PETRONAS TECHNICAL STANDARDS

DESIGN AND ENGINEERING PRACTICE

MANUAL

INSTALLATIONS AND DEPOTS

PART 5 - THE DESIGN OF BERTHING
FACILITIES FOR TANKERS AND
SMALL CRAFT AND HEATING
INSULATION
PTS 20.158E
JUNE 1993

PREFACE

PETRONAS Technical Standards (PTS) publications reflect the views, at the time of publication,
of PETRONAS OPUs/Divisions.
They are based on the experience acquired during the involvement with the design, construction,
operation and maintenance of processing units and facilities. Where appropriate they are based
on, or reference is made to, national and international standards and codes of practice.
The objective is to set the recommended standard for good technical practice to be applied by
PETRONAS' OPUs in oil and gas production facilities, refineries, gas processing plants, chemical
plants, marketing facilities or any other such facility, and thereby to achieve maximum technical
and economic benefit from standardisation.
The information set forth in these publications is provided to users for their consideration and
decision to implement. This is of particular importance where PTS may not cover every
requirement or diversity of condition at each locality. The system of PTS is expected to be
sufficiently flexible to allow individual operating units to adapt the information set forth in PTS to
their own environment and requirements.
When Contractors or Manufacturers/Suppliers use PTS they shall be solely responsible for the
quality of work and the attainment of the required design and engineering standards. In
particular, for those requirements not specifically covered, the Principal will expect them to follow
those design and engineering practices which will achieve the same level of integrity as reflected
in the PTS. If in doubt, the Contractor or Manufacturer/Supplier shall, without detracting from his
own responsibility, consult the Principal or its technical advisor.
The right to use PTS rests with three categories of users :
1)
2)
3)

PETRONAS and its affiliates.

Other parties who are authorised to use PTS subject to appropriate contractual
arrangements.
Contractors/subcontractors and Manufacturers/Suppliers under a contract with
users referred to under 1) and 2) which requires that tenders for projects,
materials supplied or - generally - work performed on behalf of the said users
comply with the relevant standards.

Subject to any particular terms and conditions as may be set forth in specific agreements with
users, PETRONAS disclaims any liability of whatsoever nature for any damage (including injury
or death) suffered by any company or person whomsoever as a result of or in connection with the
use, application or implementation of any PTS, combination of PTS or any part thereof. The
benefit of this disclaimer shall inure in all respects to PETRONAS and/or any company affiliated
to PETRONAS that may issue PTS or require the use of PTS.
Without prejudice to any specific terms in respect of confidentiality under relevant contractual
arrangements, PTS shall not, without the prior written consent of PETRONAS, be disclosed by
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purpose they have been provided to the user. They shall be returned after use, including any
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The copyright of PTS vests in PETRONAS. Users shall arrange for PTS to be held in safe
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to ascertain how users implement this requirement.

INSTALLATION AND DEPOTS

Part 5

SECTION 07.00.00 - THE DESIGN OF BERTHING FACILITIES

FOR TANKERS AND SMALL CRAFT
SECTION 08.00.00 - HEATING AND INSULATION
Supersedes 1986 issue; Part 3 - Sections 07.00.00 and 08.00 00
which should be destroyed

INSTALLATIONS AND DEPOTS MANUAL

Section List
Part 1

Section 00.00.00

Introduction

Section 01.00.00

Master Development Planning

Section 02.00.00

Construction Projects

Part 2

Section 03.00.00

Sites and Layouts

Part 3

Section 04.00.00

Building and Civil Engineering

Section 05.00.00

Tanks and Pressure Vessels

Part 4

Section 06.00.00

Pipelines

Part 5

Section 07.00.00

The Design of Berthing Facilities for Tankers and Small Craft

Section 08.00.00

Heating and Insulation

Part 6

Section 09.00.00

Plant and Equipment

Part 7

Section 10.00.00

Utilities

Section 11.00.00

Mechanical Handling

Section 12.00.00

Maintenance and Workshops

Section 13.00.00

General Services

Section 14.00.00

Chemicals Handling

Part 9

Section 15.00.00

Fire Protection

Part 10

Section 16.00.00

Electrical and Static Electricity Hazards

Section 17.00.00

Bibliography

Part 8

CONTENTS
07.00.00.

THE DESIGN OF BERTHING FACILITIES FOR TANKERS AND SMALL CRAFT

07.01.00.

BERTHS FOR TANKERS AND SMALL CRAFT

07.01.01

General

07.01.02

Tanker Jetties

07.01.03

Small Craft Berths

07.01.04

Pontoon Berths

07.01.05

Buoy Berths

07.02.00

SHIP/SHORE ACCESS

07.03.00

REFERENCES

08.00.00

HEATING AND INSULATION

08.00.01

Introduction

08.01.00

HANDLING OF HEATED PETROLEUM PRODUCTS

8.01.01

Characteristics of Heated Products

(a) Viscosity
(b) Pour Point
(c) Density

08.01.02

Heating of Product

08.01.03

Product Temperatures

08.02.00.

HEATING

08.02.01

General

08.02.02

Methods of Heating - Bulk Storage

(a) General Considerations
(b) Heating Coils

08.02.03

Methods of Heating - Pipelines

(a) 'Hot-oil'/Steam Tracing
(b) Electrical Tracing
(c) 'Hot-oil'/Steam Jacketed Pipelines

08.02.04

Electrical Heating Elements

08.02.05

Flow Control Valves

(a) General
(b) Types of Valve

08.03.00.

ROTATING EQUIPMENT

08.03.01

General

08.04.00

'HOT-OIL' HEATING SYSTEMS

08.04.01

Advantages of 'Hot-oil' Heating Systems

08.04.02

Description of Heating-oil Flow

08.04.03

Heaters for 'Hot-oil' Systems

08.04.04

Circulating Pumps

08.04.05

Expansion Tank

08.04.06

Pipelines, Valves and Fittings (see 06.01.04 and 06.01.05)

08.04.07

Heat Transfer Oils

08.04.08

Leaks in the System

08.04.09

Initial Starting Procedures

08.04.10

Inspection Checks on Commissioning

08.04.11

Inspection Checks during Service

08.05.00

INSULATION

08.05.01

General

08.05.02

Insulation Materials

08.05.03

Insulation Thickness

08.05.04

Insulating Tankage

08.05.05

Insulating Pipelines

08.05.06

Weather-proofing and Protection against Winter Conditions

08.06.00

HEAT LOSS CALCULATIONS

08.06.01

Determination of Optimum Insulation Thicknesses

07.00.00.

THE DESIGN OF BERTHING FACILITIES FOR TANKERS AND SMALL CRAFT

07.01.00

BERTHS FOR TANKERS AND SMALL CRAFT

07.01.01

General
Where berthing facilities are not provided by others, and have to be designed anew, it
is recommended that all types of berth be considered before deciding on the design of
the berth best suited to the area.
Normally the options are:
(i)

Jetties

(ii)

Wharves

(iii) Pontoon Berths

(iv) Conventional Buoy Moorings (CMBs)
One berth may be used for berthing both tankers and small craft however if this wide
range of vessels is considered, special care is required so as to be able to encompass
the variety of ships.
When designing a new berth a separate study will be required in each case so as to be
able to select the facility best suited to local conditions. As specialist knowledge is
required, expert advice should be obtained. For preliminary investigations the use of
outside consultants should be avoided.
Where a Marketing Installation is close to another facility there may be scope for joint
operations. Such arrangements are often made on an industry basis through:
(i)

Joint Venture arrangements;

(ii)

Throughput agreements; or

(iii) Terminating contracts.

In all such joint operations care should be taken to ensure that satisfactory safety
standards will be met.

07.01.02.

Tanker Jetties
Tanker jetties are less costly to build than the jetties or wharves used in the dry cargo
trade. This is because they need not run for the full length of the ship. Also tanker
jetties may not need to be designed to the same high load bearing characteristics.
Details on the considerations to be covered are given in the Loading and Discharging
Manual - On-shore Facilities for Waterborne Craft.

07.01.03.

Small Craft Berths

The difference between a small craft berth and a tanker jetty is mainly a matter of scale.
Otherwise similar considerations apply.
The one feature which makes for a design difference is the relatively rough handling
which many small craft are engaged in. This problem is exacerbated by the fact that
such craft seldom use tugs. This calls for special care being taken over the need for
suitable jetty fendering.

07.01.04.

Pontoon Berths
Pontoon Berths are occasionally used for tankers but are more commonly used for
coasters. The Pontoon Berth is a particularly useful concept in those areas experiencing
very high tidal ranges (say 8 m or more) or in those rivers which experience very high
water level differences between wet and dry seasons. Examples are found in South
America in Brazil and Venezuela.
In such locations the advantage of a Pontoon Berth (Figure 07.01.02) is that the pontoon
deck can be designed to stay at a suitable working level below the ship's deck.

07.01.05.

