Professional Documents
Culture Documents
By
Damoun Ahmadi Khatir
2012
Dissertation Committee:
Prof. Jin Wang
Prof. Longya Xu
Prof. Vadim I. Utkin
Prof. Donald G. Kasten
Abstract
The developments of Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS) devices, medium
voltage drives, and different types of distributed generations, have provided great
opportunities for the implementations of medium and high power inverters. In these
applications, the frequency of the Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) is often limited by
switching losses and electromagnetic interferences caused by high dv/dt. Thus, to
overcome these problems, Selective Harmonic Elimination (SHE) is often utilized in both
two-level inverters and multilevel inverters to reduce the switching frequency and the
Total Harmonic Distortion. For both two level and multilevel inverters, most SHE studies
are based on solving multiple variable high order nonlinear equations. Furthermore, for
multilevel inverters, SHE has been often studied based on the assumption of balanced dc
levels and single switching per level. This dissertation addresses the further developed
harmonics injection and equal area criteria based four-equation method to realize SHE for
two-level inverters and multilevel inverters with unbalanced dc sources. Compared with
existing methods, the proposed method does not involve complex equation groups and is
much easier to be utilized in the case of large number of switching angles or multiple
switching angles per voltage level in multilevel inverters.
Then, the proposed method is applied for optimal PWM when the number of dc level ins
limited for the inverters. For harmonics compensation for active power filters, the
ii
iii
iv
Acknowledgments
I want to express my thanks to Professor Jin Wang who gave me the opportunity to
study, challenge, and improve my knowledge in power electronics during my study in the
Ohio State University. He has patiently supervised me for four years, and encouraged me
to think outside the box and enjoy my research in the Ohio State University.
Vita
Damoun Ahmadi Khatir was born in IRAN in 1981. He received his B.S. degree from
Khaje Nasir Toosi University of Technology and M.S. degree from Sharif University of
Technology, IRAN in 2003 and 2005, both in electrical engineering. During that time, he
worked on different control algorithms for AC motor drives and applying Flexible
Alternating Current Transmission System (FACTS) devices for reactive power
compensation. He received his Ph.D degree in Power Electronics at the Ohio State
University in June 2012. His research is focused on multilevel inverters, renewable
energies for smart grid, intelligent and optimized power tracking for automotive battery
charging, power electronic circuits, HIL and DSP control applications for high power
systems and distributed generations.
vi
Table of Contents
Abstract..ii
Acknowledgement..v
Vita.....vi
List of Figures.x
List of Tables...xiv
CHAPTER.1: MULTILEVEL INVERTERS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY
SOURCES
1.1. Introduction.1
1.2. Integration of Renewable Sources into the Power Systems4
1.3. Multilevel Inverters5
1.3.1. Circuit Topologies in Multilevel Inverters..6
1.3.2. Selective Harmonics Elimination in Multilevel Inverters22
1.3.3. Fast and Practical method for SHE...25
1.4. Summary and Conclusion....32
ix
List of Figures
Figure 1.1, Global Renewable energy investments......3
Figure 1.2, Global renewable power excluding hydro.....3
Figure1.3. Three level diode clamped multilevel inverters.....7
Figure. 1. 4. Five level diode clamped multilevel inverters.....8
Figure 1. 5. Three level flying capacitor multilevel inverters...10
Figure 1.6. Five level single phase flying capacitor multilevel inverters..12
Figure 1.7. Cascaded multilevel inverters......15
Figure 1.8. Three-pulse multilevel inverters...17
Figure 1.9 Circuit configuration for zig-zag transformer....17
Figure 1.10. Phase diagram for three phase cascaded multilevel inverters18
Figure 1. 11. Circuit topology for hexagram multilevel inverters....19
Figure 1. 12. Generalized multilevel inverter topology.....20
Figure 1. 13. Three level soft-switched inverter.....22
Figure 1. 14. Staircase waveform in multilevel inverters......23
Figure 1. 15. The diagram showing the idea for equal area criteria....27
Figure 1. 16. The four-equation based Method.....31
Figure 2.1. Different switching angles in multilevel inverters..35
Figure 2. 2. Modified method with PI controller to adjust the fundamental value...38
Figure 2. 3. Additional dc level for low modulation index....40
Figure 2. 4. Modified method with additional switching angle.....41
x
Figure 3. 11. Block diagram for weight oriented solution in low modulation indices....77
Figure 3. 12. The overall switching angles for different modulation indices...79
Figure 3. 13, OPWM result for MI=0.8286....82
Figure 3. 14, OPWM result for MI=0.6748....82
Figure 3. 15, OPWM result for MI=0.2672....83
Figure 3. 16. Different parts of the experimental setup for OPWM....84
Figure 3. 17. No-load test voltage with ten switching angles.....84
Figure 3. 18. Harmonics analysis for output voltage in load testing....85
Figure 3. 19. Experimental results load test voltage and current waveforms.86
Figure 3. 20. Harmonics analysis for output current in load testing...86
Figure 3. 21. Three-level phase voltage waveform with MI=0.1414.....88
Figure 3. 22. OPWM for 5 level phase voltage waveform with MI=0.2545.....88
Figure 3. 23. Experimental setup for multilevel inverter with unbalanced dc sources..89
Figure 3. 24 Three level phase voltage waveform with MI=0.1414..90
Figure 3. 25. 5 level phase voltage waveform with MI=0.2545.....90
Figure 3. 26. Power hardware in the loop diagram for multilevel inverter.....92
Figure 3. 27, The results for weight-oriented method with MI=0.2545...93
Figure 3. 28. Detailed results for weight oriented method....93
Figure. 4.1. Harmonic and power compensation by multilevel inverters....99
Figure. 4. 2. Four-equation based method in multilevel inverters for APF......101
Figure. 4.3. 5th harmonics injection for APF........104
Figure. 4. 4. Multiple junction point for the same dc level......105
Figure. 4. 5. Different frequencies transformation s from a-b-c to d-q.....106
Figure. 4. 6. Power hardware in the loop diagram for active power filter...108
Figure. 4. 7. Real time simulator and multilevel inverters setup for PHIL.......108
xii
xiii
List of Tables
Table 2.1: Switching angles examples.35
Table 2.2 Sample points based on the basic method......37
Table 2.3. The selected harmonics magnitudes with the basic method....37
Table. 2.4. Sample points for modified method with PI controller..38
Table. 2.5. Harmonics magnitudes for modified method with PI controller...39
Table 2. 6. The switching angles for different modulation indices...42
Table 2. 7. Harmonics magnitude for different modulation indices42
Table 2.8 Sample points for six (maximum) level waveform45
Table 2. 9. The harmonics magnitude results for the modified four-equation method..45
Table. 2. 10: Five different dc levels for staircase waveform....50
Table 2.11 Sample points from the direct implementation of the four-equation method..51
Table 2. 12. The selected harmonics magnitude for unbalanced DC sources.....51
Table 2. 13. Sample points based on the modified four-equation method...53
Table 2. 14. Harmonics components for unbalanced multilevel inverters......53
Table 3. 1. Number of first-order equations should be solved for harmonics elimination71
Table 3. 2. Sample points with proposed method for ten switching angles.79
Table 3. 3. Harmonics results for OPWM using ten switching angles.79
Table 3. 4. Sample points based on the four-equation and OPWM.....80
Table 3. 5. Harmonics magnitude based on the proposed method.......81
Table 3. 6. Harmonic components for the simulated modulation indices....83
xiv
xv
CHAPTER.1
All fossil fuels create carbon dioxide when burnt and they influence the Earths carbon
cycle. Plant growth and its subsequent conversion to coal, oil, peat and gas, dramatically
reduces the CO2 level in the environment, which is very important in cooling the planet
to temperatures that are necessary for the health of advanced life forms. By unlocking
these stored carbon sources, the direction of cycling in nature is changed, with global
warming as the direct result of excessive greenhouse effects.
The consequences of using these energy sources, after generation are not normally
considered in economical analyses. For example, the cost of ill health to society or
damage to the environmental is rising from pollution caused by fossil fuels. There are
also issues concerned with associated environmental damage in products such as residue
from coal mining or radioactive wastes for nuclear power. If nuclear power is to mitigate
global emissions, it is of utmost importance to assess accurately how much CO2 will be
displaced by nuclear power.
Nowadays, industry is very dependent on fossil fuel consumption; therefore, possible
solutions should be implemented in the years ahead. Changing the form of this
dependence and consumption for both people and industries in a short time is not very
realistic. In the last two decades, both electrical industry and heating generations are
moved forward to switch to gas instead of oil or coal for their sources. This helped to
limit the growth in CO2 emissions and using the newly developed gas sources [2], [3].
To overcome the drawbacks of the fossil fuels effects, renewable energies can be
considered as promising sources to meet the continuously increasing demand of energy,
solve increasing carbon emissions, and to improve the reliability of electric power
systems. In Fig 1.1, the total world investments on renewable power are shown in the last
2
couple of the years, which describe societies and industries interests for renewable
energies. These interests can be different for each renewable source, based on the
location and the type of power, which is shown in Figure.1.2 [4].
US Dollars (Billions)
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
Years
Figure 1.1, Global Renewable energy investments [Source: REN21 Renewable Status Report
2010]
300
250
200
Total Renewable
Power
150
Wind
100
Biomass
50
PV
Geothermal
0
2004
2005
2006
2007
Years
2008
2009
2010
Figure 1.2, Global renewable power excluding hydro [Source: REN21 Renewable Status Report
2010]
3
k 2 m 1
(1-1)
and the number of steps p in the phase voltage of a three-phase load in wye connection is:
p 2 k 1
(1-2)
For high power applications, the advantages and disadvantages of multilevel inverters
compared with two level inverters using high frequency Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
methods can be summarized by the following comparison [25-32]:
Advantages:
By using staircase waveform, the output voltage can be generated with low
distortion; and also dv/dt voltage stress on each power switches is decreased
significantly. Then, electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) problems can be
controlled and reduced;
The switching frequency and the switching loss is decreased, and for a high power
approach, efficiency is increased significantly;
Disadvantage:
In this topology, to achieve more voltage and power, a greater number of power
semiconductor switches is needed. Then, with the gate driver circuit for each switch,
the overall circuit will be more expensive, and more complicated, with a larger size.
