Digest 2008, December 2008 1263-1279

Experimental Determination and Numerical Analysis of

Vertical Stresses under Square Footings Resting on
Sand1
M. Salih KESKN*
Mustafa LAMAN**
Tark BARAN***
ABSTRACT
In this study, the vertical stress values occurring under the center line of uniformly loaded
square footings were investigated experimentally and analytically. The results of the study
were compared with the results obtained from the Boussinesq method. Tests were
performed in a square shaped test box and a pressure transducer was used to measure the
stresses. In the numerical analysis, soil was modeled using the finite element method with
two dimensional axi-symmetric and three dimensional conditions as linear elastic and nonlinear elasto-plastic materials and the effect of these models on the vertical stress values
was investigated. Finally, a general agreement was observed between the experimental,
numerical and theoretical results for the values obtained for predetermined depths of sand
and the obtained results are discussed.
Keywords: Sand, stress, square footing, finite elements
1. INTRODUCTION
The self weight of the soil layers and applied external loads create stresses within the soil.
The estimation of stress distribution in soil is quite important for the solution of a wide
variety of geotechnical problems and design of foundations. The stress distribution in soil
depends on the value of the applied load, the dimensions of the loaded area and the
properties of the soil.
Due to the complexity of the soil medium, it is quite difficult to perform realistic stressdeformation analyses [1]. The problem of stress increment in soil is generally predicted
with the theory of elasticity, which assumes that stress is proportional to strain and the soil
is a linearly elastic half space. In these solutions vertical stress distributions are independent
from the material properties. Furthermore, the type of soil and parameters like density can
not be considered and the same stress distributions are obtained for different types of soils
[2]. However, the experimental and numerical studies show that, stress distribution in
granular soils varies significiantly, especially depending on the soil density [3]. For that
* ukurova University, Adana, Turkey - skeskin@cu.edu.tr
ukurova University, Adana, Turkey - mlaman@cu.edu.tr
ukurova University, Adana, Turkey - tbaran@cu.edu.tr
Published in Teknik Dergi Vol. 19, No. 4 October 2008, pp: 4521-4538

Experimental Determination and Numerical Analysis

reason, it is necessary to find the vertical stress values experimentally and to compare the
results with numerical and theoretical solutions.
In this study, the vertical stress values that occur under square footings resting on sand were
investigated experimentally and numerically and the results were compared with the results
of the Boussinesq method. Experimental studies were conducted in a square shaped test box
and a pressure transducer was used to measure stress values. In the numerical analyses, soil
was modeled with two dimensional (2D) axi-symmetrical and three dimensional (3D)
conditions as a linear elastic and a non-linear elasto-plastic material and also the effects of
these model assumptions on the vertical stress values were investigated.
2. PREVIOUS STUDIES
To determine vertical stresses within soils, experimental set ups and techniques were
developed, besides many theoretical solutions based on theory of elasticity have been
presented in the literature.
Koeglers [4] study is probably as one of the first experimental studies on determination of
stress values within soils. In this study, laboratory model tests were performed to obtain the
stress distribution in sandy soils. For this purpose, a sand fill was loaded and stresses at
particular depths of horizontal planes were measured with instruments placed at
measurement depths. Koegler [4] compared the results obtained from this experimental
study with theoretical solutions and indicated that vertical stress distributions obtained from
the experimental study beneath the loaded areas were in good agreement with the
predictions of the Boussinesq [5] equations [6].
Burland et al. [7] examined the effects of non-linearity, non-homogeneity and anisotropy
and concluded that for different soil conditions the Boussinesq equations gave a reasonably
accurate distribution of the vertical stress changes produced by a loaded area [6].
Vertical stresses measured in model footing tests on granular soils were summarized by
Morgan and Gerard [8] and found to be in reasonable agreement with those predicted using
the theory of elasticity.
The estimation of the values and distributions of the stresses within the soil created by
various applied loads is one of the classical problems of soil mechanics and has been a
point of interest in many investigations for many years [5, 9-16].
One of the most frequently used and practical equation using the theory of elasticity is the
Boussinesq [5] solution. Boussinesq [5] solved the stress problem by a point load acting at
the surface in a linearly elastic, homogeneous, isotropic half space. This problem is one of
the most studied problems in soil mechanics and predicting the stress increment in soils is
known as a Boussinesq problem [17]. According to this solution, vertical stress value, z
due to a point load, Q at any vertical depth of z and at a point of horizontal distance of r is
given by Equation (1).