Buoy Berths
CBMs are commonly used in less developed areas or in those areas where suitable
alongside facilities are difficult to establish. The latter case is found on long coastlines
having few river estuaries and hence, few sheltered locations.
There are many variations in the configuration and number of buoys used, depending in
specific local conditions and requirements. Figure 07.01.01 shows a CBM of four-buoy
design, however, often the forward two buoys are designed-out and replaced with the
ship's own anchors.
Single Buoy Moorings are seldom justified at a Marketing Installation.

07.02.00.

SHIP/SHORE ACCESS
In the design of jetties, care should be taken to ensure that good access between ship
and shore is always available. This is required as much for operational needs as for the
provision of a means of emergency escape.
The best way of doing this is to provide a shore based gangway.

07.03.00.

REFERENCES
1)

Specification for Design and Construction of Marine Loading Arms (1980) ISBN 00900886-52-8.

2)

Hose Standards (third edition September 1978) ISBN 0-900886-37-4.

3)

Standards for Oil Tanker Manifolds and Associated Equipment (third edition) ISBN
0-0900886-64-1.

4)

International Safety Guide for Oil Tankers and Terminals (ISGOTT) Third Edition
(1988) ISBN 0-948691-62X.

5)

Safety Guide for Terminals Handling Ships Carrying Liquefied Gases in Bulk.

The above publications are available from:

Witherby & Co Ltd
32 Aylesbury Street
London EC1R OET
England
6)

Shell Loading and Discharging Manual - On-shore Facilities for Waterborne Craft.
SIPC 1981.

7)

Liquefied Petroleum Gases Manual.

8)

Electrical Engineering Guidelines for Marketing Facilities.

9)

Shell Marketing Safety Code.

10)

Buoy Mooring Manual. SIML 1967.

FIGURE 07.01.01:

TYPICAL CONVENTIONAL BUOY MOORING

(4 BUOY CONFIGURATION)

TYPICAL SINGLE BUOY MOORING

FIGURE 07.01.02:

TYPICAL FLOATING PONTOON BERTH

08.00.00.

HEATING AND INSULATION

08.00.01

Introduction
In view of the significant increase in cost of heating oil products, the economics of
heating and insulation require more attention than given in the past. There is now a
trend towards greater insulation thicknesses. The cost of insulation material is a
relatively small element when compared with labour and other materials required for its
installation.
For heating and insulation of bitumen products reference should be made to the
Bitumen Manual.
The target to aim for is minimum time to achieve optimum heat input and maximum
economic heat conversion using the various types of insulation materials available. A
full investigation is required into the combinations of using heating coils, suction and/or
line heaters and insulation thicknesses to arrive at the optimum solution.
The techniques for heating, insulating and handling the range of light, medium and
heavy fuel oils up to a viscosity of 450 cSt at 50 C will remain substantially
unchanged. However, the handling of very heavy residual fuel oils, having a higher
density and viscosity of 1500 cSt at 100 C (i.e. some of the characteristics of certain
grades of bitumen), entails the provision of more heat and more effective insulation.
Insulation of tanks and pipelines consists of work requiring a high degree of skill and
experience.
Those products which require heating in order to facilitate movement or loading into
road and rail vehicles or waterborne craft should be heated to the minimum
temperature that will ensure economic pumping and loading. Heating facilities and
insulating thickness may have to be designed to ensure an adequately low viscosity for
normal depot operation of economic pumping and loading out.

In some circumstances additional heat will be requested in order to raise the loading
out temperature to accommodate
(i)

heat loss during a long journey to destination. There is a balance between the cost
of heat input at loading and either effective insulation of the transport vehicle with
the attendant payload reduction, or the loss of inputting heat at destination
especially if additional heating facilities have to be provided.

(ii)

a higher delivery temperature perhaps commensurate with the immediate use, or

short-term storage requirements of the customer.

These points should be taken into account at the design stage of the project. Where
possible it is desirable to quantify excess heat requirements if they exceed minimum
pumping and loading temperatures.
In such cases any additional or increased capacity of heating facilities to be provided at
the depot or installation should have an economic justification, the basis for which would
probably have to be supplied by a marketing unit.
Energy conservation is the main objective when examining heat losses, heat transfers,
and heat generation. Although economic appraisals will vary from country to country, the
following considerations are common to all:
(iii)

Heat generators (steam and thermal fluid) run more efficiently when operated at or
near rated output.

(iv)

Although heat losses from tanks and pipelines occur on a 24-hour basis, heat is
usually replaced on an 8-hour (or working day) basis.

(v)

To conserve energy all heating plant and equipment should be designed on an

intermittent heating basis, for instance an 8-hour basis.

(vi)

The principle of main and service tanks is frequently adopted so that main tankage
can be maintained at minimum temperatures and the service tankage at operating
temperatures. Suction or line heaters should be used to boost temperatures of
product transferred from main to service tankage.
However, consideration should also be given to loading products direct from main
tankage thus eliminating the use of service tanks. Main tankage should still be
maintained at minimum temperature with product being boosted to loading
temperatures through suction heaters or line heaters. In this system the size of
product pumps and heaters tend to be of greater capacity than with the service
tanks system but this is frequently more than offset by the saving in not having to
provide service tanks and staging.

In heat transfer deliberations there is usually one dominant factor which takes
precedence over the others; if for example an insulated tank in exposed conditions and
subjected to high winds, the wind would be the dominant factor. Another example is
when heating heavy fuel oil from a low temperature to seasonal or operating
temperature. As the product thermal conductivity is low the rate of temperature increase
will depend on the stability of the fuel oil regardless of heat input. In fact at high
viscosities a rate of temperature increase of 0.3 to 1 C an hour is considered desirable
to avoid coking or fouling problems.

08.01.00.

HANDLING OF HEATED PETROLEUM PRODUCTS

08.01.01.

Characteristics of Heated Products

A wide range of products require heating namely, 'Teepol', gas oil, base oils, light,
medium and heavy fuel oils and residual fuels.
It is necessary to know the characteristics of the various products to be able to receive,
store and load each grade in the most practical and economic manner; the main
features are as follows:
(a) Viscosity
Kinematic viscosity [centistokes (cSt) or mm/S which is identical] is the universal
method of determining and reporting the viscosity of liquid petroleum products. 50 C is
the most widely used temperature for measuring and classifying products, but an
international standard has yet to be established and 40 C, 80 C and 100 C are used
by some authorities. Except for very viscous products 50 C is the preffered reference
temperature.
(b) Pour Point
Pour point is an important consideration for product handling and heating when this
property comes close to, or exceeds, the recommended temperatures relating to the
viscosity class. Thus it is only relevant for relatively low viscosity products, say less
than 180 cSt (mm/S) at 50 C, where the storage temperature may approach ambient.
Although for very low viscosity products it may be possible to pump them at, or even
below, their pour point, it is generally recommended that at least 10 C margin is
maintained. Thus products are either 'viscosity limited' or 'pour point limited' in terms of
pumpability, and the minimum temperature is the higher of the viscosity limiting value
or the pour point plus 10 C.

(c) Density
The density of a product is another vital factor to be taken into account, to ensure
pumpability.
The viscosity/temperature curve for a range of fuels, is shown in Figure 08.01.01, from
which storage and pumping temperatures may be determined.
Since viscosity varies inversely with temperature, knowledge of the
viscosity/temperature characteristics enables the temperature for a required viscosity to
be estimated. Charts similar to Figure 08.01.01, or published tables and formulae, can
be used for such estimations. However, it is important to appreciate that all methods
are based on average data from large numbers of representative fuels, and that,
because characteristics can vary even between fuels of similar viscosity, results cannot
be regarded as precise. This is particularly so in the case of very heavy residual fuels.

08.01.02

Heating of Product
(i)

Personnel Safety
Storage tanks, pipelines, road and rail vehicles where surface temperatures
exceed 70 C should be insulated or fitted with a protective cage/barrier if
personnel can come into contact with them.

(ii)

Flash Point
Where possible heated product should be stored and handled at a temperature of
at least 10 C below its flash point. Where this is not possible as in the case of
some heated fuels, the product must be regarded as Class I and all necessary
precautions taken. The situation may be alleviated by maintaining as much
product as possible in main storage at a temperature below its flash point and
holding relatively small quantities in a service tank above its flash point.

(iii) Product Stability

To maintain the quality of oil fuels and base oils, the skin temperatures of the
heating elements should be maintained below the carbonisation temperature of
the product stored. Using hot oil or steam, the maximum temperature of the
medium should be 175 C, whilst for electric element heaters, the maximum
loading should be 1.25 W/cm. Exceeding these conditions could cause thermal
degradation of the product, leading not only to the carbonisation of the heating
elements with the consequential loss of heat transfer, but also the release of light
hydrocarbons which would contribute towards flammable vapours in the ullage
space.