Vdc
, when two upper switches (
2
S1 , S 2 ) are turned on. For this condition, D1* balanced the voltage sharing between S3
and S 4 . Then, S3 and S 4 block the voltage on C1 and C2 respectively. For zero output
two, S 2 and S3 are turned on and for output voltage equals
Vdc
, S3 and S 4 are turned
2
Vdc
2
S1
C1
D1
S2
Vdc
D1*
C2
S3
S4
V
dc
2
The circuit construction for a five-level diode clamped single phase inverter is shown in
Figure 1.4. In this circuit, four capacitors divide the input voltage. In normal situations,
the voltage on each capacitor is
Vdc
that equals the switches voltage stress through the
4
7
clamping diodes. For this circuit, each phase has four complementary switch pairs such that
turning on one of the switches will require that the other complementary switch be turned
off.
In general, based on the m level inverter, each active switching device is required only to
block a voltage level of
Vdc
. However, for reverse voltage blocking on the clamping
(m 1)
diodes, the voltage ratings are different. In this case, if each blocking diode voltage rating
is the same as the active device voltage rating, the number of diodes required for each
phase will be (m 1) (m 2) . Then, the number of blocking diodes is related to the
number of levels in a diode clamped inverter.
Vdc
2
S1
C1
Vdc
4
C2
Vdc
S2
D3
S3
D3* D
2
*
2
D
C3
S4
S5
D1 S
6
Vdc
4
D1* S7
C4
S8
Vdc
2
All of the phases share a same dc bus, which decrease the capacitance requirements
of the inverter. Based on that, a back-to-back topology can be implemented for
different approaches such as a high voltage back-to-back topology or variable speed
drives.
Disadvantages:
Difficult active power flow for a single inverter because the intermediate dc levels
will overcharge or discharge without precise control and monitoring.
If the inverter runs under PWM method, the diode reverse recovery of these
clamping diodes becomes the major design challenge in high voltage/power
applications.
9
Vdc
2
S1
C2
Vdc
n C
1
S2
a
S3
C2
S4
V
dc
2
Similar to diode clamping, the capacitor clamping requires a large number of bulk
capacitors to clamp the voltage. The voltage rating for each of the capacitor equals the
main power switch. Then, for an m-level inverter, a total number of clamping capacitors
per phase leg will be (m 1) (m 2) / 2 in addition to (m 1) main dc-bus capacitors. In
10
this circuit topology, the capacitors with negative signs are in a charging mode, while
those with positive sign are in a discharging mode. Thus, by the proper selection of
capacitor combinations, the capacitor charge will be balanced.
For the three level phase flying capacitor inverter is shown in Fig 1.5, three level voltage
equals Van Vdc , 0, or Van Vdc is provided for the output. For the voltage level equals
2
Vdc
, two upper switches, S1 and S 2 need to be turned on. On the other hand, for
2
negative output voltage equals
Vdc
, two lower switches S 3 and S 4 need to be turned
2
on. For 0 level output voltage, either pair ( S1 , S 3 ) or ( S 2 , S 4 ) can be turned on. In this
situation, capacitor C1 is charged, when S1 and S3 are turned on; and is discharged when
S 2 and S 4 are turned on. Therefore, the voltage magnitude of C1 can be balanced by
proper selection of the 0 level switch combination.
The circuit topology of the single phase five level flying capacitor inverter is shown in
Figure 1.6. In this condition, the switching method has more flexibility than a diodeclamped converter for same voltage magnitude.
11
Vdc
2
S1
C4
Vdc
4
S2
C3
C4
Vdc
n
C4
S3
C2
C3
C3
S4
C1
C2
a
S5
S6
V
dc
4
S7
C4
S8
V
dc
2
Figure 1.6. Five level single phase flying capacitor multilevel inverters
There are more redundancies for inner voltage levels in the flying-capacitor multilevel
inverter. Therefore, more switch combinations can be utilized to generate same waveform
in output voltage. However, compared with the diode-clamped multilevel inverter, the
flying-capacitor inverter does not require all of the conducting switches to be in a
consecutive series. Furthermore, compared with the diode-clamped inverter that has only
line-line voltage redundancies, the flying-capacitor multilevel inverter has both phase and
line-line
voltage
redundancies.
These
redundancies
allow
choice
of
charging/discharging specific capacitors, and can be utilized in the control system for
balancing the voltages across the various levels.
12
If the voltage rating of the capacitors is identical to that of the main switches, the mlevel flying-capacitor multilevel inverter will require (m 1) (m 2) / 2 auxiliary
capacitors per phase, in addition to the (m-1) dc link capacitors. A flying-capacitor
multilevel inverter has been proposed in the projects for the medium and high power
motor drives, and also static VAR generation. The main advantages and disadvantages of
multilevel flying capacitor converters are shown as follows:
Advantages:
Phase redundancies can be applied to balance the voltage levels of the capacitors.
The large number of capacitors enables the inverter to ride through deep voltage
sags and short duration outages.
Disadvantages:
Complex control method to track the voltage levels for all of the capacitors. Also,
pre-charging all of the capacitors to the same voltage level and startup are
complicated.
13
14
Vdc 4
Vo4
Vdc3
Vo3
Vdc2
Vo2
Vo1
Vdc1
The high number of phase output voltage levels based on the dc sources (k =
2m + 1).
Disadvantages:
Separate dc sources are required for each of the H-bridges that limit the
applications of the circuit based on the available sources.
For three phase application, each phase can be provided with single phase cascaded
multilevel inverter. The other circuit topology for three phase applications is three-pulse
multilevel inverter. Three-pulse multilevel inverters can be implemented by using
transformers and standard three-phase inverter [41], [42]. This topology is shown in
Figure 1.8. In this circuit the transformers are utilized to add a different voltage. To
provide different phase shifts for the three phase rectifiers, 18-pulse poly-phase
transformers which use zig-zag topology can be utilized. The circuit constructions for
zig-zag transformers are shown in Figure 1.9 for more details. It should be notified that,
in zig-zag transformer, the phase shift in the secondary side, , can be adjusted based
on the ratio between the two coils in the secondary [43].
16
3-phase medium
voltage utility
20
Vdc
C1
B
C
A2
b2
A3
B3
20
c2
a3
b3
Vdc
C3
a2
Vdc
C2
c1
B2
c3
C2
A1
B2
B1
C1
A2
C2
a
Vca
A1
Vab
Vbc
Medium voltage
ASD
a1
b1
B1
Output
transformers
B2
C1
B1
A2
As shown in Figure 1.10, to synchronize and add the voltages for each inverter, the
input voltages should have 120 phase shift. In this case, for three phase a, b, and c, the
staircase waveform for output voltage can be achieved by: Vab = Va1-b1+Vb1-a2+Va2-b2.
Therefore, if these voltages are in the same phase, the total output voltage can be
increased up to three times of each line voltage.
aa
c1
b1
a3
c3
a2
c2
b3
b2
Figure 1.10. Phase diagram for three phase cascaded multilevel inverters.
In hexagram multilevel inverters, the same idea is utilized with a 60 phase shift for six
phase applications [44], [45]. The circuit is shown in Figure 1. 11.
By using the
transformer for the cascaded multilevel inverters, the number of components and for the
circuits will be decrease significantly, and identical inverters can be utilized. Therefore,
the circuit will be much cheaper with a smaller size and easier control.
18
a1
C1
'
b6
o6
o1
b1
C C5
'
b5
b4
o4
a4
C B
o2
b2
C6
a6 a
5
o5
a1
C2
'
C1
o6
b6
a2 a
3
a6 a
5
o3
o5
C3
C4
b3 B
C C5
o1
b1
o2
b2
C6
C'
C2
a2 a
3
b5
b4
o4
C3
C4
o3
b3 B
a4
'
A'
multilevel inverter can balance each voltage level by itself regardless of load
characteristics, and active or reactive power conversion can be had without any additional
circuits at any number of levels automatically. Therefore, the topology provides a
19
6V
Vdc
Vdc
Vdc
Vdc
Vo
Vdc
Vdc
Vdc
Vdc
Vdc
Vdc
Vdc
Basic P2 Cell
Figure 1. 12. Generalized multilevel inverter topology.
20
21
the ARCP and coupled-inductor ZVT techniques for a flying capacitor three level
inverter is shown in Figure 1. 13.
For soft switching, the auxiliary switches S3 , S4 , D3 , and D4 , are used to assist the inner
main switches S1 and S 2 . With using Lr 2 as the coupled inductor, the bridge-type circuit
formed by S3 , S4 , Sa 2 and S a 3 provides a two-level coupled-inductor ZVT. For the outer
main switches, the soft switching is provided with split-capacitor C2 , coupled inductor
C1
Lr 1
S1
S3
D1
Vdc
D3
Sa1
Cr
Lr 2 Sa2
Cr
Sa3
Cr
Sa4
Cr
C2
S2
D2
S4
C1
D4
0
Figure 1. 13. Three level soft-switched inverter.
22
multilevel inverters. Ideally, in the multilevel inverters, for every voltage level, there
could be multiple switching angles. The number of eliminated harmonics is decided by
the number of voltage steps and number of switching angles in each voltage step.
However, because of the complexity of the problem, most studies proposed so far are for
one switching angle per one voltage level, as shown in Figure 1. 14. This also means that
the switching frequency in these methods can be as low as the fundamental frequency.