1264

3
1
=

2
2 1 + ( r / z )

Q
z2

(1)

M. Salih KESKN, Mustafa LAMAN, Tark BARAN

Since the loads are transferred to the soil from foundations with different surface
geometries, stress distributions obtained for point loads are not realistic in many civil
engineering problems [18]. But, it is possible to compute stress distributions beneath
uniformly loaded areas by integrating the solutions for point loads. For this purpose, the
uniformly loaded rectangular area is split into a convenient number of geometrical sections
as seen in Figure 1. The force due to the uniform pressure acting on each area is assumed as
a point load. The summation of these point loads and the stresses related to these loads give
the stresses due to the loaded area. Since the soil is assumed to be a half space medium, the
vertical stress value calculated using the Boussinesqs equation and the point load acting on
the boundary of the half space are taken as dz and dQ, respectively. If these differentials
are integrated with respect to loading types, the stress distributions can be obtained.
Boussinesqs [5] equation can be used to calculate the vertical stresses occurring beneath
the uniformly loaded rectangular area with a length of L and width of B as shown in Figure
1. To obtain the vertical stress value beneath one of the corner of the rectangular area at
point A at a depth z, an elementary particle of a rectangular area dxdy is considered (Figure
1).
y
L
y

dx

dy

q
x

x
B

z
A
Figure 1. Uniformly loaded rectangular area
Equation of vertical stress at a depth below a corner of a uniformly loaded rectangular area
has been described by Newmark [9] by obtaining through integration of Boussinesqs [5]
point load expression is given as follows:

z =

q
4

2 BLz z 2 + B 2 + L2
2 BLz ( B 2 + L2 + 2 z 2 )

+ tan 1
B 2 L2 + z 2 ( B 2 + L2 ) + z 4
( B 2 + z 2 )( L2 + z 2 ) z 2 + B 2 + L2

(2)

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Experimental Determination and Numerical Analysis

The vertical stress at a point in or out of a uniformly loaded rectangular area can be
calculated from Equation (2) by applying the principle of superposition.
Westergaard [10], suggested Equation (3) to obtain the vertical stress value below a
uniformly loaded rectangular area.

= q

1
cot
2

1 2

2 2

1
1 1 2
2 + 2 +
n 2 2
m

2
1
2 2
m n

(3)

where is the Poissons ratio, m and n are geometrical coefficients.

3. EXPERIMENTAL STUDY
The experimental study involves the measurement of vertical stress values that occur due to
loading of a footing plate located on sand, along the centerline of a square footing at
various depths of the sandy soil.
Model tests were performed in a square shaped test box having dimensions of 707070cm
in the Geotechnical Laboratory of the Civil Engineering Department of the Cukurova
University (Figures 2 and 3). The sides of the box were reinforced by steel profiles to
increase stiffness and two sides of the box consist of 8mm-thick glass plate and the other
two sides are made of 20 mm-thick wooden plates.

2
3

5
6
7

Figure 2. Laboratory apparatus: 1) Hydraulic jack, 2) Proving ring, 3) Loading tool,

4) Model plate, 5) Measurement system, 6) Steel profile, 7) Soil medium, 8) Reaction beam
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M. Salih KESKN, Mustafa LAMAN, Tark BARAN

Reaction beam

Loading handle
Hydraulic jack
Proving ring
Loading tool
Model plate

0.7m

B=0.15m
Wooden plate

Model
ground

Measurement
system

Pressure transducer
0.7m
(a)
Glass plate

0.7m

B=0.15m
Square footing
Model
ground

Wooden plate

Steel profile
0.7m
(b)
Figure 3. Test set-up (a) Elevation (b) Plan
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Experimental Determination and Numerical Analysis

In the experimental study sand obtained from the Seyhan River bed in the Cukurova Region
of Turkey was used. The particle size distribution was determined using the dry sieving
method and the test results are shown in Figure 4. According to the Unified Soil
Classification System the tested sand was poorly graded sand (SP).
The sand bed was prepared with a uniform relative density of approximately Dr=65% and
with the corresponding unit weight of dry=17.1 kN/m3. For this purpose, the glass plates of
the test box were scaled and each sand layer was compacted by a hand-held vibratory
compactor up to the predetermined depths. A plate made of plastic and having dimensions
of 0.13m0.13m and 20 mm in thickness was mounted to the hand-held vibrator to obtain
uniform density and to avoid crushing of the sand particles during the compaction process.