(iv) Water
Water is the most common fuel contaminant. Every effort should be made to
deliver fuel oils as dry as possible and to indicate the amount of water present.
Water can be settled and drained from distillate fuel oils with little difficulty but with
residual fuels, removal becomes more difficult, and small quantities may be
present in the delivery. To allow for this water, a specification limit of 1% volume is
usual for heavy fuels.
Given time and a sufficient temperature to reduce the viscosity and density of the
product, water in fuel oil will settle out. Larger quantities may be drainable but it
must always be anticipated that some water will at times emulsify with fuel oil to
form a sludge. The consequence of water in fuel oils heated above 100 C is to
generate steam and frothing may occur. There is also the possibility of a boil-over
occurring.
If the presence of water is suspected in product storage and the temperature of
the product is required to be above 100 C, then heating should be applied slowly,
- C per hour for main storage of - 1 C per hour for service tanks.
08.01.03.

Product Temperatures
Products may be received at installations and depots at temperatures as high as the
product integrity will allow; however, product temperatures should not be maintained at
or near the carbonisation temperature for periods in excess of 21 days because of the
possibility of degradation by vaporisation and oxidation. Methods of handling heated
oils must be kept under review in order to minimise costs, for example:
-

Receipt of parcel of hot product into the tank (of the same product) with the
lowest temperature may reduce heating costs.

Offtake of heated product for loading/filling should be taken from the tank
which has a temperature nearest to the minimum handling temperature of the
product, i.e. tanks should be selected on a temperature basis (irrespective of
ullage) and not on a rotative basis.

If a tank is not required for a period of one month or more it is usually more
economical to allow the contents to go cold and reheat when required.

Table 1 shows recommended minimum temperatures for storage and handling a range
of fuel oils (BS 2869).

TABLE 1
Recommended Minimum Temperatures
For Storage and Handling Fuel Oils
Viscosity
kinematic at
50 C
cSt

Minimum Storage
Temperature
C

Minimum at Outflow
from Storage and for
Handling
C

Light fuel oil

35

10

10

Medium fuel oil

118

25

30

Heavy fuel oil

410

40

50

Heavy bunker oil

750

45

55

Grade of
Temperature
Oil

FIGURE 08.01.01:

VISCOSITY/TEMPERATURE CURVES

08.02.00.

HEATING

08.02.01

General
The information given in this Section applies to the heating of tanks and pipelines at
marketing facilities. The reason for heating some products is to reduce their viscosity to
facilitate handling or to meet other marketing requirements, e.g. transfer of HFO during
bunkering. In pursuit of energy conservation heated product should be maintained at
minimum practical temperature. Several factors influence the temperature at which
products should be stored, for example:
(i)

Seasonal ambient temperatures

(ii)

Daily loading schedule

(iii) Loading temperature

(iv) Seasonal demand for product
(v) Temperature of product on receipt
(vi) Actual pour point of fuel as opposed to the maximum stated in the specification
(vii) The size and number of tanks allocated to the product to be heated
Constant monitoring of the many variables is necessary to obtain optimum economical
heating.
Products should only be heated to a temperature that will facilitate pumping or flowing
into a suction or line heater if applicable. Steam raising plant and distribution is
discussed in 09.05.00.
08.02.02.

Methods of Heating - Bulk Storage

(a) General Considerations
The method and equipment for heating products in bulk storage can be
summarised as follows:
(i)

Heating coils placed on the bottom of a vertical storage tank. Up to three

layers of coils may sometimes be required.
The heating medium, depending on the circumstances, may be hot water,
dry saturated steam or 'hot-oil' (a mineral oil heat transfer fluid, usually
'Thermia B'). See Figure 08.02.01 Typical Heating Coils for Tanks and
Figure 08.02.02 Heating Coil Supports and Fittings.

(ii)

Fintube Modular Heating Packs

Modular heating packs can be placed in a vertical storage tank through the
tank manhole. A number of parallel tubes are connected to an inlet and
outlet header; each tube has longitudinal metal fins welded to it to give a
high surface area for heat transfer. The modules are self-supporting and
can be arranged in clustered formation inside the tank in numbers to suit
the heat requirements; see Figure 08.02.04 (B).
Finned tubes are also used in some suction heaters and for some heating
coils.

(iii)

Suction heaters placed inside a vertical storage tank, located in the first
course of the tank.
The heating medium is usually steam or 'hot-oil', see Figure 08.02.03 Typical Arrangement of a Suction Heater.

(iv)

Line heaters which are placed outside the tankage, but adjacent to one or
more tanks. The main advantage of a line heater is that it can serve more
than one tank. It is also simpler install in an existing installation or depot
than a suction heater, see Figure 08.02.04 (A) Typical Arrangement of a
Line Heater.

(v)

Electrical heating elements. See 08.02.04.

The above equipment may be used separately or in conjunction with one another.
The choice of the heating medium will depend on the product to be handled.
(b) Heating Coils
(i)

Where fuel oils are unpumpable due to local ambient temperature, heating
coils are recommended.
Steam is preferred as a heating medium and this should be dry saturated
steam - generally 10 bar; superheated steam should not normally be used.
Depending on the viscosity and pour point of the product it may be brought
to a pumpable state for loading by using only the steam coils. On the other
hand, it may be necessary to provide additional heat for the oil to become
pumpable. In these circumstances the heating coils may be used in
conjunction with a suction heater or a line heater.
In such a case the heating coils would be used to bring the temperature of
the product to a level where it will flow into the suction or line heater. The
suction or line heater would heat the product further to allow it to reach the
viscosity required for loading/filling. The duration of heating directed to
suction or line heater should be limited to the period of product movement.

(ii)

Heating coils should be fitted in some fuel tanks and heavy residual fuels
storage. Residual fuels generally require higher temperatures than those
obtainable from other than high-pressure steam (250 C requiring
approximately 40 bar of dry saturated) and therefore heat transfer oil is
normally used. Furthermore, the use of heat transfer oil will eliminate the
possible hazard of condensate leakage into the product which could cause
boil-over.
It is recommended, therefore, that in the absence of any over-riding reason
supporting the use of steam (e.g. the ready availability of ex refinery highpressure steam), heat transfer oil should be used as the heating medium for
heavy residual fuels.

(iii)

In countries where product temperature may drop to the cloud point or cold
filter plugging point in the case of gas oil, heating coils using a hot water
medium are recommended.

(iv)

Heating coils are recommended for heating Teepol in the event that the
product temperature falls below clear point, usually between 0 and 15 C.

The preferred heating medium in such cases should be hot water although
low-pressure (3 bar) dry saturated steam may be used if the product can be
kept vigorously stiffed and in a sufficiently turbulent condition to avoid local
overheating, see 14.02.00.
08.02.03.

Methods of Heating - Pipelines

There are three accepted methods of heating pipelines:
(a) 'Hot-oil'/Steam Tracing
(b) Electrical Tracing
(c) 'Hot-oil'/Steam Jacketed Pipelines
These are discussed below:
(a) 'Hot-oil'/Steam Tracing
The two systems are often considered to be identical with only the heating
medium being different. This is incorrect and it is necessary that each system is
designed specifically for the heating medium to be used. It should also be
appreciated that to convert one system of heating to the other, considerable
modification will be required if heating efficiency is not to fall to very low levels. In
particular the entry points and exit points of the heating mediums are reversed.
The tracing pipe, or tracer (fabricated from steel to API specification 5L grade A or
B) is attached to the product carrying pipeline by tack welding or by galvanised
coated banding straps. Contact can be improved by the use of an approved heat
transfer mastic to surround the tracer and its contact with the pipe; one or more
tracer pipes may be attached, depending on the degree of heat input required.

(i)

'Hot-oil' Tracing
In common with 'hot-oil' coils, suction heaters, etc, the flow of heat
transmission oil through tracers must be from a low level to a high level. This
will ensure that any entrained air in the system will be pushed clear of the
system and not be allowed to collect in pockets.
Transfer loops should also follow this principle to avoid the accumulation of
air pockets. Where it is unavoidable for transfer loops to be installed in such a
manner that they neither follow a steady gradient down to their next point of
entry, nor follow a horizontal path, an air bleed should be provided on the
highest point of the transfer loop.