NVdc
2
13...N
3Vdc
2Vdc 1V
dc
In this case, the Fourier series expansion of the staircase waveform can be expressed as:
V (t )
4Vdc
(cos(m1 ) ... cos(m N )) sin(mt )
m1, 3, 5,... m
(1-3)
where N is the number of switching angels and m is the harmonic order. Based on (1-3),
traditionally, the following polynomial equation group can be formed to calculate the
switching angles in order to realize the selected harmonics elimination for the multilevel
inverter:
4Vdc
(cos(1 ) cos( 2 ) cos( 3 ) cos( 4 ) cos( 5 ) ... cos( N )) VF
...
cos(m ) cos(m ) cos(m ) cos(m ) cos(m ) ... cos(m ) 0
1
2
3
4
5
N
(1-4)
In this equation group, the first equation guarantees the desired fundamental component,
VF . The other equations are utilized to ensure the elimination of 5th, 7th, 11th, and mth
harmonics. It is clear that with N switching angles, N-1 selected harmonics can be
eliminated. The SHE methods proposed in essentially are methods try to solve the
equation group (1-4) with different approaches. However, due to the nature of high order
polynomial equation groups, there are also several disadvantages of these kinds of
methods: The characteristics of these methods for harmonics elimination are summarized
as follows [76-92]:
24
Advantages:
Ideally, by solving these polynomial equations, the selected harmonic components
can be eliminated very precisely.
Disadvantage:
One of the main difficulties of applying most of these methods in real engineering
practice is that when the number of dc levels increase, the number of polynomial
equations, the number of variables, and the order of the equations will all increase
accordingly.
difficult, time consuming, and often involve advanced mathematical algorithms, which
make the calculation easy to reach the capability limits of existing computer algebraic
software tools.
Though advanced methods such as symmetric polynomials, resultant theory combined
method and generic algorithm-based methods can greatly reduce the calculation time,
these methods are difficult to be adopted by field engineers, because of the need for preunderstanding of advanced control and mathematic theories. Although several methods
have been proposed to solve the SHE problem in multilevel inverters, a simple and
practical method is still needed.
1.3.3. Fast and Practical method for SHE Based on Equal Area
Criteria
This method tries to solve the harmonics elimination problems from a totally different
angle of approach.
involved in this method. To better illustrate the method, two well-known examples of
switching angle calculation and harmonics compensation are first introduced as following
[93]:
1) The equal area criteria for switching angle calculation:
For a simple equation group based on Fouriers series, a Newton-Raphson iteration can
be used to achieve numerical solutions. For the Newton-Raphson based iteration, the
initial values are very crucial to the final results. One natural way to find good initial
switching angles is through an equal area criterion. The basic idea of equal area criteria
is shown in the circled area of Figure 1. 15. The initial switching angle,
k , can be
found by solving:
S1 S2
(1-5)
Where S1 and S 2 are the areas of the shadowed parts. By the nature of the equal area
criteria, the fundamental voltage component of the stair case waveform, resulted from the
switching angles, would resemble the sinusoidal modulation waveform. However, with
equal area criteria alone, no harmonics elimination can be realized. How to utilize the
initial values from equal area criteria to find the optimized angles without solving the
high order multi-variable polynomials is the question that this method tries to answer.
But before reaching the final answer, a harmonics elimination method used in utility
application is first introduced as following.
26
NVdc
S1
k 1
k
S2
k 1 k
3Vdc
2Vdc 1V
dc
1 3...N
Figure 1. 15. The diagram showing the idea for equal area criteria.
27
h5 , h7 hm ) of the staircase
28
iteration, h h1 ;
4) based on the equal area criteria, use the new non-sinusoidal modulation waveform to
calculate a new set of ( 1 N );
5) repeat steps 2-4 until the best switching angles are achieved, which would result in
full elimination of selected harmonics content.
In step 1, the modulation waveform is pure sinusoidal; after step 3, the harmonics are
already injected; the modulation waveform would never be sinusoidal again. More
iterations cause more harmonics in the modulation waveform.
modulation waveform has large injected harmonics content, the stair case waveform
formed by the final switching angles would have almost no selected harmonics.
k arctg (
(1-6)
Equation 2: after k s are found, the switching angle, k , can easily be calculated from:
k k k (k 1) k 1 V F (cos( k ) cos( k 1 )
(1-7)
h5
(cos(5 k ) cos(5 k 1 )))
5
h
m (cos(m k ) cos(m k 1 ))
m
hm
2
(cos( m k ) cos( m( k )))
(
2
k
1
)
k 1, 2, N
(1-8)
Equation 4: to perform iterations of step 2)-4) mentioned in this section, the modulation
waveform would have a general expression as:
(1-9)
hm _ s
m
i 1, 2,3iter
The modulation index for staircase waveform in a multilevel inverter is defined as:
30
(1-10)
VF
MI
(1-11)
N Vdc
Where N is the maximum number of DC level which is used to generate the staircase
waveform and can be changed based on the magnitude of DC levels and the reference
waveform. It should be noted that for different numbers of switching angles, the four
equations will remain the same. Since no multi-variable polynomial equation is involved
in this method, the calculation time has a near linear relationship with the number of the
switching angles. No sudden increase in calculation time is expected when there is a
small change in the number of the switching angles. The general diagram of the fourequation-based method is shown in Figure 1. 16.
New modulation
waveform synthesizing
with Equation 4
Harmonics calculation
with Equation 3
The advantages of four equations based method compared with a polynomial equations
solution can be summarized as follows:
The complexity of the four equations for different number of switching angles
will be the same. Therefore, the switching angles can be calculated easily without using
31
first ordered equations that should be solved in polynomial methods, will be increased
nonlinearly. However, this increase is linear for the four-equation based method, resulting
in fewer numbers of first ordered equations. Therefore, the four-equation based method
can be implemented faster with an easy control algorithm. Thern, this method is a very
good candidate for an online SHE in multilevel inverter.
More specifications and the characteristics of the four-equation method are elaborated
and explained in details in the next chapter.
proposed for applications such as medium voltage drives, renewable energy interfaces,
and flexible ac transmission devices (FACTs). Several circuit topologies for multilevel
inverters have been introduced in this chapter. The main circuit topologies for multilevel
inverters can be summarized as follows:
A typical multilevel inverter utilizes voltage levels from multiple dc sources. These dc
sources can be isolated as in cascaded multilevel structures or interconnected as in diode
clamped structures.
sources in the circuits needs to be maintained to supply identical voltage levels. Based on
these identical voltage levels and proper control of the switching angles of the switches,
the output voltage can be synthesized in a staircase waveform. For low frequency
harmonics elimination in medium and high power applications, PWM methods are
limited by switching loss and are usually used when the available voltage steps are
limited. Therefore, SHE methods can be utilized.
Most of the proposed methods use the group of polynomial equations for SHE based on
Fouriers series. However, when the number of dc levels increase, the number of
polynomial equations, the number of variables, and the order of the equations will all
increase accordingly.
extremely difficult and often involve advanced mathematical algorithms, which make the
calculation easy to reach capability limits of existing computer algebraic software tools.
In a four-equation based method, equal area criteria and harmonics injection are utilized
for SHE in multilevel inverters. Then, compared with other methods that normally use
the polynomial equations, solving high order nonlinear equations is no longer needed.
In the next chapter, the problems of the direct implementation of four equations based
method are analyzed. Then, solutions are proposed accordingly to enable the good
performance of the method at a wide range of modulation indices.
33
CHAPTER. 2
2.1. The Characteristics of a Basic Four Equations Method for Multilevel Inverters
Initially, to prove the concept, this method has been used to calculate the switching
angles for the case shown in Figure 2.1. In the calculations, five harmonics are chosen
for elimination. After approximately 100 times of iterations, the values of 5th, 7th, 11th,
13th, and 17th harmonics drop under 106 p.u, which means these harmonics are
effectively eliminated. The number of eliminated harmonics is five and equal to the
number of switching angles. Please note that with other methods proposed so far, to
eliminate five harmonics with a total of five switching angles, the result in a fundamental
component would be far from the desired value.
34
4
2
5Vdc
4Vdc 3V
dc
2Vdc 1V
dc
1 3 5
With the proposed method, because the equal area criteria are used all the time, the
resulted fundamental component is still close to the desired value.
For a desktop
computer with a 2.8 GHz CPU, the calculation time of one modulation index is less than
1 second. Table 2.1 shows the switching angle examples for a modulation index at 0.85
and 0.86. The modulation index is defined as:
MI
VF
4
(2-1)
5 Vdc
where VF is the peak value of the fundamental component. To identify possible problems
with the basic four-equation based method, the method was tested with five switching
angles with the modulation index sweeping from 0.16 to 0.94.
Angles
MI=0.85
(rad)
MI=0.86
3
5
4
0.11466 0.25769 0.41205 0.6465 1.0134
0.11465 0.2577 0.41202 0.64646 1.0134
35
k for one dc level were originally expected to be another major problem of the fourequation based method.
automatically settle on the middle cross point, which is the best selection of k . Then, by
36
decreasing the selected harmonics in the output voltage, the modification on the reference
voltage will be decreased accordingly.
Table 2.2 Sample points based on the basic method.
Reference
MI
Resulted
MI
0.92
0.88
0.84
0.80
0.76
0.8408
0.7923
0.7818
0.7715
0.7251
0.1147
0.1433
0.1434
0.1435
0.0815
0.2577
0.3398
0.3406
0.3411
0.4256
0.4121
0.5275
0.5283
0.5289
0.6818
0.6465
0.8417
0.8433
0.8443
0.8583
1.0134
1.1057
1.1062
1.1065
N/A
Table 2.3. The selected harmonics magnitudes with the basic method.
Reference
MI
Resulted
MI
0.92
0.88
0.84
0.80
0.76
0.8408
0.7923
0.7818
0.7715
0.7251
th
Harmonics (%)
7 11th
13th
0
0
0
0
0
th
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
17th
0
0. 584
0
0.4239
0
0.5128
0
0.7062
0.4847 N/A
KI
) hms sin(mt )
S
(2-2)
Where, K p and K I are the coefficients for the PI controller that is applied to the
reference waveform. The overall diagram of the modified method is shown in Figure 2.2.
