pitting on the underside is not a problem.

81

Because even trace quantities of various elements can accelerate corrosion in

aluminum, a compatibility study must be conducted before using aluminum
storage tanks.

1280 References

ASME, B96.1, Welded Aluminum Alloy Storage Tanks

Alcoa Structural Handbook
Aluminum Association: Aluminum in Storage
Aluminum Association: Specifications for Aluminum Structures
Aluminum Association: Aluminum Standards and Data 1990
Aluminum Association: Specifications for Aluminum Sheet
American Society of Metals, Metals Handbook, Desk Edition, 1985 LaQue
and Copson, Corrosion Resistance of Metals and Alloys, 2nd ed, American
Chemical Society Monograph Series, Reinhold Publishing Corporation, NY,
1963
Editor: Hatch, Aluminum Properties and Physical Metallury American
Society for Metals, 1984
Editor: Uhlig, The Corrosion Handbook, Wiley and Sons, 1948
Jawad and Farr, Structural Analysis and Design of Process Equipment
Moody, Analysis and Design of Plastic Storage Tanks Transactions of the
ASME May 1969 pp. 400
Uhlig, Corrosion and Corrosion Control, An Introduction To Corrosion
Science and Engineering, 2nd ed, John Wiley and Sons, 1963
Reynolds Metal Company, Structural Aluminum Design, 1962
Metal Handbook, Ninth Edition, Volume 2, Properties and Selection: Nonferrous
Alloys and Pure Metals, American Society for Metals, copyright 1979

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