The usual operating length of a 'hot-oil' tracer from the point where it leaves
the outgoing 'hot-oil' main to where it joins the return main is 50 m. Longer
lengths are acceptable always assuming the pressure drop' across the ends
of the tracer is acceptable and the temperature drop is in accordance with
design requirements. In the case of long tanker discharge pipelines, bridges
between the outgoing and return tracers with isolating valves should be
provided every 100 m or so, so that in times of difficulty, sectional heating of
the pipeline can be undertaken. Figure 08.02.05 shows a typical 'hot-oil'
traced line. The use of thermostatic valves installed in the outlet end of
tracing lines should be considered in order to reduce heat consumption and
to avoid overheating of product. Care must be taken to ensure that no
flanged or screwed joint in a 'hot-oil' main or tracer is covered by insulation as
leakage of the heating medium into the insulation can result in spontaneous
combustion. Similarly valves in 'hot-oil' lines should not be insulated where
there is a possibility of gland leakage resulting in absorption of the heating oil
in the insulation. Details of the shrouds recommended for use in such
instances are given on Figure 08.04.04.
A 'hot-oil' system imparts greater heat values than a steam system and at a
lower operating pressure. Operating pressures in a well designed system
should be as low as 4.5 bar.
'Hot-oil' systems are generally recommended for tracing pipelines containing
very heavy residual fuel oils due to the high operating temperatures required.
Steam tracing is usually adequate for heating distillate fuels up to a viscosity
of 600 cSt @ 50 C; for fuel oils above this viscosity 'hot-oil' should be used.
(ii)

Steam Tracing
In common with steam coils, suction heaters etc, the flow of steam through
tracers must be from the high level to a lower level. This will ensure that
condensate will accumulate in the lowest point of the tracer from which it
should be trapped off. Uncleared condensate will greatly reduce the
efficiency of the tracing system.
Transfer loops should also follow this principle to avoid the accumulation of
condensate pockets. Where it is unavoidable for transfer loops to be installed
in such a manner that they neither follow a steady gradient up to their next
point of entry, nor follow a horizontal path, the tracer should be terminated
and trapped off into the condensate main.
The usual operating length for each section of tracer between entry and exit
points should not be more than 50 m. A steam trap should be provided at exit
points to remove condensate.
Figure 08.02.06 shows a typical steam traced pipeline. A steam tracing
system imparts lesser heat than a 'hot-oil' system and works at higher
pressures. Steam tracing is usually adequate for heating distillate fuels up to
a viscosity of 600 cSt @ 50 C.
For above-ground steam traced pipelines a steam entry pressure close to 10
bar is recommended. Superheated steam should not be used in tracer lines;
for this application the steam supply should be dry saturated. Whenever
possible steam flow should be in the same direction as product flow.
An isolating valve should be fitted to the inlet of each steam tracer and a
steam trap at each outlet. The outlet from each trap should be connected
either to a condensate return system or to waste if it is uneconomical to
return the condensate to the boiler via the hotwell.

One or more tracers may be connected to one common steam supply line,
but each must be provided with an individual trap.
Where the tracer meets a flange connection or valve the tracer pipe should
be looped around it in a manner that permits the pipeline to be opened or the
valve removed for servicing without cutting the tracer pipe.
(b) Electrical Tracing
Electricity is normally expensive but there are applications where electrical heating may
be economical; when it is comparatively cheap compared with other energy sources, it
should be considered.
It can be useful for low heat load applications or where steam is not available or
continuous heat is not required. Another use is where changeable weather conditions
do not necessitate providing constant heat, but require a thermostatically controlled
system with only intermittent heat input.
Electrical tracing can sometimes be used in conjunction with steam or 'hot-oil' systems
in isolated locations where it is more economical to provide an electrical supply,
particularly if demand is low or intermittent. The two most common forms of electrical
heating for pipelines are:
(i)

Minerally insulated copper sheathed cables (e.g. Pyrotenax) have in the past
been extensively used for heat tracing. Experience has shown that it has been
fraught with problems, particularly when applied externally, due to its vulnerability
to electrolytical corrosion. It is therefore not now recommended for use in
Marketing applications. This does not imply that it is in any way prohibited, since
in certain circumstances where alternative electrical trace heating is unable to
achieve the high temperatures required for some products, it may be considered
as a suitable solution particularly when applied internally.

(ii)

External heating tapes or jackets (such as Isopod), which have the same function
as heating cables, with the advantage of slightly greater flexibility for wrapping
around valves and awkwardly shaped fittings. Tapes or jackets are less prone to
corrosion. See Electrical Engineering Guide-lines for Marketing Facilities: 1989.

(iii)

A variation of the heating tape is the self-limiting tape which automatically

increases in resistance as the operating temperature of the traced pipeline is
approached. This type of tape is not subject to corrosion and can easily be cut
and joined as required.
Consideration should be given to the use of thermostats on electrically traced
lines to reduce power consumption and the possible overheating of pipeline
contents.
Thermostatic control may also be needed for self-limiting tapes if the product in
the pipeline being traced is particularly heat sensitive.

(c) 'Hot-oil'/Steam Jacketed Pipelines

This method of line heating is seldom employed in modem installations and depots as it
is expensive, is subject to invisible corrosion and does not lend itself easily to
modification. There may, however, still be a need where a particularly high heating load
or where intermittent heating with rapid heat up is required which could not be met by
other methods.

(i)

'Hot-oil' Jacketing
In common with all 'hot-oil' systems the flow of heat transmission oil into a pipeline
jacket must be at the lowest point with flow from it at the highest point to clear any
air pockets that collect from entrained air.
It is preferable that each length of jacketed pipeline be treated as a single unit with
the outflowing 'hot-oil' returning directly to the 'hot-oil' return main to the heater.
This will depend upon the length of the jacketed pipeline and it may be necessary
to link two or more jacketed lines together before the 'hot-oil' returns to the main.
Transfer loops from one jacket to another should pass from the top of one jacket
to the bottom of the other with tangential offtake and input and as smooth a
gradient between as possible. Passing transfer loops from the top of one jacket to
the top of another will clear air pockets but will encourage thermal layering of the
'hot-oil' with cooler 'hot-oil' tending to remain in the bottom half of the jacket.

(ii)

Steam Jacketing
In common with all steam systems the flow of steam into a pipeline jacket must be
at a high point with flow from it at the lowest point to ensure all condensate is
cleared out of the jacket.
It is preferable that each length of jacketed pipeline be treated as a single unit with
the outlet being fitted with steam traps to return condensate to the condensate
main. In the case of short lengths of jackets it may be necessary to link two or
more together, passing condensate from one to the other before finally returning it
to the condensate main.
Steam transfer loops from one jacket to another should pass from the bottom of
the first jacket to the top of the next with as smooth a gradient as possible.
Passing transfer loops from the top of one jacket to the top of the next, or even
from middle to middle, will cause the bottom of the jackets to fill with condensate
resulting in high corrosion and very poor heating efficiency.

(iii) General Construction Points

Butt welds, drains, vents or other connections to the inner pipe within the jacket
are to be avoided. If such connections or longitudinal welds are unavoidable,
welds must be 100% radiographed before the jacket is welded in place.
If not strictly necessary, full jacketing from flange to flange necessitating special
valves and oversize flanges should be avoided for economic reasons.
For drains, vents and other connections welded to the inner pipe a gap should be
For drains, vents and other connections welded to the inner pipe a gap should be
left in the jacket sufficiently large to expose those welds.

08.02.04.

Electrical Heating Elements

In countries having a low cost electricity supply electrical heaters can prove economical
compared with other forms of heating and should be given consideration.
Electrical heaters can be supplied in the form of heating coils (in this case, a series of
linked heating elements fitted radially in the bottom course of a tank shell), suction
heaters, line heaters and also heat transmission oil heaters and steam generators.

Like other forms of in-tank heating care must be taken to ensure heating elements are
never exposed in the vapour space in a hot condition, to avoid overheating and
explosion risks.
Electrical heaters have lower overall thermal efficiencies; see Electrical Engineering
Guide-lines for Marketing Facilities. However, they lend themselves more readily to
automatic control and replacement of defective elements is generally easier with
greatly reduced downtime.

08.02.05.

Flow Control Valves

(a) General
These valves are located at the entry point of heating coils, suction heaters, line
heaters, etc, to regulate the flow of steam or hot-oil. A wide range of valves are
available for all types of service; factors influencing selection of an appropriate
type are:
-

pressure rating

temperature rating

matching the valve to the service conditions with due regard to economy.

Cast steel valve bodies should be used for service where steam and 'hot-oil' are
being handled.
For simplicity, valves can be divided into two main categories; off/on service manually operated, and automatic or remotely controlled valves that enables flow
control to be regulated for temperature or pressure variations.

(b) Types of Valve

(i)

Gate valves with elastomeric seals are recommended for temperatures up to

but not exceeding 200 C. Gate valves have good pressure drop
characteristics and are recommended for general purpose applications;
however, the time taken to open and close a gate valve may be a
disadvantage.

(ii)

Double seal ball valves are quick-acting and if the temperature rating is
acceptable then they are generally recommended for steam and 'hot-oil'
service. However, their quick-acting characteristic may induce surge
pressure if operated too rapidly.
Pressure and temperature ratings vary accordingly to the types of materials
used for the seal and with different manufacturers.

(iii) Butterfly valves are another example of quick-acting valves and when
trimmed with synthetic rubber or plastic materials have a good shut-off
characteristic. As with ball valves there may be limitations on their
temperature ratings. Other advantages of this type of valve are the high flow
capacity, flangeless construction ensuring low weight and stress, and lower
cost when compared with other types of valve.