100
90
80

Percent Geen
finer %

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
10.00

1.00

0.10

0.01

ap (mm)
Grain size

Figure 4. Grain size distribution of sand used in tests

Static loading was applied to the centre of the model footing in the vertical direction.
Loading system used in the tests consisted of a 45kN capacity mechanical jack supported
against the loading frame in the Geotechnical Laboratory of the Civil Engineering
Department of the Cukurova University. A proving ring was used to measure the load
values applied to the model plate.
The model plate used in the tests was square with a width of B=L=150 mm and thickness of
20mm. The loading was applied carefully to ensure a uniformly stress distribution beneath
the model footing (Figure 5).

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M. Salih KESKN, Mustafa LAMAN, Tark BARAN

B=L
q
150mm

150mm

z
Figure 5. Model plate
Vertical stresses that occur during loading beneath the centre of the square footings were
measured using a 10 bar capacity, diaphragm type, vertically mounted pressure transducer
(Figure 6). There are many methods to measure the stresses at any material due to the
loading. These methods are mechanical, optical, acoustic, pneoumatic and electrical based
experimental methods. Most of these methods can not measure the stresses directly.
Stresses are calculated using the measurable parameters like deformations [2]. The
advantage of the pressure transducer used in the study is that it measures the stresses
directly.

Figure 6. Pressure transducer

It is necessary to calibrate the transducer to measure the stresses due to the applied loads
accurately. Therefore, the stresses which occurred due to a known pressure on the
transducer were measured. Figure 7 shows the calibration curve for the pressure transducer.

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Experimental Determination and Numerical Analysis

Transducer Readings

120
100

y = 11.341x
R2 = 1.000

80
60
40
20
0
0

2
4
6
8
Applied Vertical Pressure (kN/m2)

10

Figure 7. Calibration curve of the pressure transducer

As seen from the calibration curve, transducer has a linear behaviour against increasing
pressures and the calibration coefficient is obtained as the inclination of this straight line.
3.1. Test procedure
The sand bed was prepared with a uniform relative density of approximately Dr=65% and
with the corresponding unit weight of dry=17.1kN/m3 using the dynamic compaction
method.
After compaction, a water level was used to check whether the sand surface is smooth and
level or not. Model footing was placed on the sand surface at the centre line of the
transducer.
Static loads were applied to the centre of the model plate in the vertical direction. The
loading was carried out in steps until failure was obtained.
The stresses were recorded for each loading by the pressure transducer and the data logger
unit. This procedure was repeated at three different depths (1.0B, 1.5B, 2.0B, B=model
footing width).
4. FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS
In recent years, the importance of numerical solutions in theoretical analyses was increased
in parallel with the developments in computer technology. Finite element method is one of
the most effective and systematic methods among numerical solution methods. The other
most important advantage of the method is that it is applicibale to all type of structures in
the same way. Although the magnitude of the process size seems like a disadvantage, this
can be overcome by the aid of computers. Recently, so many commercially available
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M. Salih KESKN, Mustafa LAMAN, Tark BARAN

computer programs which give adequately accurate results based on the finite element
method like ANSYS were developed. ANSYS is a computer program which is designed to
analyse many engineering problems using the finite element method.
The finite element studies of the stress distribution of square footings resting on a sand bed
were carried out using the program ANSYS (Version 10). In the program, problems can be
analysed in 2D and 3D, as linear and non-linear material under static and dynamic loads. In
the Linear Elastic Model, the soil was assumed to be isotropic and linearly elastic (Hookes
law). Input parameters are Youngs modulus (E) and Poissons ratio () in the model.
Another model called Drucker-Prager which is an elasto-plastic non-linear material model
was also used to simulate the behaviour of granular soil material. Input parameters are
Youngs modulus (E), Poissons ratio (), the cohesion (c), internal friction angle () and
dilatation angle () in this model.
In the analyses, soil, boundary and loading conditions were choosen to be same as the
experimental study performed by Keskin [19]. In the study, model ground was modeled as
2 dimensional axi-symmetrical and 3 dimensional Linear Elastic (LE) and Drucker-Prager
(DP) material models. The dimensions of the test box used in model tests were
700700700mm. Model ground was modeled using 4-noded axi-symmetrical rectangular
elements (PLANE 42) and 8-noded rectangular prismatic elements (SOLID45) in 2 and 3
dimensional modeling, respectively (Figure 8). Table 1 shows the parameters of the soil
obtained from tri-axial compression and direct shear tests [19].