The added process is shown in a dotted line. Although the difference between desired
and resulted fundamental output is decreased with the PI controller in place, there is still
a slight difference between resulted and desired modulation index for most cases. Also,
since the PI controller is used only for fundamental compensation; the cross section
points for the reference waveform are changed resulting in different switching angles and
harmonics magnitude. Therefore, the performance of harmonics elimination will be
undesirable, especially at high modulation index points. These switching angles and the
resulted harmonics can be seen in Table 2. 4, and Table 2. 5 accordingly. Based on the
results, using alternative solutions for SHE is essential. In the next section, the final
solution is studied and validated.
Desired fundamental
component
Harmonics calculation
with Equation 3
PI
New modulation
waveform synthesizing
with Equation 4
Resulted
MI
0.92
0.88
0.84
0.80
0.76
0.9112
0.8467
0.8308
0.7931
0.7351
1
0.1794
0.1043
0.1146
0.1399
0.0005
5
0.7304
0.9994
1.0133
1.0932
N/A
Resulted
MI
0.92
0.88
0.84
0.80
0.76
0.9112
0.8467
0.8308
0.7931
0.7351
th
5
0.3976
0.0179
0.0008
0.3026
0.0062
Harmonics (%)
7
11th
13th
0.285 0.0085 0.613
0.0554 0.25 0.4643
0.0019 0.0019 0.0038
0.1336 0.1316 0.7332
0.0723 0.5558 0.7025
th
17th
0.4304
0.1339
0.0017
0.6585
N/A
39
(m 1)Vdc
mVdc
In this case, with the four-equation method, at the fundamental frequency, the
difference between the desired voltage and the generated voltage will become larger. But
since an extra voltage level is available, it can be utilized to realize the fundamental
voltage compensation.
calculated for an extra voltage level to achieve the desired fundamental voltage.
However, the extra voltage level will cause additional harmonics. Thus in this method,
the additional harmonics content generated by the extra voltage level would be added to
the overall reference waveform, which is used to calculate the switching angles for all the
other voltage levels. This means that the extra harmonics generated in the additional
voltage level would be compensated by the switching angles for all the other voltage
levels. This modified method is illustrated in the in Figure 2. 4. The additional process is
shown in the dotted line.
40
Calculate the
additional m +1
switching angle
Desired fundamental
component
New modulation
waveform synthesizing
with Equation 4
Harmonics calculation
with Equation 3
V1m
i 1
4Vdc
cos( i ),
m N
(2-3)
b) Then, the switching angle of the additional voltage level is calculated based on the
difference between the desired fundamental, VF , and the resulted fundamental
voltage, V1m , with the following equation:
m1 a cos(
4Vdc
(VF V1m ))
(2-4)
In Table 2. 6, the switching angles for different modulation indices are explained in
details. In these cases, the extra dc level has been just used for the fundamental voltage
compensation. Then, the number of harmonics for elimination is one less than the
numbers of switching angles as shown in Table 2. 7. In general, m+1 switching angles
are utilized to achieve the desired fundamental voltage and eliminate m harmonics.
Table 2. 6. The switching angles for different modulation indices.
Reference
MI
0.76
0.60
0.46
0.20
Resulted
MI
0.76
0.60
0.46
0.20
0.1878
0.1971
0.2175
0.3889
Resulted
MI
MI
5th
0.76
0.60
0.46
0.20
0.76
0.60
0.46
0.20
0
0
0
0
Harmonics (%)
7th
11th
13th
0
0
0
N/A
0
0
N/A
N/A
0
N/A
N/A
N/A
17th
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
42
NVdc
Therefore, in this proposed method, the switching angle of the last dc level will be
adjusted to achieve the desired fundamental voltage. The adjustment of the switching
angle is shown in Figure 2. 7. This idea can be calculated by the following equation:
N* a cos(
4Vdc
(VF V1N ))
where V1N is the total fundamental voltage generated by switching angles from
N .
(2-5)
to
This adjustment angle is used to modify the switching angle for the last voltage
level:
(2-6)
Therefore, based on the switching angle adjustment for the last dc level, the desired
voltage magnitude in the fundamental frequency can be achieved. However, if not
compensated, the adjustment switching angle would also bring in the additional
harmonics in the resulted staircase waveform. So, the selected harmonics caused by the
adjustment angle would also need to be calculated and added to the final modulation
waveform for better performance. The total process of this modified method is illustrated
in Figure 2. 8.
++
Calculate the
adjustment
switching angle
Desired fundamental
component
Calculated fundamental
New modulation
waveform synthesizing
with Equation 4
Harmonics calculation
with Equation3
Figure. 2.8. Modified method with adjustment switching angle for the highest voltage level.
In Table 2. 8, the switching angles for high modulation index with no extra dc level are
listed. For this case, since the last switching angle is used to achieve the fundamental
voltage, also to eliminate the selected harmonics, the resulted harmonics is greater than
cases with the low modulation indices and extra dc level. However, as shown in Table 2.
9, these harmonics are still very small compared to the fundamental voltage.
Based on the sample points, the proposed solutions have been tested for low and high
modulation indices sweeping from 0.2 to 0.9 for the six-level staircase waveforms. For
44
the entire tested modulation index, the resulted modulation index had followed the
desired value very well. Thus, the selected harmonics elimination can be close to 100%
except at modulation indices higher than 0.9.
Table 2.8 Sample points for six level waveform with the modified four-equation method.
Reference
MI
0.90
0.76
0.60
0.46
0.20
Resulted
MI
0.90
0.76
0.60
0.46
0.20
0.0641
0.1878
0.1971
0.2175
0.3889
0.1984
0.3618
0.4689
0.5954
1.4961
Table 2. 9. The harmonics magnitude results for the modified four-equation method.
Reference
MI
Resulted
MI
0.90
0.76
0.60
0.46
0.20
0.90
0.76
0.60
0.46
0.20
th
Harmonics (%)
7
11th
13th
th
17th
The overall optimized switching angles based on the proposed method for six-level
waveform is shown in Figure 2. 9. The results show that the proposed solution in both
conditions work well in terms of achieving the desired fundamental voltage and
harmonics elimination. It is noticeable that with the modification of the switching angle
of the highest voltage level,
It may looks strange, but this will not cause any problem. In the real inverter, the final
voltage is the summation of the voltage from all the dc sources. Therefore, instead of
45
getting the waveform shown in Figure 2. 10 (a), the output voltage of the inverter would
always looks like the waveform in Figure 2. 10 (b).
Based on the modulation index definition, when the modulation index is less than 0.2,
the reference voltage is below the first dc voltage level and there is no cross point
between the dc level and reference voltage. Therefore, the first switching angle can be
used just to generate reference voltage, and no harmonic elimination can be realized. For
modulation indices larger than 0.9, the reference voltage is much higher than the last dc
level. Thus, the modification of the last switching angle is not efficient enough to
achieve the fundamental voltage and the harmonics elimination. It should be notified that
all the SHE methods for multilevel inverters are facing the similar limitations at very low
and very high modulation indices.
/2
/3
/6
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
Modulation Indexes (MI)
0.9
46
(a)
(b)
In the next step, to improve the performance of the proposed method and also extent its
capability and applications, SHE in cascaded multilevel inverters is studied for
unbalanced dc sources. Then, a case study is used to verify the accuracy of the modified
method.
47
Figure. 2.11. A row of plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) battery cells (Photo courtesy of
Argonne National Laboratory).
One possible application of this study is cascade multilevel inverters for Photovoltaic
(PV).
magnitudes at maximum power point are close to each other. The typical variation is less
than 15%. Therefore, in this case study, the voltage differences between two dc sources
are chosen as 15%.
For SHE in multilevel inverters with unbalanced dc sources, as shown in Figure 2. 12,
the four equations based method should be modified. The following equations are similar
to the basic method; however for this condition, dc levels are different and independent
from each other:
48
k arctan(
V
i 1
dc( i )
(2-7)
Equation 2: Based on the junction points, switching angles are calculated by this
equation:
k
k 1
i 1
i 1
(2-8)
h
h
5 (cos(5 k ) cos(5 k 1 ))... m (cos(m k ) cos(m k 1 )))
5
m
Equation 3: The equation is used to define harmonic components by switching angles for
different frequencies:
hm
k 1, 2,..,N
2Vdc( k )
m
(2-9)
(2-10)
hms
m (i )
i 1, 2,...
49
(2-11)
To identify possible problems of this method for harmonic elimination, the group of
equations is applied to the six-level waveform with different dc magnitudes as shown in
Table. 2. 10, for the modulation index changing from 0.16 to 0.94. The modulation index
is found by:
VF
MI
Vdc ( i )
(2-12)
i1
where, V F is the reference ac voltage in the output, N is the number of dc levels, and
Vdc(i ) is the dc magnitude for each voltage level in multilevel inverter output waveform.
S1
S1=S2
S2
k1
k 1k
Vdc( K )
Vdc(1) Vdc( 2)
2
Vdc(1)
1 3k
DC
Levels
P.U
V1
1
V2
V3
V4
V5
50
Similar to the circuit topology with identical dc sources, the main problem identified in
this process is the amplitude difference between the desired and resulted fundamental
voltages. With the direct implementation of the proposed method, the fundamental
voltage of the staircase waveform often diverts from the desired value, as shown in
Table 2. 11. The selected harmonics magnitude is described in Table 2. 12, based on the
same switching angles.
Table 2.11 Sample points from the direct implementation of the basic four-equation method.
Reference
MI
Resulted
MI
0.92
0.87
0.78
0.65
0.52
0.7878
0.7877
0.68
0.5075
0.5074
0.1238
0.1240
0.1503
0.1749
0.1750
0.3448
0.3450
0.3419
0.4731
0.4732
Resulted
MI
0.92
0.87
0.78
0.65
0.52
0.7878
0.7877
0.68
0.5075
0.5074
Harmonics (%)
st
th
7th
85.6259
90.5357
87.1772
78.0698
97.5810
0.0035
0.0035
0.0004
0.0010
0
0.0004
0.0008
0.0003
0.0030
0.0006
11th
13th
17th
In this case, to overcome the difference between the reference waveform and the
fundamental output voltage, the following equations can be used for low and high
modulation indices:
51
For low modulation indices with extra dc level, two equations are used to
calculate the additional switching angle:
1)
to m is
V1m
i 1
2)
4Vdc(i )
cos(i ),
m N
(2-13)
m 1 a cos(
4Vdc( m 1)
(VF V1m ))
(2-14)
For a high modulation index with no extra dc level, two equations are used to
adjust the last switching angle:
N* a cos(
4Vdc( N )
(VF V1N ))
where V1N is the total fundamental voltage generated by switching angles from
(2-15)
to
N .