High-performance butterfly valves are available with special seals and large
shaft diameters, which enables them to handle extreme pressures and
temperatures.
(iv) Thermostatically controlled valves are recommended for regulating 'hot-oil' or
steam flow to heating coils, suction heaters or line heaters. The sensing
device may be a probe located in a pocket in the line or a wrap-around
sensor on the outside of the pipeline adjacent to the valve.
The actuator of the valve may be pneumatically, hydraulically or electrically
operated.
In the case of hot-oil it is advantageous to locate thermostatically controlled
valves on the outlets of the heating coils, suction heaters or line heaters to
benefit from operating at lower hot-oil outlet temperatures.
(v)

Bellows seal valves which are glandless are recommended for 'hot-oil' and
steam systems, where a gland leak on a conventional type of valve may
cause a fire or an explosion hazard. This type of valve houses a
compressible bellows which encases the internal portion of the valve spindle,
thus precluding any gland leakage. They have a temperature/pressure rating
of up to 350 C/10 bar. This is an expensive fitment and application merits
careful consideration; however, they have an added safety factor and are
practically maintenance free.

FIGURE 08.02.01:

TYPICAL ARRANGEMENT OF TANK HEATING COILS

FIGURE 08.02.02:

TYPICAL STEAM HEATING COILS FITTINGS AND SUPPORTS

FIGURE 08.02.03:

TYPICAL ARRANGEMENT OF A SUCTION HEATER

FIGURE 08.02.04:

A. TYPICAL LINE HEATER (UNLAGGED)

B. TYPICAL FIN TUBE HEATER MODULE

FIGURE 08.02.05:

TYPICAL INSULATED TRACED PRODUCT PIPELINE

FIGURE 08.02.06:

TYPICAL DETAILS OF STEAM-TRACED PRODUCT PIPELINES

FIGURE 08.02.07:

TYPICAL DETAILS OF STEAM JACKETED PIPE

08.03.00.

ROTATING EQUIPMENT

08.03.01.

General
Rotating equipment is not usually insulated, although pumps or meters for heavy fueloil service may require both heating (by external tracing) and insulating. Where
frequent removal of the insulation is necessary for maintenance, removable boxes are
to be preferred. A metal box reinforced with angle iron and filled with loose insulation
material is recommended. This method should not be used when pumping flammable
liquids since this liquid if absorbed by the insulation material would create a fire hazard.
Where frequent removal is unnecessary, either insulating blankets over the housing
stitched together with galvanised binding wire and covered with aluminium or
galvanised steel sheets or a plastic type of insulation that can be trowelled to the
correct shape can be used. In either case, external cement-based weather-proofing is
requirement. Where outboard bearings are fitted the fire hazard is eliminated.
In the case of 'hot-oil' equipment, pumps, valves and flanges must not be insulated as
any leakage of hot oil into lagging can result in spontaneous combustion. They should
be encased using metal cladding, supported by light structural steelwork. A drain hole
should be located at the lowest point of the casing to pen-nit any hot oil leakage to
drain out of the cladding. Where personnel may come into bodily contact with the
casing, a protective cage fabricated from weld mesh or similar material should be
placed around the casing.

08.04.00.

'HOT-OIL' HEATING SYSTEMS

08.04.01.

Advantages of 'Hot-oil' Heating Systems

(i)

Products may be heated to the required temperature at much lower pressures

than required with steam.

(ii)

Normally the statutory regulations and requirements associated with steam

raising plants do not apply to 'hot-oil' systems.

(iii)

Very little corrosion takes place in the system, so that maintenance costs are low.

(iv)

Virtually all heat not used is returned to the heaters.

(v)

More suited to intermittent heating.

The capital cost of a 'hot-oil' system is comparable with that of an equivalent steam
system, but the running costs are usually lower.

08.04.02.

Description of Heating-oil Flow

In a 'hot-oil' system, heat transfer oil is circulated through a piped system to the
equipment requiring heat. Figure 08.04.01 shows a typical arrangement of a 'hot-oil'
system; this equipment includes tank coils, suction heaters, pumps, valves and traced
pipework. In this figure the pumps are located on the discharge side of the heaters.
This, however, depends upon the design of the heater and the heater manufacturer's
recommendations must be followed.
Heat is imparted to the oil by a thermostatically controlled oil-fired heater, although a
gas fired or electrical heater could be used. The flow of oil, and thus the heat, to each
item of equipment is controlled by valves. An expansion tank is installed in the system
to allow for expansion, contraction and make-up of the oil.

08.04.03.

Heaters for 'Hot-oil' Systems

The fire-tube type of heater (such as the Picard) was installed almost exclusively on
early plants. Oil-tube heaters of higher thermal efficiency suitable for intermittent
working are now recommended, see Figures 08.04.02 and 08.04.03. These heaters
can be supplied as ' packaged units' complete with circulating pumps and automatic
control gear.
The minimum allowable flow of heat transfer oil through the heater is normally
assessed by the manufacturer to ensure that an adequate velocity is maintained.

08.04.04.

Circulating Pumps
Positive displacement or centrifugal pumps may be used for oil circulation. If centrifugal
pumps are specified, they must be able to handle the oil at its maximum viscosity, i.e.
at start-up. Either type of pump must be suitable for operation at the highest
temperature likely to be encountered and water-cooled bearings may be required in
certain cases. Suction strainers are essential for positive displacement pumps and
desirable for centrifugal pumps.

08.04.05.

Expansion Tank
The expansion tank should be installed above the level of highest point of the 'hot-oil'
system, and should be connected to the suction side of the circulating pump by a
small-bore unlagged line. This type of line will minimise the heat transfer to the oil in
the tank and thereby reduce oxidation of the oil.
The system should be filled until the expansion tank is a quarter full when the oil is
cold. A low-level alarm switch is recommended.
The tank must have a capacity equal to 50 per cent of the oil volume in the remainder
of the system if the operating temperature is 300 C. If the temperature is lower, say
250 C, the capacity may be reduced to 45 per cent.
Installing the expansion tank above the level of the rest of the hot-oil system should
ensure that in the event of leakage hot-oil will flow into the product and not the reverse.

08.04.06.

Pipelines, Valves and Fittings (see 06.01.04 and 06.01.05)

Pipelines should be of API Specification 5L Grade A or B line-pipe and valves and
fittings should be cast steel and flanged to Class ANSI 150 standard. Oil-resisting
ceramic fibre board is a suitable material for flange gaskets.
The viscosity of the heating oil when cold must be considered when sizing pipework; a
2-inch (50 mm) pipe diameter is regarded as a general minimum, and where traced
connections are used 1-inch (25 mm) diameter pipe is considered suitable.
Bleed cocks for venting air should be provided at high points in the system.
In extended systems, such as the heating tracers on long tanker discharge lines, the
cold oil flow can be increased by providing valve-controlled cross-overs beneath the
product lines at intervals between oil feed and beneath the return lines. As the oil
becomes hot the valves should be shut off manually one by one. The valves should be
inverted to insure any leakage from glands will not impinge on insulating material.

To reduce heating costs storage tank and service tank heating coils should be fitted
with thermostatically operated hot-oil flow control valves linked to a temperature probe
fitted in a 500 mm long pocket located in the tank shell one metre above the heating
coils. The flow control valves should be installed on the outlet side of the coils.
In pipelines used for 'hot-oil' heating systems the valves, flanges, screwed connections
should not be encased in insulation material, as hot-oil leakage into insulation material
can result in spontaneous combustion. Screwed connections should be avoided where
possible. These fittings should be enclosed in a metal box without insulation and a
drain hole should be located at the lowest point of this enclosure. Where the surface
temperature of such enclosures is likely to exceed 70 C a metal cage must be
provided for personnel protection. See Figure 08.04.04.

08.04.07.

Heat Transfer Oils

For working temperatures up to 250 C but not exceeding 315C, the recommended
heat transfer oil is Shell Thermia Oil B (MESC 87.32.72).
A viscosity curve for Shell Thermia Oil B is shown in Figure 08.04.05.
Gradual deterioration of heat transfer oil is caused by oxidation, cracking and
contamination, and the oil should therefore be analysed yearly. However, under normal
conditions, replacement of the oil is not likely to be required for several years.

08.04.08.

Leaks in the System

Internal leaks in the system between the product and transfer oil may occur
occasionally. This may cause the product to go off specification or to contaminate the
heat transfer oil; the oil level in the expansion tank should therefore be checked daily,
at the beginning and end of each shift. A low level alarm should be fitted to the 'hot-oil'
tank.

08.04.09.

Initial Starting Procedures

Air is preferred for pressure testing the system. However, if hydraulic tests are used, it
is essential to remove as much water as possible from the system. During start-up
operation, the temperature should be increased gradually and steam (as a result of any
hydrostatic test water remaining in the system) and air carefully vented from the lines.
The heater should be operated continuously until all air and steam have been expelled
from the system. During this initial period, all strainers should be checked and cleaned
frequently.