(a)

(b)
Figure 8. (a) 2D model (b) 3D model
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Experimental Determination and Numerical Analysis

Table 1. Model parameters for tested sand

Parameters

Value

Symbol

Unit

kN/m2

Cohesion

kN/m

Internal friction angle

()

41

Dilatation angle

()

11

Poissons ratio

0.20

Youngs modulus

28000

In the analyses, the dimensions of loaded area were taken similar to experimental study as
150150mm. In 2D analyses of vertical stresses in ANSYS the square footing was
transformed to circular footing (D=B170mm).
5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
In the study, vertical stress values occurring beneath the centre line of the square footings
were measured at three different depths (1.0B, 1.5B ve 2.0B) under different loadings. But,
due to space constraints and observing the similar behaviour for other loads only stress
values under the load of q=10kN/m2 were presented. Stress values obtained in the
numerical analyses under the load of 10kN/m2 were similar to the values obtained in the
experimental study. The vertical stress values obtained from experimental and numerical
analyses were also compared with the stress values computed using the Boussinesqs [5]
solution.
5.1. Comparison of Experimental, Numerical and Theoretical Results
Table 2 and Figure 9 show the vertical stress values obtained from experimental study,
numerical analyses (2D) and theoretical Boussinesq solution.
Table 2. Comparison of experimental, numerical (2D) and theoretical results
Vertical Stresses, z (kN/m2)

1272

Depth

Experimental

Linear-Elastic

Drucker-Prager

Boussinesq

1.0B

3.715

3.469

3.629

3.360

1.5B

2.067

1.928

1.971

1.770

2.0B

1.348

1.203

1.164

1.106

M. Salih KESKN, Mustafa LAMAN, Tark BARAN

2

z (kN/m )
0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

1.0
1.2
1.4
z/B 1.6
Deneysel
Experimental
1.8

Lineer Elastik
Linear
Elastic 2D
2D
Drucker-Prager 2D
2D
Drucker-Prager

2.0

Boussinesq

2.2

Figure 9. Experimental, numerical (2D) and theoretical vertical stress values

(a)

(b)

Figure 10. 2D Model (a) Linear Elastic (b) Drucker-Prager

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Experimental Determination and Numerical Analysis

It can be seen that experimental results are in good agreement with numerical and
theoretical results. It is only 14% and 18% greater than those obtained from numerical and
theoretical studies, respectively. Experimental results are much closer to Drucker-Prager
results at depths of 1.0B and 1.5B than those obtained from 2D Linear Elastic and
Boussinesq model while it is much closer to the 2D Linear Elastic model at depth of 2.0B
comparing to the others. Boussinesqs solution also gives smaller values than numerical
and experimental studies. Although there are no great differences between 2D Linear
Elastic and Drucker-Prager results, it is a disadvantage for the 2D Linear Elastic Model that
it doesnt give the failure load. Therefore, it can be said that the Drucker-Prager Model is
reflecting better the behaviour of soil. Figure 10 shows the stress distribution obtained from
finite element analysis for Linear Elastic and Drucker-Prager models.
Comparisons of the vertical stress values and distributions obtained from the experimental,
numerical (3 dimensional) and theoretical studies are shown in Table 3 and Figure 11,
respectively.
Table 3. Comparisons of experimental, numerical (3 dimensional) and theoretical results
Vertical Stresses, z (kN/m2)
Depth

Experimentall

Linear-Elastic

Drucker-Prager

Boussinesq

1.0B

3.715

3.390

3.466

3.360

1.5B

2.067

1.893

1.836

1.770

2.0B

1.348

1.143

1.090

1.106

As seen from Table 2 and Table 3 the stress values obtained from the 3D Linear Elastic and
Drucker-Prager models give smaller stress values than those obtained from 2D analyses for
the same models.
Vertical stress distribution obtained from 3D finite element analysis is presented in Figure
12.
In the experimental study, while the model footing is reduced by a certain scale, sand soil
particles were used with true dimensions. Therefore, the model footing and soil may not
show the real behaviour and this might influence the experimental results. The other aim of
this study is to provide data for further experimental studies using centrifugal modeling or
in-situ testing techniques.