2) This adjustment angle is used to modify the switching angle for the last voltage
level:
52
(2-16)
In Table 2. 13, some sample points are shown for low and high modulation indices in
the proposed modified method. As mentioned in Table 2. 14, harmonic components are
eliminated successfully and fundamental voltage is generated precisely.
Resulted
MI
0.90
0.78
0.65
0.48
0.21
0.90
0.78
0.65
0.48
0.21
0.0729
0.1365
0.1683
0.1879
0.4886
0.1782
0.3538
0.4020
0.5898
1.4250
Resulted
MI
0.90
0.78
0.65
0.48
0.21
0.90
0.78
0.65
0.48
0.21
st
1
100
100
100
100
100
Harmonics (%)
5
7th
11th
13th
17th
0.6232 0.9115 0.4412 0.2829 0.4752
0
0
0
0
N/A
0
0
0
N/A
N/A
0
0
N/A
N/A
N/A
0
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
th
In the next section, to verify this improvement for harmonic elimination, the multilevel
inverter with unbalanced dc levels is simulated in different case studies.
53
The real-time simulation platform that is utilized in this paper is shown in Figure 2. 13.
This platform is based on PC technology running on a Linux operating system and offers
an underlying test bed for the study of the distributed generations and smart grid. It
consists of four target machines with a total of six CPUs, 32 cores, four Fieldprogrammable Gate Array (FPGA) chips, and more than 500 analogue and digital
inputs/outputs. Dolphin PCI boards are used to provide an extremely high speed and low
latency real-time communication link among target machines.
54
As shown in Figure 2. 14, the circuit topology of cascaded multilevel inverters with five
single phase H-bridges is simulated for SHE. For this analysis, different dc voltages are
used for the input of each inverter to show the advantages of the proposed modification
for unbalanced conditions.
55
DC Source 1
DC Source 2
I/O
Ports
Digital
Oscilloscope
.
.
.
DC Source 5
OPAL-RT
LAB
Figure 2. 14. The circuit topology of cascaded multilevel for real time simulation.
The output voltage for multilevel inverters is shown in Figure 2. 15. In this case, the
voltage THD for this voltage is less than 5% that verify the accuracy of the proposed
method. The harmonics distortion can also be defined by the rms value of the staircase
waveform without the fundamental component. However, in practice, the higher orders of
harmonics are not very effective on THD magnitude. The voltage spectrum for the
selected harmonics is shown in more detail in Figure 2. 16. The results are achieved from
the I/O ports of the platform in the oscilloscope.
56
5 mS/div
2 V/div
For the case studies, Hardware In the Loop (HIL) can be utilized as a comprehensive
solution. HIL is a cost-effective and flexible technique to test complex real-time
embedded systems, when they cannot be controlled and implemented easily for their
dynamic behaviors. HIL provides an effective platform by adding the complexity of the
model under control to the test platform. The complexity of the plant under control is
57
Energy
Sources
58
10 mS/div
Single phase
voltage
5 V/div
Load
current
5 A/div
Figure 2. 18. Real time simulation results for multilevel inverters at low modulation index.
In Figure 2. 19, the output voltage and the current of multilevel inverters are illustrated for a
high modulation index without an extra dc level. Since the last dc level is used for fundamental
voltage compensation, the selected harmonics magnitude is increased. However, the magnitudes
of these harmonics are still very low. The current THD is less than 5% in this case.
59
10 mS/div
Single phase
voltage
5 V/div
Load
current
5 A/div
Figure 2. 19. Real time simulation results for multilevel inverters at high modulation index.
Based on these case studies, the proposed method can be used as precise and practical
solutions for SHE in multilevel inverters with different conditions. With more available
dc levels, additional switching can be used just for fundamental voltage compensation.
Compared with polynomial solutions, solving high order nonlinear equations is no longer
needed, thus advanced algorithms are also no longer required. As a result, this method
would be more suitable for cases with high numbers of switching angles or complex
scenarios such as multiple switching angles per voltage level in multilevel inverters. In
the next chapter the application of equal area criteria and harmonics injection is discussed
in optimal PWM methods.
60
Based on equal area criteria and harmonics injection, a simple four-equations based
method is proposed for selected harmonics elimination in multilevel inverters. The main
problem identified from this process is the amplitude difference between the desired and
resulted fundamental voltage. Using a PI controller for the reference voltage is not a
comprehensive solution for this problem. In the final solutions, the PI controller is no
longer used in the iterations. Instead, either an additional voltage level or an adjustment
of the switching angle at the highest voltage level is used, depending on whether an extra
voltage level is available at the defined modulation index. After this modification, the
case studies verified the accuracy and the performance of the proposed method to achieve
the fundamental voltage component.
The dc sources on multilevel inverters can be supplied by different sources and probably
are provided in different magnitudes. Thus, a more generic solution should be considered
for SHE, based on unbalanced dc sources. Then, the proposed equations are modified for
a more generic solution. The case studies with hardware in the loop verify the proposed
solutions.
In regard to different numbers of switching angles, the number of the equations
increases linearly and no huge increase of calculation time is expected for more number
of switching angles. In some cases, this method can eliminate more than N1 harmonics
with only a small difference between the desired and resulted modulation index. This
method is not only precise in harmonics elimination but also practical in terms of
61
simplicity and realization by field engineers. In the next chapter, the application of fourequation method is discussed in optimal PWM approaches.
62
CHAPTER. 3
3.1. Introduction
With the development of different types of distributed generation, such as fuel cells,
photovoltaics (PV), and wind turbines, implementations of megawatt-level inverters are
becoming more popular [76]-[87]. For these high power and possible medium and high
voltage level converters, switching loss is as important as power quality. Selective
harmonics elimination based on optimal pulse width modulation (OPWM) is the perfect
match for these megawatt level inverters in reducing the switching frequency while
keeping the THD level under numbers specified by regulations and standards [88]-[93].
In this chapter, equal area criteria and harmonics injection are used to form OPWM,
based on the four equations method to solve the following problems:
1) SHE based optimal switching angle calculations for two-level inverters;
2) Multiple switching angles per level in multilevel-inverters at low modulation
indices, which is equivalent to high modulation indices in inverters with a low
number of voltage levels.
63
In the first section, a brief review of different OPWM and SHE methods is provided.
Then, the next section presents the detailed description of the improved four-equation
based method for the following items:
1) OPWM in two-level inverters;
2) weight-oriented junction distribution for multilevel inverters with unbalanced dc
sources.
Finally, in the third section, different case studies are provided to validate the proposed
methods.
64
V
dc
V (t )
4V
1
2
N
m 1,3,5,... m
(3-1)
where m is the order of the harmonic, and k are the k th switching angle. Based on (31), the following group of polynomial equations can be utilized to calculate the N
th
switching angles and realize the selective harmonic elimination up to m order. Please
note that the value of m could be much higher than N.
4Vdc
(cos( ) cos( )... cos( )) V
1
2
N
F
cos(5 ) cos(5 )... cos(5 ) 0
1
2
N
.......
cos(m ) cos(m )... cos(m ) 0
1
2
N
65
(3-2)
In this equation group, the first equation is used to guarantee the amplitude of the
fundamental component ( VF ), and the other equations are utilized to ensure the
elimination of selected harmonics. Thus, by calculating the N switching angles, N-1
number of harmonics can be eliminated [97, 114]. In earlier days, algorithms like quarter
symmetric polynomials and the Newton-Raphson method with multiple variables or
linearization had been utilized to solve this equation group [98-99].
Recently, various control theory-orientated algorithms are utilized to solve this group of
equations. For instance, in [100], a Clonal Selection Algorithm (CSA) is introduced to
find an optimal solution with a random disturbance selection operation; in [101], a
Sliding Mode Variable Structure Control (SMVSC) is proposed, based on a closed-loop
algorithm for better performance in harmonics elimination; in [102], a Homotopic fixedpoint approach is utilized to find the initial values of the roots and conduct cubic
iterations to refine the roots; and in [103], a feed forward artificial neural network is
applied for selected harmonics elimination. In [104], m dimensional space is introduced
to eliminate m harmonics. However, this method is practical for eliminating up to three
harmonic components.
For OPWM in multilevel inverters, harmonics elimination follows the similar equation
group as (3-2). Multiple methods, such as the Fuzzy Proportional Integral Controller
(FPIC) [105], a resultants theory based algorithm [106], an adaptive control algorithm
[107], a genetic algorithm [108, 113], etc, have been proposed. Online calculations of the
switching angels for both two-level inverters and multi-level inverters have also been
reported [109], [110].
66
However, all the above-mentioned methods are eventually based on solving complex
groups of equations. Therefore, for a higher number of switching transients, it is quite
difficult or time consuming to solve these nonlinear equations with current computation
methods [111], [112]. Thus, based on a harmonics injection and equal area criteria, the
four-equations method can be used as a simple and fast solution.
In this method,
regardless the number of voltage levels, only, few simple equations are needed for
switching angle calculations [115-118].
For easy referencing, different PWM strategies for high power two-level inverters and
multilevel inverters are categorized in Figure 3. 2.
PWM
Methods for Medium / High
Power Converters [94-118]
Selective Harmonic
Elimination (SHE) [96-118]
Nonlinear Polynomial
Equations [96-114]
Single Level OPWM [96],
[98] , [100 - 104] , [109] , [ 112]
PWM with
Multiple Carrier [94], [95]
Four - Equation based
Method [115-118]
67
The following is a
V
dc
A2
A1 A2
A1
k 1 k
k
hm
2Vdc
(cos(m k ) cos(m k ))
k 1, 2,..,N m
68
(3-3)
where N is the total number of the switching angles and m is the order of the
harmonics. Starting from this equation, the four-equation method includes the following
basic steps:
1) Use a pure sinusoidal waveform and equal-area criteria to decide the initial
switching angles of k with predefined initial values of k ;
2) Find the lower harmonics content in the resulting PWM waveform with (3-3);
3) Form a new reference waveform which is defined by
(3-4)
iter
i 1, 2 ,...
m(i )
(3-5)
4) Use the new reference waveform and equal-area criteria to form a new set of k
and k .