08.04.10.

Inspection Checks on Commissioning

'Hot-oil' systems should be checked carefully to ensure that any leaks are rectified
immediately. Seepage into the insulation and the subsequent risk of combustion will
then be avoided.

08.04.11.

Inspection Checks during Service

The principal hazard when operating oil heaters is the possibility of a split tube. Tubes
in oil heaters must be examined at intervals of not more than 12 months and replaced if
necessary. At the same time all other parts and fittings should be examined together
with the blow-down tank, steam lances and other snuffing arrangements.

FIGURE 08.04.01:

TYPICAL ARRANGEMENT OF HOT-OIL CIRCUIT

FIGURE 08.04.02:

HORIZONTAL OIL-TUBE HEATER

FIGURE 08.04.03:

VERTICAL OIL-TUBE HEATER

FIGURE 08.04.04:

SHROUD FOR HOT OIL VALVES AND FLANGES

INSULATION FOR STEAM OR HEATER PRODUCT VALVES AND FLANGES

FIGURE 08.04.05:

VISCOSITY CURVES FOR SHELL THERMIA B

08.05.00.

INSULATION

08.05.01.

General
The information given here applies to the insulation of tanks and pipelines in normal
marketing facilities where heated product are handled.
Materials for insulation, fastenings, cladding and coatings should normally be selected
from or be similar to those mentioned here and should conform to appropriate
standards, e.g. BS or ASTM.
All fastenings and welded fixtures on tanks and pipelines should be given a generous
application of a non-setting mastic compound before applying the insulation materials.
The grade and type of mastic should be appropriate to the temperature conditions.
Materials containing asbestos must not be used. Existing material containing asbestos
must be clearly marked as a warning to maintenance or demolition personnel; see
Shell Safety Committee publication Safe Handling of Asbestos, 1981. All steel surfaces
to be insulated should be dry, clean, and free from rust, mill-scale, grease and dirt
before insulation is applied.
Care should be taken to prevent entry of rain water, or condensation, because with the
relatively low operating temperatures and intermittent heating situations that exist in
marketing installations, severe corrosion can arise from damp insulation in contact with
warm steel. To assist in preventing corrosion, the steel surfaces must be suitably
primed; see the PETRONAS Painting and Coating Manual.
In tropical areas where the ambient temperature is equal to or exceeds the temperature
at which the product is pumpable and meets loading temperature requirements, there
may be no need for insulation. In temperate climates and very cold climates this is
rarely so and each case must be considered individually on its own merit by obtaining
the heat losses with or without insulation.
Where operators, in the course of their duties, come into contact with hot surfaces
which have a temperature exceeding 70 C, approved protection must be provided.
Insulation of tank roofs to conserve heat may not always be necessary, but may be
required as a protection against solar heat which can cause excessive expansion and
escape of vapour (breathing losses), especially in tanks used for storing light products.
When considering insulation on a new tank particular attention should be given at the
ordering stage to items such as double-stringer stairway, or free-standing stairway, top
curb angle, roof walkways, supports and fixings, etc, so that these items accommodate
the type of insulation envisaged.

08.05.02.

Insulation Materials
A list of generally approved materials together with their properties and recommended
uses is given in Appendix 08.05.09. The choice between the various physical forms,
i.e. rigid, flexible, loose, must be made on grounds of cost, availability and ease of
installation, for the particular application. Only flame-retardant grades of polyurethane
foam, isocyanurate foam and expanded polystyrene should be used. It is
recommended that preformed sections should be used wherever possible. The thermal
conductivity values of certain blanket and tape type materials are acceptable; however,
their physical properties make them difficult and time consuming to install.

(i)

Insulation Materials - Tank Shell

Polyurethane foam (PUF) using spraying apparatus has been used extensively in
the past, however, its overall performance has been such that it is not now
recommended for tank insulation. Some of the reasons for this are that it requires
still and dry air conditions for application; it is sensitive to high or low temperatures
of the steel to which it is applied, thus giving imperfect adhesion; it is vulnerable to
mechanical damage in service which once inflicted tends to become neglected
and difficult to make good.
There are other applications where sprayed polyurethane foam can be used to
advantage on hot surfaces up to 90 C, e.g. in covered areas not subject to hostile
weather conditions during application or to aboveground firewater mains to
prevent freezing. Care must be taken to avoid overspray on to adjacent equipment
and/or personnel. The materials should be flame retardent, e.g. Shell
Caradoll/Caradate system containing a fire retardant agent or suitable grades of
polyisocyanurate (Nilflam). The tank surface should be cleaned to SA 2.5
(Swedish Standard) minimum before priming paint and application of insulation.
The insulation material should be protected from ultra-violet rays and moisture
ingress by the use of butyl rubber spray. It is essential to employ a reliable
experienced contractor.
For temperatures up to 310 C, flexible mineral wool or glass fibre mattresses, or
rigid mineral wool slabs may be used.
Resin-bonded glass fibre slabs are suitable up to 250 C but tend to disintegrate
above this temperature.
A variety of proprietary tank insulation systems are available, one such system is
described in Appendix 08.05.12.

(ii)

Insulation Materials - Tank Roof

Roof insulation can be of glass fibre or mineral-wool-bonded slabs or mattress,
polyurethane or isocyanurate foam slabs, or expanded polystyrene slabs. The
following points apply:

Glass fibre or mineral wool slabs and mattresses should be laid carefully and
stapled or laced together as necessary, with the crevices filled with loose
insulation material. They are fixed to the roof sheets by adhesive of a
specification recommended by the supplier of the insulation.

Rigid polyurethane or isocyanurate slabs are applied using insulation

adhesive, 'Foster' 81/80 - 2-part polyurethane adhesive supplied by Industrial
Chemicals, Chesham, Bucks both on the roof surface and between abutting
edges, the whole covered with metal sheets or glass-fibre reinforced mastic.

A specification covering the use of polyisocyanurate foam slabs, weatherproofed with the Monoform glass-fibre bitumen system developed by Colas
Building Products, is given in Appendix 08.05.10. The Monoform
weatherproofing system may also be applied over laminated polyurethane
slabs, provided that physical and mechanical properties meet the
specification.

Alternatively, expanded polystyrene slabs which must be of a flame-retardant

grade, are applied over insulation adhesive 'Foster' 81/80 (2-part polyurethane
adhesive) ex Industrial Adhesives, Chesham, Bucks and protected by
bituminised roofing felt. See Appendix 08.05.11.

For details of insulation accessories see Appendix 08.05.13.

08.05.03.

Insulation Thickness
The main points are as follows:
(a) Economic Insulation Thickness. The purpose of insulation is to conserve heat
or for personnel protection. The advantages to be gained are as follows:
(i)

Insulating a tank

Reduces the amount of heat input required to maintain a certain temperature of

product in a tank over a given period.

Reduces the time required to heat the contents of a tank which may have been
allowed to cool below a pumpable temperature.

May eliminate the need for tank heating in a situation where regular supplies of
heated product can be scheduled, e.g. the heat input of the fresh product with
the heat retention provided by the tank insulation may prevent the product from
cooling below the minimum temperature for pumping or loading requirements.

(ii) Insulating a pipeline

Reduces the heat loss during product flow, and consequently the amount of
heat input required to keep the product viscosity low enough for efficient
pumping.

May eliminate the need for heating and line tracing in certain situations.

Reduces the rate of cooling during line shut-down periods, which may avoid
the need to displace viscous or high pour-point oils or to provide line heating
for start-up purposes.

Reduces the time required to re-heat the pipeline and contents to operating
temperature.

To determine the viability of insulating tanks or pipelines, it is necessary to obtain the

economic optimum thickness of insulation needed to achieve the desired results. The
economic insulation thickness may be determined by utilisation of a computer software
program (see 08.06.02).
Increasing the thickness of insulation offers a diminishing return on heat saved, i.e. the
first 0.025 m of insulation reduces the heat loss by much more than the second 0.025
m of insulation reduces the heat loss by much more than the second 0.025 m, and so
on. The cost per unit of heat saved by increasing thickness of insulation therefore
decreases to a minimum and then increases as the thickness of insulation increases,
see graph below. The insulation thickness adopted should be the one corresponding
with minimum total cost calculated for an assumed working period of five years (40 000
hours). The total cost will include insulation, fastening, weatherproofing material,
installation, packaging/transportation, taxes, scaffolding, and metal preparation costs.

TYPICAL COST/INSULATION GRAPH

(b) Layers in Insulation.

Insulation should be applied in the minimum number of layers which can be
obtained commercially. To reduce heat losses, insulation applied in two or more
layers should have staggered longitudinal joints. Circumferential joints between
segments in adjacent lengths of pre-formed rigid insulation should also be
staggered.

08.05.04.