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M. Salih KESKN, Mustafa LAMAN, Tark BARAN

2

z (kN/m )
0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

1.0
1.2
1.4
z/B 1.6
Deneysel
Experimental
Lineer Elastik
Linear
Elastic 3D
3D
Drucker-Prager 3D
Drucker-Prager
Boussinesq

1.8
2.0
2.2

Figure 11. Experimental, numerical (3D) and theoretical vertical stress values

(a)

(b)

Figure 12. 3D Model (a) Linear Elastic (b) Drucker-Prager

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Experimental Determination and Numerical Analysis

5.2. Parametric Study
To obtain the vertical stress values at depths which were not measured in the laboratory
model tests, an additional parametric study was carried out using the program ANSYS. In
this parametric study, the Drucker-Prager model that reflects the soil behaviour better was
used as the material model and the results were compared with the Boussinesqs solution.
In 2D numerical analyses, if the loaded area is square or rectangular it is necessary to
transform the loaded area to a circular area to ensure the axi-symmetrical conditions. In this
study, the effect of this geometric transformation on the vertical stress values was
investigated and for this purpose the problem was also modeled in the 2D axi-symmetrical
and 3D conditions. In this parametric study, vertical stress values were obtained at different
depths which couldnt be measured in the experiments (e.g. z=0.1B, 0.2B, 0.3B, 0.4B,
0.5B, 1.0B, 1.5B, 2.0B, 3.0B and 4.0B). The stress values obtained from 2D and 3D Finite
Element Analyses using Drucker-Prager (DP) model can be seen in Figure 4. The same
values were given in Figure 13 graphically.
Table 4. Vertical stress values of 2D and 3D models
Stress Values, z (kN/m2)
Depth

DP 2D

DP 3D

Boussinesq

0.1B

9.865

9.774

9.994

0.2B

9.550

9.365

9.604

0.3B

8.866

8.716

9.120

0.4B

8.004

7.847

7.976

0.5B

7.122

6.928

7.008

1.0B

3.629

3.466

3.360

1.5B

1.971

1.836

1.770

2.0B

1.164

1.090

1.106

3.0B

0.723

0.639

0.558

4.0B

0.627

0.521

0.320

From Table 4 and Figure 13 it can be seen that the stress values obtained from 2D axisymmetric analyses using Drucker-Prager model are greater than the stress values obtained
from 3D analyses at all depths. Boussinesqs results show very good agreement with the
results of the Drucker-Prager model from the footing base to the depth of 2.0B but it gives
smaller stress values at depths greater than 3.0B.

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M. Salih KESKN, Mustafa LAMAN, Tark BARAN

z (kN/m2)
0

10

0,0
0,5
1,0

z/B

1,5
2,0
2,5
3,0

Drucker-Prager 2

3,5

Drucker-Prager 3
Figure 13. Drucker-prager models with 2D and 3D

6. CONCLUSIONS
In this study, the vertical stress values below the square footings resting on sandy soil were
investigated experimentally, numerically and theoretically. Based on the results obtained
from the study,
(1) The vertical stress distribution on horizontal planes at depth of z from the footing base
show the same characteristic form in all methods presented in this work and the
pressure beneath the centre line of the model plate decreases as the depth increases.
(2) Experimental results show general agreement with numerical and theoretical results.
However, it gives slightly greater values up to 14%, 19% and 18% in 2D and 3D
numerical and theoretical results, respectively.
(3) Numerical and theoretical results are in very good agreement up to especially depths of
two times of the footing width and it is observed that theoretical results give smaller
values at depths greater than three times of the footing width.
(4) It is not observed considerable differences between the results obtained from Linear
Elastic and non-linear Drucker-Prager models. But, it is suggested that the DruckerPrager model be used for soil stress problems. This is because it gives the failure load
and reflects the soil behaviour better than the Linear Elastic model does.
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Experimental Determination and Numerical Analysis

(5) Boussinesqs results show good agreement with the experimental and numerical results
especially at the depths up to where the effect of applied load decreases to 10%.
(6) Stress values obtained from 2D axi-symmetric analyses are greater than the results
obtained from 3D analyses.
(7) Altough, the stress values obtained from 2D and 3D analyses are slightly different from
each other they both give conservative results. Because of the difficulty of the 3D
modeling and because it normally takes longer time to solve, it can be concluded that
2D axi-symmetric model can be suggested to be sufficiently useful in solution of stress
increment problems.
Symbols
Q

: Point load

: Depth

: Horizontal distance

: Vertical stress

: Foundation length

: Foundation width

: Uniform load

: Poissons ratio

m, n

: Geometrical coefficients

Dr

: Relative density

dry

: Dry unit weight

: Youngs modulus

: Cohesion

: Internal friction angle

: Dilatation angle

: Diameter
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M. Salih KESKN, Mustafa LAMAN, Tark BARAN

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