5) Repeat steps 1) to 4) until the selected harmonics are eliminated. The general
equation to calculate
k k
....
Vdc
5Vdc
(3-6)
Desired
Fundamental
Component
+ New Reference
Harmonics Calculation
Harmonics Selection
for Elimination
Waveform
From this basic procedure, it is clear that the proposed method is an iteration-based
method. So, there should be some initial starting point for
is to evenly distribute initial k s in the region of 0 to
k .
.
2
Equation (3-6) also shows that in this method, there is a defined relationship between
and
k . Thus when compared with methods that are based on solving high-order
nonlinear equations, theoretically, the four-equation method will have less freedom in
eliminating the switching angles. But because of the simplicity of proposed method,
when eliminating the same number of harmonics, the four-equation method shall have
faster results.
To clarify the advantages and simplicity of the proposed method, in Table 3.1, this
method is compared with other methods that normally use polynomial equations. Solving
high-order nonlinear equations is no longer needed, thus advanced algorithms are also no
longer required. In traditional methods, the number of equations grows with the number
of switching angles in a nonlinear way.
switching angles when the total number of the switching angles is high. Conversely, in
the four-equation method, the four basic equations are used repeatedly; the total number
of equations grows linearly with the number of switching angles. As a result, for OPWM
in high-power inverters, this method would be more suitable for cases with high numbers
of switching angles or complex scenarios such as multiple switching angles per voltage
level in multilevel inverters.
Table 3. 1. Number of first-order equations should be solved for harmonics elimination in different
methods.
Different
methods for N
switching
angles
Number
of
equations
The
highest
order of
equations
Method based
on polynomial
equations
1+5+7++ m
Four-equation
method
4N
4N
71
Resulted Voltage
Desired Voltage
The basic solution starts with the comparison between the resulting fundamental
component and the reference. Then, based on this difference, a is calculated to
modify the last switching angle that is the nearest to
this will result in more harmonics.
N(modified) N
/2
This adjustment angle can be calculated by an inverse cosine in the following equation:
72
arccos(
2Vdc
(VF V1N ))
(3-7)
where V1N is the total fundamental voltage component, generated with the switching
angles from
to
N .
angle:
(3-8)
Therefore, based on the switching angle adjustment, the desired voltage magnitude in
the fundamental frequency can be achieved. The total process of this modified method is
illustrated in Figure 3. 7.
+
+
Desired fundamental
component
Calculated fundamental
New modulation
waveform synthesizing
with Equation 4
Harmonics calculation
with Equation 3
Figure 3. 7. Modified method with adjustment for the switching angle in optimal PWM based
on four-equation method.
This
S1
N-1
N
S1=S2
S2
V3
V2
V1
1 k
Figure 3. 8. Optimal PWM with four-equation based method on multilevel inverters with
unbalanced dc sources.
74
Based on equal area criteria, the switching angles are determined through the following
equation:
k 1
i 1
i 1
(3-9)
where k 1 and k are the two sub-junction points per each sub-area as shown in
Figures 3. 9 and Figure 3. 10 . The effectiveness of OPWM relies heavily on the values
of
k 1 and k .
75
Sk
Reference Staircase
Waveform
S k+1
Vdc(K)
A1
k-1 k
Vdc(K-1)
k+1
S k= S k+1
A1 A2
A2
hm
4Vdc ( k )
k 1, 2,.., N
(cos(m k ) cos(m k )
(3-10)
This means that the corresponding area needed for the compensation of higher order
harmonics also decreases.
method, the area division for low modulation indices can be determined by the weight of
the harmonics, which is shown in Figure 3. 10.
76
New modulation
waveform synthesizing
with Equation 4
Harmonics calculation
with Equation 3
Figure 3. 11. Block diagram for weight oriented solution in low modulation indices.
77
k 1
and k ; then,
k k k 1
(3-11)
k 1 k 1
k
k
(3-12)
In this case, for a symmetric waveform, the summation of the sub-areas shall be
k 1
k 1
/ 2 k 1 k 1
m(m 1)
2
(3-13)
thus
m(m 1)
(3-14)
using these sub-junction points, the switching angles can be used more effectively for
SHE, especially in low modulation indices.
A) Two-Level Inverter
In a case study of the two-level inverter, 10 switching angles are utilized based on the
four equations method. In this condition, the modulation index is defined as:
MI
VF
(3-15)
where, V F is the fundamental ac voltage in the output. Table 3. 2 shows some sample
k
20 .
Modulation
Indices
0.8286
0.7436
0.6748
0.5175
0.3818
0.2672
n
1
10
0.1399
0.1411
0.1568
0.1659
0.2773
0.7166
0.2696
0.2746
0.2857
0.2892
0.6380
0.8265
0.4050
0.4119
0.4316
0.4443
0.8457
0.8995
0.5404
0.5540
0.5764
0.6036
0.9607
0.9884
0.6825
0.6927
0.7003
0.7123
1.0291
1.0853
0.8250
0.8354
0.8365
0.8446
1.1352
1.1685
0.9644
0.9766
0.9793
1.0054
1.2204
1.2491
1.1049
1.1201
1.1444
1.1784
1.3852
1.3913
1.2540
1.2691
1.3001
1.3258
1.4596
1.4706
1.4043
1.4259
1.4267
1.4623
1.5080
1.5226
79
/2
1.5
1.4
1.2
/13
9
7
5
3
10
8
6
0.8
29th
31st
0.3151 0.0884
0.3514 0.1398
0.6966 0.00
0.4054 0.00
0.00
0.00
0.0204 0.0114
/
6
0.5
0.6
0.4
0
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
Figure 3. 12. The overall switching angles for different modulation indices.
80
VF
MI
(3-16)
Vdc (i )
i 1
where P is the number of dc levels, and Vdc (i ) is the dc magnitude for each voltage level
in multilevel inverter output waveform.
The switching angles and calculated harmonics content for low-modulation indices are
shown in Table 3. 4 and Table 3. 5 respectively. At these low modulation indices, only
one or two dc sources are utilized.
switching angles. In the five-level waveform, 1 and 2 are applied at voltage level one;
#
Modulation
levels/waveform
Index
3
0.1348
0.1414
0.1602
0.1901
0.2278
0.2545
0.2438
0.2450
0.2458
0.3546
0.1159
0.1763
0.5220
0.5070
0.4711
0.5497
0.4645
0.4578
0.7486
0.7461
0.7344
1.0294
0.7975
0.8411
1.0185
1.0091
0.9792
1.1829
1.2422
1.1378
1.3050
1.2887
1.2454
1.3403
1.4205
1.3779
Table 3. 5. Harmonics magnitude based on the proposed method for low-modulation indices.
#
Modulation
levels/waveform
Index
3
0.1348
0.1414
0.1602
0.1901
0.2278
0.2545
As shown in the results, when the weight-oriented solution is applied for OPWM,
multiple switching angles can be used effectively to eliminate more harmonics. This idea
is more useful in low-modulation indices, where the number of dc levels is limited.
programmed via the TI DSP. Though there are voltage and current sensors integrated in
the inverters, they are not utilized in the tests. The voltage and current probes are used to
read the numbers.
A) OPWM with Ten Switching Angles for Two Level Inverter
To show the accuracy of the four-equation method based OPWM for two level inverter,
three different modulation indices, 0.8286, 0.6748, and 0.2672, are simulated and tested.
The simulated line-line output voltages for these modulation indices are shown in Figures
3. 133. 15 respectively.
82
Order of the
harmonics
Modulation 0.8286
0.6748
Indices
0.2672
1st
5th
7th
11th
100.00
100.00
100.00
0.3152
0.0910
0.1712
0.6465
0.0721
0.0871
0.1324
0.2423
0.1489
Harmonics (%)
13th 17th 19th
0.1799
0.0327
0.0607
0.3075
0.4228
0.0563
0.7742
0.0363
0.0923
23rd
29th
31st
0.4937
0.6014
0.2000
0.5002
0.6122
0.1049
0.4827
0.0708
0.0905
Experiments were carried out for the case that modulation index equals to 0.6748.
Different parts of the experimental setup are depicted in Figure 3. 16.
100 kW Inverter
Design
Inverter Under
Test
High Power AC
Source
Rectifier
To analyze the capability of the proposed method, at the first, it is tested in a no-load
condition. Figure 3. 17 shows the waveform from the no-load case. For more details on
the harmonics magnitude, a spectrum analysis is shown in Figure 3. 18. As a comparison
to Table 3. 6, the harmonics analysis for the voltage is shown in Table. 3. 7.
84
50 V/div
100
80
60
40
20
0
0
200
400
600
1400
1600
1800
2000
Harmonics (%)
Harmonics
1
5
7
11
13th
17th
19th
23rd
29th
31st
Voltage
100.00 0.4127 0.4301 0.8238 0.2859 0.4729 0.1328 0.0734 0.0812 0.1059
st
th
th
th
85
For load analysis, an inductive load is utilized to show the harmonic characteristics in
the current waveform. The voltage and the inductive current waveform are shown in
Figure 3. 19. The harmonics spectrum for the current waveform is shown in Figure 3. 20.
The results show that the proposed method is very successful for harmonics elimination
with OPWM. The current harmonics magnitude is explained in Table 3. 8 in more detail.
50 V/div
25 A/div
Figure 3. 19. Experimental results load test voltage and current waveforms for MI=0.6748.