Insulating Tankage
The method of approach for insulating lubricants and fuel oils tankage, in principle, is
similar. However, with viscous fuel oils, higher heat input is required and in certain
circumstances such products may require facilities similar to those of bitumen.
The economics of tank insulation should always be investigated. If the average
temperature difference between the oil and atmosphere exceeds 10 C to 15 C the
saving in energy will usually justify the cost of insulation. Tank insulation can also help
to reduce capital outlay on new or replacement boilers. These may be of similar
capacity than those they replace.
Tank insulation should be thick enough to reduce the heat loss to a maximum of
1.2W/m C.
In the case of 90 per cent of tanks storing product at temperatures below 100 C, tank
roof insulation is unlikely to be justified. Tank roof insulation can introduce expensive
maintenance problems. Unless the integrity of the insulation is maintained, ingress of
water will not only greatly reduce the effectiveness of the insulating material but will
also lead to rapid tank roof corrosion which, if not picked up in good time, can lead to
the need completely to re-roof the tank.

Notwithstanding the above, the roof plates and supporting structure of uninsulated
tanks storing heated product can sustain thermal shock due to cold rain or hail showers
for which the tanks are not designed.
Furthermore, where product is stored in a tank at a temperature near or a little below
100 C the roof sheets may, when the tank is full, reach a temperature of 70 C or
more. In this case roof insulation becomes mandatory for personnel protection reasons.
Tank Shell
The lower 150 mm of the shell on heated tanks should not be insulated due to the
capillary or wick effect of the insulation material. The absorption of moisture in this area
results in rapid corrosion; moreover any heat loss is insignificant when compared with
the remedial work required in the event of corrosion taking place. In cases where
existing tanks are sited in a low lying area where water may collect at the base of the
tanks, or is subject to flooding, the uninsulated section may need to be increased to
300 mm.
(i)

Insulation supports - Tank shell

Insulation supports for new or existing tanks should preferably be welded to the
tank shell. Welding of supports to the tank should not be closer than 150 mm from
existing vertical or horizontal welds. Secondary supports, e.g. pads, angles or
edge-on plates welded to the tank having a circumferential length of not less than
100 mm, and where appropriate shaped to the curvature of the tank shell, should
be welded on the horizontal edges only. These supports should not be closer than
150 mm to any horizontal or vertical welds of the tank shell. See Figures 08.05.06
and 08.05.07. When welding is not allowed, the insulation supports have to be
designed as self-supporting to support the load. However, because of the
problems involved in retaining the supports by banding (particularly where the
tanks diameter exceeds 12.5 m), the method should be avoided if possible.
An adhesive system of attaching insulation supports to a tank may be considered
using proprietary epoxy resin. If such a system is to be used the materials and
procedures are to be such as to withstand the working conditions including both
mechanical and thermal conditions. The surface of the tank in the vicinity of the
fixing and contact surface of the member to be fixed should be shot-blasted and
the adhesive applied only to clean dry metal and strictly in accordance with the
instructions of the adhesive manufacturer; account being taken of the adhesive
formulation for the ambient conditions, particularly temperature at the time of
application.
Depending on the system of tank insulation adopted it may be advantageous to
modify the top curb angle by extending the overhang to create a water shed and
facilitate the fitting of the top flashing.
The two basic systems used for supporting insulation on tank shells are as
follows:

Framing and banding

This system in the past was commonly used for vertical tanks and can be used with
rigid insulation in pre-formed blocks or with flexible blankets reinforced with wire
netting. When rigid insulation is used for vertical surfaces, horizontal support rings
spaced at intervals of 2.85 m to 4.75 m (depending upon rigidity of insulation) are
required, see Figure 08.05.06.
When flexible blankets reinforced with wire netting are used, support rings spaced
at approximately 2.0 m intervals are required, see Figure 08.05.07. Vertical
stiffeners are needed for tanks over 10 m in diameter.

Stud welding
It is not now recommended that studs should be welded to any part of a tank using
a stud-welding gun; instead they should be welded on to a plate 100 mm x 100 mm
with comers rounded to a radius of 12 mm. The spacing of studs should be from
300 mm to 450 mm horizontally and from 300 mm to 600 mm vertically, ensuring
that overlaps of the weatherproof sheeting are held in place by the studs. After the
insulation has been pressed over the studs, followed by the cladding sheets, the
fixing caps or nuts are fitted and tightened to hold the whole system firmly to the
tank shell. See Figure 08.05.08.
Welding of stud plates to the tank shell should not be closer than 150 mm
from existing welds, and welded along the horizontal edges only.

(ii)

Protection of Insulation on Tank Shell

The insulation should normally be protected by 0.7 mm corrugated galvanised sheeting
with corrugations 76 mm in width, applied with a vertical overlap of one corrugation and
a horizontal lap of 76 mm. Alternatively, profiled or corrugated aluminium sheeting may
be used; it is easier to handle during fixing. Initially it may be marginally more
expensive than corrugated galvanised sheeting but if there is a freight transport
element from source to site this will show some saving.
In the framing and banding method the overlaps should be held in and riveted. The
sheeting should be secured to the vertical supporting frame by galvanised bands [50
mm (wide) x 1.2 mm (thick)] and sealed at approximately 600 mm centres.
With the stud-welding system, the overlaps should be as already stated, with stud at
each corner of the sheeting. Galvanised sheets should be fitted in such a manner that
the studs penetrate the crest of the corrugation and the stud cap should be fitted by
means of a special crimping tool to ensure that sheeting and cap face press hard
against the stud shoulder.
Where staircases of the spiral type are welded to the tank shell, a suitable sealant
(Industrial Adhesives Sealant 95/44) should be applied over the insulation slabs and
carefully sealed around the stairway treads and supporting bars.

(ii)

Fixing of Insulation Material - Tank Roof

A tee-bar framework with studs welded to the frame can be used to support the
insulation, either welded to the tank roof plates or self-supporting when welding is not
allowed.
Roof insulation can be of glass fibre or mineral-wool-bonded slabs or mattress,
polyurethane or isocyanurate foam slabs or expanded polystyrene slabs. The following
points apply:

Glass-fibre or mineral wool slabs and mattresses should be laid carefully and
stapled or laced together as necessary, with the crevices filled with loose insulating
material. They are fixed to the roof sheets by adhesive of a specification
recommended by the supplier of the insulation.

Rigid polyurethane or isocyanurate slabs are applied using a Colas Building

Products adhesive, both on the roof surface and between abutting edges, the
whole covered with metal sheets or a glass-fibre-reinforced mastic.

A specification covering the use of polyisocyanurate foam slabs, weather-proofed

with the Monoform glass-fibre bitumen system developed by Colas Building
Products Ltd, is given in Appendix 08.05.10. The Monoform weatherproofing
system may also be applied over laminated polyurethane slabs, provided that
physical and mechanical properties meet the specification.

Alternatively, expanded polystyrene slabs which must be of a flame-retardant

grade, are applied over a Colas Building Products coating, held in place by a Colas
Building Products adhesive, and weather-proofed. See Appendix 08.05.11.

(iv) Protection of Insulation Material on Tank Roof

All plastic foam roof insulation must be protected by either a water-proofing layer or
metal sheets, to prevent static electricity generation and/or corrosion. See Appendix
08.05.11.
If metal sheets are used, they should be 0.9 mm gauge flat galvanized sheets with 75
mm horizontal laps, arranged to shed rainwater. Where self-tapping screws are used,
the pitch should be no greater than 150 mm. All cut-outs should be made by fitting
metal collars and sealing carefully with Industrial Adhesives 30/45 or 95/44
(v) Walkways
Walkways on tank roofs should be elevated to ensure clearance between the
underside of the walkway and the top of the insulation cladding. See Standard Tanks
Manual.

08.05.05.

Insulating Pipelines
When economically justifiable insulation should be applied to pipelines carrying hot
products. All externally traced lines should be insulated, and clad to make them
weather-proof.
The type and thickness of insulation used should allow the average heat loss to be
reduced to a maximum of 1.2 W/m C.
Prefabricated sections of most of the insulating materials given in Appendix 08.05.09
can be used and applied as shown in Figures 08.05.01 to 08.05.03 inclusive.
Foamed polystyrene in pre-formed sections is a suitable alternative insulation material
for unheated product pipelines or for protecting water mains against frost. However, its
maximum operating temperature of 70 C makes it unsuitable for use with traced pipes.
In applying insulation materials, the surface to be insulated should be cleaned free from
grease, rust, mill scale and dirt and primed with red lead graphite priming paint, for skin
temperatures up to 80 C. Above this temperature and up to 200 C an 'Epikote' esterbased 35 m minimum thickness primer should be used. The insulation should be
thoroughly dry when applied and kept dry during and after its installation.
Walking on insulated pipelines should not be allowed. Where pedestrian traffic is
expected a slip-proof stepping plate should be installed clear of the insulation.
Depending on the height of the pipeline it may be necessary to provide steps and
safety hand rails at pedestrian crossing points.