86
25
20
15
10
5
0
0
200
400
600
1400
1600
1800
2000
Table 3. 8. Harmonics content in the experimental voltage and current for MI=0.6748.
st
th
th
th
1
5
7
11
Harmonics
100.00
0.1215
0.2196
0.3120
Current
Harmonics (%)
13th
17th
0.1237 0.2523
19th
0.0911
23rd
0.0519
29th
0.0601
31st
0.0412
It is noted that there are slight differences between Table 3. 6 and 3. 7 in terms of
voltage harmonics content. The difference is mainly due to the 1.5 us dead time and dc
voltage fluctuation caused by the oscillation between the load inductor and the dc link
capacitor.
for these two modulation indices. For a three-level inverter, just one level is available for
all calculated switching angles as shown in Figure 3. 21. In the five-level waveform, 1
and 2 are applied at voltage level one; 3 , 4 , and 5 are applied at voltage level two.
Correspondent waveforms are shown in Figure 3. 22.
As described in before, the angles in Table 3. 6 are switch turn-on points. The switch
turn-off points are the sub-junction points that are calculated with the weighted area
distributions. It is shown in Table 3. 10 that when more voltage levels are involved,
because of the complexity of the problem, the performance of the proposed method
degraded slightly, but the concerned harmonics are still minimized effectively.
Table 3. 9. Simulation results for output voltage and selected harmonic components on different
modulation indices.
Modulation
Index
0.1414
0.2545
Figure 3. 22. OPWM for 5 level phase voltage waveform with MI=0.2545.
Table 3. 10. Harmonics results for OPWM based on weight-oriented solution.
Figure 3. 23. Experimental setup for multilevel inverter with unbalanced dc sources.
89
To verify the performance of the proposed method, experiments have been carried out
for the two case studies mentioned above. The experimental waveforms are shown for
three-level and five-level inverters in Figure 3. 24 and Figure 3. 25 respectively.
200 V/div
200 V/div
As a comparison to Table 3. 10, the harmonics analysis for the experimental results in
two modulation indices with a weight-oriented solution are shown in Table 3. 11. From
both the simulation and experimental results, it can be seen that the selected harmonics
contents are eliminated effectively with this proposed method.
Table 3. 11. Harmonics analysis for the experimental results with low modulation indices.
Switching Angles (rad.)
Modulation
Index
1st
5th
7th
11th
13th
17th
0.1414
0.2450
0.5070
0.7461
1.0091
1.2887
100.00
2.2365
1.8975
1.2392
0.8451
0.3652
0.2545
0.1763
0.4578
0.8411
1.1378
1.3779
100.00
2.9821
1.3507
0.8533
0.7626
0.5345
rectifiers power through individual isolation transformers. The system diagram of the
PHIL and different parts of the setup are shown in Figure 3. 26.
The real-time simulator simulates the load. Simulated results, including load currents,
are converted to an analog signal as the feedback and input to the DSP control board of
the multilevel inverter. At the same time, the voltage output of the multilevel inverter is
sensed and fed to the real-time simulator as the control input of a controlled voltage
source. Thus, all the algorithms can be tested as if they are tested in the field but without
very high current.
91
Energy
Sources
Simulated
Energy Flow
Controlled power sources
with same characteristics
Real Information connected to the multilevel
Flow
inverters
Local Sources
(PV Simultors)
Multilevel
Inverters
Figure 3. 26. Power hardware in the loop diagram for multilevel inverter.
For this case study, the weight-oriented method for a five-level inverter, which has been
discussed with MI=0.2545, is used. The output voltage of the multilevel inverters, the
corresponded voltage in the real time simulation and the simulated currents are shown in
Figure 3. 27. Since it is a real-time simulation, the results are monitored with a digital
Oscilloscope. In Figure 3. 28, the simulated voltage and current are depicted in more
detail. For this case, the total current THD is less than 3%, which verifies the accuracy of
the proposed method. Then, the weight-oriented method can be considered as a fast and
simple solution for OPWM in high power inverters, especially in low-modulation indices.
In the next chapter, the application of the proposed method will be studied for distributed
energy resources and the active power filtering.
92
20 mS/div
Output voltage
on the circuit
100 V/div
The real time
simulated voltage
2.5 V/div
The real time
simulated load current
2 A/div
20 mS/div
Output voltage
on the circuit
100 V/div
93
This
94
95
CHAPTER. 4
4.1. Introduction
Nowadays, electrical power systems are evolving from centralized systems, with
generation power plants that are connected to the transmission network, to more
decentralized systems, and with smaller distributed generating units connected directly to
the networks close to demand consumption [119-123]. Technologies that can supply
these distributed energies to consumers at reasonable prices without degrading the
security and reliability of the distribution system have vast potential. Thus, renewable and
distributed energy resources are being considered as promising generation sources to
meet the continuously increasing energy demand and to improve reliability of electric
power systems.
The increasing number of renewable energy sources and distributed generators require
new strategies for the operation and control of the generated power to grid, in order to
maintain and to improve the system reliability and power quality. To achieve these goals,
96
the power electronic technology plays an important role in distributed generation and in
the integration of renewable energy sources into the electrical grid. Several power
electronic strategies have been widely studied and have been rapidly expanding as these
applications become more integrated with the grid-based systems.
During the last few years, power electronics has undergone fast improvement, which is
mainly due to two following factors:
These factors together have led to the development of cost-effective and grid-friendly
circuit topologies.
On the other hand, the progress in renewable technology has led to more powerful
systems. Wind generator prototypes and photovoltaic power systems have reached
megawatt level. The best solution to increase the power in power systems is to step up the
voltage in order to limit currents and reduce losses. Hence, the trend is to migrate from
low-voltage to medium-voltage power systems, working with increased rated voltage
wind generators and a series connection of solar panels in photovoltaic power systems.
Therefore, multilevel inverters are a good tradeoff solution between performance and cost
in high-voltage and high-power systems.
With the increase of nonlinear loads in utility lines, harmonic problems have been major
concerns. The nonlinear loads on industrial, commercial, and residential equipment, such
as diode rectifiers, power electronics inverters, and some nonlinear electronic circuits,
97
pollute the utility line due to the current harmonics that they generate. These harmonics
result in many problems in utility power, such as low energy efficiency, electromagnetic
interference (EMI), a low power factor (PF), and distortion of the line voltage, etc.
Therefore, standard regulations and recommendations, such as IEC 61000-3-2 and IEEE
519, enforce a limit on the aforementioned problems [124], [125].
For problems of harmonic pollution, passive and active power filters (APFs) are typical
approaches that are used to improve the PF and to eliminate harmonics. In the past,
passive LC filters are generally used to reduce these problems. However, they have many
drawbacks, such as being bulky, heavy, having resonance and tuning problem, fixed
compensation, noise, increased losses, and etc. On the contrary, the APF can solve the
aforementioned problems and is often used to compensate current harmonics and low PF
that are caused by a nonlinear load [126-132].
The use of APFs to mitigate harmonic problems has drawn much attention since the
1970s. The APF appears to be a viable solution for eliminating harmonic currents and
voltages. It injects equal-but-opposite distortion and absorbs or generates reactive power,
thereby controlling the harmonics and compensating reactive power of the connected
load. In [135], Akagi et al. proposed an innovative concept based on the theory of
instantaneous reactive power in the
To increase the system efficiency and maximize the return of the investments on
DERs, next to power generation, ancillary functions such as harmonics and reactive
power compensations have also been considered. This means that the distributed
resources can be utilized as APF while supplying active/reactive power to the load and
the grid.
In this case, DERs will be controlled to:
1) Generate desired active and reactive power, for the load and the grid
2) Compensate selected harmonic currents caused by nonlinear loads.
The system topology is shown in Figure. 4. 1. It should be notified that this grid-tied
inverter will often work with high modulation indices.
i s1
Grid
vg
xm
is ihm
xl
is2 ihm
vm
Renewable
sources
Multilevel
Inverters
Switching
vl
Nonlinear
Loads
is is1 is2
Angles
Four Equation
Method
99
Equation (4.1) shows the relation between grid voltage vg, inverter output voltage vm,
inverter output current, and the load current:
(4-1)
100
(4-2)
In (4.2), V f is the multilevel inverters output voltage in the fundamental frequency and
V5 ,V7 ,...,Vm are the voltages that are required to compensate the selected harmonics in
the load.
In this chapter, the equal area criteria and the harmonic injection based four-equation
method, are modified and utilized to realize the APF function with multilevel inverters
powered by DERs. For online switching angles calculation, a fast selective harmonics
detection method is proposed based on the Instantaneous Reactive Power (IRP) theory
[136], [137]. Finally, the limitations of harmonics compensation at the given active
power are discussed and verified in different case studies.
Desired
Fundamental
Component
New modulation
waveform synthesizing
with Equation 4
Harmonics calculation
with Equation 3
Desired Harmonics
Compensation
The following equation group forms the foundation of the modified solution for APF:
The first equation is to calculate the junction point of the reference and the voltage level;
it can be solved with the Newton-Raphson method:
k
k arctan(
dc( i )
i 1
(4-3)
k 1
i 1
i 1
(4-4)
The third equation is to find the harmonics content in the staircase waveform:
hm
k 1, 2,..,N
2Vdc( k )
m
(4-5)
The fourth equation is to calculate the new reference waveform for switching angle
calculation:
(4-6)
where hms is the combination of the harmonics in the staircase waveform and the voltage
reference for harmonics compensation based on the load current ihm, as shown in Figure.
4. 1. Thus, hms can be calculated as:
hms
iter
i 1, 2 ,...
m(i )
hm reference(i )
102
(4-7)
With online iterations of above equations, active and reactive power generation can be
controlled by regulating VF , and at the same time, limited active power filter function
can be realized by including hms sin(mt ) in the switching angle calculation.
equals the magnitude of 2VF . However, for harmonics compensation in APF, this area
will equal:
2
2
2
2
Total area 2VF V5 V7 V11 ... Vm
5
7
11
m
(4-9)
Therefore, by adding these harmonics, the power generation capability of the system can
be decreased when APF function is emphasized. Conversely, if loads THD are increased
significantly, APF function will be limited at a given active and reactive power request.
Total
Voltage
Fundamental
Voltage
5th Harmonic
there will be no problem in calculating the junction points of the reference and the
voltage levels. However, when the harmonics compensation for load current is also
included, the selected harmonics significantly change the reference signal. Thus, as
shown in Figure. 4. 4, there could be multiple junction points between the reference and
one single voltage level, which can lead to problems in angle calculation.
105
mt
...
b
ib
5t
1t
ia
m mt 0
ic
c
Figure. 4. 5. Different frequencies transformation s from a-b-c to d-q.
cos m
idm 2
i
qm 3
sin m
where
cos( m
ia
ib
2
sin( m
) ic
3
2
2
) cos( m
)
3
3
2
sin( m
)
3
(4-10)
in any dc value in d-q axes, thus can easily be eliminated by a low-pass filter. Based on
this idea, the measured currents will be transformed from a-b-c to d-q axes at the selected
harmonics frequencies.
magnitude for that selected frequency. Therefore, magnitude for each selected harmonics
can be detected with minimum calculation.
106
107
Energy
Sources
Simulated
Energy Flow
Controlled power sources
with same characteristics
Real Information connected to the multilevel
Flow
inverters
Local Sources
(PV Simultors)
Multilevel
Inverters
Figure. 4. 6. Power hardware in the loop diagram for active power filter.
I/O Ports
The Targets
RT-LAB Real-Time
Simulator
Cascaded Multilevel
Inverters
Figure. 4. 7. Real time simulator and multilevel inverters setup for PHIL.
minimum THD within one fundamental period after the occurrence of any transient in the
circuit or the model. This transient responding time is shown in Figure. 4. 8.
Inputs
Data acquisition
from RT-LAB
Calculate the
switching
angles
Calculate the
grid phase
THD
Calculation
Instantaneous
harmonics
detection
Smaller
THD
Newton-Raphson
method, finding the
junction point
Applying the
Switching
Angles
Modify the
reference
waveform
PWM signals
to the Inverters
Output voltage
to the RT-LAB
109
A) CHIL based simulation for selected harmonics compensation with high number of
dc levels
With CHIL, it is possible to test the algorithms with more voltage levels without
building more circuits. For selected harmonics compensation, as an example, an 11-level
multilevel inverter is simulated to compensate 0.2 p.u of 5th and 0.14 p.u. of 7th
harmonics of a three-phase nonlinear load. X m from the multilevel inverters side and
X L from the load side are 3% and 4% respectively which are typical magnitudes for the
power systems. The simulated parameters are listed in Table 4. 1. The system topology
from different sides are shown in Figure 4. 10 for more details.
Parameters
Per Unit (P.U)
110
Xm
XL
0.03 0.04
Is1
Is+Ihm VL Current
Sensor
Vg
Grid
Nonlinear
Loads
XL
Xm
Is=Is1+Is2
Is2+Ihm
Vm
Multilevel
Inverters
Switching
Angles
Experimental
Setup
ib
mt
...
RT-LAB
5t
1t
ia
ic
m mt 0
c
Figure 4.10. Circuit topology for CHIL in more details.
All results for current and harmonics are shown per unit.
Since it is a real-time
simulation, the results are monitored with a digital oscilloscope. Load current and
harmonic components are shown in Figures 4. 11, 4. 12, and 4. 13 respectively. These
harmonics are detected instantaneously, based on the proposed method and utilized for
switching angles calculation in multilevel inverters. As shown in the picture, the
proposed method for harmonics detection can provide the harmonics magnitude
precisely.
111
5 ms/div
0.5 A/div
Figure 4.11. Load current including the fifth and seventh harmonic components.
2 ms/div
0.2 A/div
Figure 4.12. The fifth instantaneous harmonics magnitude in the load current.
2 ms/div
0.1 A/div
Figure 4.13, The seventh instantaneous harmonics magnitude in the load current.
112
The staircase waveform for three-phase voltage, from multilevel, is shown in Figure 4.
14. In real applications, this voltage is generated by DERs for power generation and APF
purposes.
5 ms/div
2 V/div
Figure. 4.14 Three phase voltage waveform from multilevel inverters.
113
5 ms/div
0.5 A/div
Figure 4.15 The grid current after injecting the voltage by multilevel inverter.
20 ms/div
50 mA/div
Figure 4.16 The fifth instantaneous harmonics magnitude in the grid current.
100 ms/div
50 mA/div
Figure 4.17. The seventh instantaneous harmonics magnitude in the grid current.
114
Grid
Is+Ihm VL Current
Sensor
Vg
Nonlinear
Loads
XL
Xm
Is=Is1+Is2
Is2+Ihm
RT-LAB
Vm
Multilevel
Inverters
Switching Angles
The selected harmonics
detection based on the proposed
method in the park transformer
and Four Equation
Method In DSP
Experimental
Setup
q
b
ib
mt
...
Is1
5t
1t
ia
ic
m mt 0
Parameters
Per Unit (P.U)
Xm
XL
0.03 0.04
20 mS/div
Multilevel
inverter
voltage
100 V/div
Grid Voltage
in RT-LAB
2.5 V/div
Load Current
in RT-LAB
2 A/div
Grid current
in RT-LAB
2 A/div
limit the THD of the grid current to 5% with the same nonlinear load, the generated
active power can be as high as 1 p.u. The results are shown in Figure. 4. 20. At a higher
active power injection, the grid current THD will not be improved as desired. Based on
(4-8), since the magnitude of desired voltage is more than the dc level capabilities, the
output voltage from multilevel inverters and the resulting grid current have some
nonlinear behavior including sub-harmonics. This is shown in Figure. 4. 21, where the
active power injection is increased to be more than 1 p.u. It should be noted that the
measured current waveforms are shown in opposite direction compared with the previous
cases.
20 mS/div
Multilevel
inverter
voltage
100 V/div
Grid Voltage
in RT-LAB
2.5 V/div
Load Current
in RT-LAB
2 A/div
Grid current
in RT-LAB
2 A/div
117
20 mS/div
Multilevel
inverter
voltage
100 V/div
Grid Voltage
in RT-LAB
2.5 V/div
Load Current
in RT-LAB
2 A/div
Grid current
in RT-LAB
2 A/div
Figure. 4. 21. SHE for high power generation from the renewable sources.
also embodied in the available area for APF at a given power. For an APF approach,
since all the selected harmonics are odd numbers, each harmonic increases the total area
and limits the available area for the fundamental frequency. Furthermore, when the
harmonics compensation for load current is also included, the selected harmonics
significantly change the reference signal. Thus, there could be multiple junction points
between the reference and one single voltage level, which can lead to problems in angle
calculation.
For active power filtering, a swift and reliable harmonics detection algorithm is proposed
based on the Instantaneous Reactive Power (IRP) theory. Based on this idea, the
measured currents will be transformed from a-b-c to d-q axes at the selected harmonics
frequencies. The dc result for each transformation equals the harmonic magnitude for
that selected frequency. Therefore, magnitude for each selected harmonics can be
detected with minimum calculation.
Then, CHIL- and PHIL-based simulation/experimental results verify the effectiveness of
the proposed method and the discussions on the trade-off between harmonics
compensation and power generation. Based on the results, the proposed method can be
utilized as a simple and practical solution for online power generation as well as active
power filtering with distributed energy sources.
119
CHAPTER. 5
A method that utilizes the proposed OPWM method for multilevel inverters with
multiple switching angles per voltage step;
In the next section, smart grids are discussed as possible directions for future studies.
energy sources and electric vehicles, the need to improve the security of supply, the
power quality and the need to lower carbon emissions. Smart grid technologies offer
solutions not only to meet these challenges but also to develop a cleaner energy supply
that is more efficient, more affordable and more sustainable.
These challenges must also be addressed with different unique techniques for each
region, commercial and financial regulatory environment. Given the highly regulated
nature of electricity systems, must ensure that they engage with all consumers, including
equipment manufacturers and system operators, to develop technical and financial
solutions that enable and increase the potential of smart grids [141-146].
To achieve these goals, renewable energy sources and local distributed resources should
be considered for power delivery. Then, these sources are added to the traditional sources
of energy from the bulk generations for the distribution network. This network is
equipped with communication between different parts of the smart grid to improve power
quality and satisfy the increasing demands from the costumers. This topology for smart
grids is shown in Figure 5. 1 below [147]:
122
Bulk
Generations
Renewable
Energy Sources
Operation
and Control
Customers
Islanding is one of the typical operation scenarios of smart grids. It means part of a
distribution system becomes electrically isolated from the remainder of the power system,
yet continues to be energized by distributed energy resources (DERs) which are
connected to it locally. Current practice is such that almost all utilities require DERs to be
disconnected from the grid as soon as possible in case of islanding. IEEE 929-2000
standard [148] requires the disconnection of DERs once it is islanded, and IEEE 15472008 standard [149] specifies a maximum delay of two seconds for detection of an
123
unintentional island. Furthermore, all DERs are stopping to energize the distribution
system as there are failure modes with unintentional islanding.
Although there are some benefits of an islanding operation, there are some drawbacks as
well. Some of these drawbacks are summarized as follows [150-167]:
Line safety can be threatened by DERs feeding a system;
The voltage and frequency may not be maintained within a standard permissible level;
The islanded system may be inadequately grounded by the DERs interconnection;
Instantaneous reclosing could result in out of phase reclosing of DERs.
As a result for the transient conditions, large mechanical torques and currents are
generated that can damage the generators or other equipments. If out-of-phase reclosing
is occurring at a voltage peak, will generate a very severe capacitive switching transient
and in a lightly damped system, the crest over-voltage can approach three times the rated
voltage.
Due to these reasons, it is very important to detect the islanding mode quickly and
accurately. Several detection methods have been studied recently for islanding detection
in these applications. By using these analyses, more accurate strategies can be applied for
DERs usages based on loads and generation sides which is shown in Figure 5. 2.
124
Distribution Network
Low Voltage
Feeders
DC Source 1
Load #1
Islanding
System
Load #2
DC Source 2
Load #3
.
.
.
.
.
.
Load #M
DC Source N
126
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