Where it is necessary for an insulated pipeline to be placed below normal ground level
it should be placed in a concrete culvert or pipe trench. Elevated insulated pipelines at
road crossings within an installation or depot should have a minimum clearance of 4 m
from road surface to the underside of the insulation. In locations outside the installation
or depot, e.g. public roadway this clearance should be negotiated with local authorities,
but preference should be given to placing it below ground level.
(a) Rigid Insulation
Rigid insulation materials on piping should be applied in preformed sections or
segments and fastened to the pipe with metal bands or 1.2 mm (18 SWG)
diameter galvanised wire at intervals of 250 mm to 500 mm.
All joints should be closely butted and any gaps should be filled with insulation
cement. Circumferential joints between segments in adjacent lengths should be
staggered as shown in Figure 08.05.03.
On vertical pipes of 100 mm and larger diameter, welded or clamped support rings
should be applied at the lower end and above each flange. Additional rings may
be required to limit the distance between them to approximately four to six metres.
At pipe bends the sections should be mitred and crevices filled with insulation
cement for a close fit.
Alternatively, insulation rope can be used as described in (b). The insulation
should be weather-proofed with aluminium or galvanised steel sheets as shown in
Figures 08.05.01 to 08.05.03. For long pipes or where temperature variations are
high, it is necessary to leave spaces and provide for expansion. The spaces
should be filled with loose insulation material and covered as shown in Figure
08.05.03.
(b) Flexible Insulation and Rope
Flexible insulation and rope blankets, cut to adequate size should be applied with
the wire-netting reinforcement on the outside, and fastened into position with 1.2
mm (18 SWG) diameter galvanised wire at 250 mm to 500 mm intervals. At both
ends of the flexible blankets, clamped spiked support rings should be attached at
approximately one metre intervals to support the metal sheets and prevent
sagging of the insulation, see Figure 08.05.01.
The actual length and required overlap of the sheets should be taken into account
when establishing the exact distance between support rings.
Glass-wool rope lagging may be applied to smaller pipes of -inch (12 mm) to
1 1/4 (33 mm) diameter and to bends of larger pipe sizes.
The spaces between the windings of rope should be closed with a layer of
insulation cement and further weather-proofed as shown in Figure 08.05.02.
(c) Externally Traced Piping
Externally traced pipes should be insulated as described in (a) and (b) and as
shown in Figure 08.02.05. There should be close contact between the pipe and
the tracing. Contact can be improved by the use of an approved heat transfer
cement to surround and bond the tracer to the pipe.
Rigid preformed sections of insulation should be large enough to enclose both the
pipe and the tracing.

When using flexible insulation it should be wrapped around the pipe and tracer in
the same way.
If electrical tracing and heat transfer cement is used, it should be applied in
accordance with the manufacturer's instructions.
(d) Valves, Flanges and Fittings
Valves, flanges and fittings should be insulated in the same way as described in
08.04.06 for tank fittings; see also Figure 08.04.04.
The minimum overlap of the sheets should be 50 mm in both a longitudinal and
circumferential direction. Overlapping edges should be furrowed and seams
should be arranged to prevent penetration by rainwater.
Openings in the sheets for thermowells, gauges, etc, should be provided, but they
must be properly sealed to prevent water from entering. This is extremely
important because severe corrosion is caused by water entering the insulation and
vaporising when heated, leaving a concentration of corrosive salts.
Pipe insulation is often stopped short of flanges to provide easy access to bolts.
However, whenever flanges, valves and other fittings are to be insulated,
galvanised 0.9 mm gauge metal boxes designed for easy removal and assembly
can be fitted. The boxes should be lined with the same thickness of material used
for insulating the tank. See Figure 08.05.04. Alternatively, flexible blankets or
loose insulation material can be moulded to the fittings, and either sealed with
hard setting cement (see 08.05.03) or a suitable wrapping material such as woven
glass fabric. Colas Building Products Weather Coating, well bonded to the
adjacent metal sheeting, must also be applied for outdoor installations, see Figure
08.05.04. [Hot-oil valves, flanges, etc, must not be covered with insulation material
- see 08.02.03(a)(i).]
The glands of valves, thermowell bosses and pressure tappings should always be
left clear of insulation which should be cut back and sealed.

08.05.06.

Weather-proofing and Protection against Winter Conditions

Fire water, domestic water, and cooling water lines may require protection against
freezing in winter in situations where above-ground lines cannot or should not be
drained.

The insulation material and thicknesses normally appropriate are as follow:

Pipe Size
inches mm
Up to 6 inch
(300 mm)
Over 6 inch
(300mm)

Insulation
Thickness
mm

Material

Physical Form

Outer Protection

Polyurethane
or
mineral wool

Rigid

Galvanised sheet
metal

25

Mineral wool

Flexible

Aluminium or
Galvanised sheet
metal

25

Above-ground lines passing underground should be insulated for the first 600 mm
below ground level;similarly for the point of exit. The cladding should be coated with 6
mm of Mexphalte R85/40 or equivalent, reinforced with glass fibre mesh, which should
extend over the end if the insulation to form a waterproof seal. Below 600 mm the pipe
should be wrapped and coated.

FIGURE 08.05.01:

FLEXIBLE INSULATION ON HORIZONTAL PIPING

(UP TO 16 INCHES (400 MM) IN DIAMETER INCLUSIVE)

FIGURE 08.05.02:

FLEXIBLE INSULATION AND CLADDING AROUND 90 BEND

FIGURE 08.05.03:

RIGID INSULATION AND EXPANSION JOINT FOR PIPING

FIGURE 08.05.04:

REMOVABLE FLANGE COVER FOR RIGID OR FLEXIBLE INSULATION

[NB: NOT SUITABLE FOR HOT OIL SYSTEMS SEE 08.02.03 (a)(i)]

FIGURE 08.05.05:

APPLICATION OF POLYSTYRENE SLABS TO ROOF AND TANK SHELL

Note:As polystyrene must not be subjected to temperatures exceeding 1 00 C,glass fibre or other suitable
material should be used around steam coil inlet and outlet connections
Sequence of operations:
1.
Prepare tank plates
2.
Paint with one coat of PF4, 1 litre/ 6.15m2
3.
Apply levelling mastic comprising 1 pant Colas building products coating 103 to 3 parts by volume clean,
sharp sand and trowel to minimum thickness
2
4.
Apply Colas building products adhesive 382 to tank shell and inside of slabs ,1 litre/1.35m .
5. Press polystyrene slabs into position and strap
2
6.
Apply Colas building products coating 107, 3 litres/m
7.
Apply woven glass fabric while coating is still wet rolls 910mm by 90m
8.
Apply Colas building products coating 107 as for 6 approx 3mm in thickness
9.
Paint with two coats of Colas building products coating 116
Dimensions in mm

FIGURE 08.05.06:

RIGID INSULATION APPLICATION DETAILS FOR VERTICAL TANKS,

VESSELS AND PIPING OVER 16 INCHES (400 MM) IN DIAMETER

FIGURE 08.05.07:

FLEXIBLE INSULATION APPLICATION DETAILS FOR VERTICAL

TANKS,VESSELS AND PIPING OVER 16 INCHES (400 MM) IN DIAMETER

FIGURE 08.05.08:

STUD WELDING SYSTEM FOR FIXING INSULATION TO TANK SHELL

APPENDIX 08.05.09
INSULATING MATERIALS AND PROPERTIES

APPENDIX 08.05.10:
MONOFORM PROOFING OF AN OIL STORAGE TANK ROOF INSULATED
WITH 25 mm (1 INCH) LAMINATED ISOCYANURATE FOAM SLABS

SPECIFICATION
(a) Insulation
Thoroughly clean the roof free from all dirt, loose paint or oily material. Apply by notched trowel
an application of Colas Products Insulation Adhesive 310 with all ribbons running in one direction
down the slope, and immediately embed the Laminated Isocyanurate foam slabs 25 mm (1 inch)
thick black face up. Maximum size 300 mm x 500 mm (12 inches x 20 inches) and cut to shape
as required. Allow bond to develop.
(b) Water-proofing
(i)

Onto the embedded foam slabs hot mop R115/15 hot bitumen adhesive and immediately
embed a Base Sheet of Colas BS 747 3.3 or similar, edges overlapped and bedded 80 mm
(3 inches). Allow to dry.

(ii)

Apply the Monoform System by 'Sealzit' Gun to give an approximate 5 mm (3/16 inch) wet
thickness of an evenly reinforced, perfectly married coating of Monoform Emulsion and 20
mm (3/4 inch) chopped approved Monoform Glass Roving. Allow to dry.

(iii) Apply a light reflective finish of Alubit applied in two thin coats allowing each coat to dry.

NOTES
The trowel for applying the adhesive should have 7.5 mm (5/16 inch) notches at 38 mm (1.5 inches)
centres. To obtain the specified coverage rate the notched trowel should be held at such an angle as
gives the desired coverage rate for the ambient and related temperatures at the time of application.
When laying the insulation, each roof panel should be treated at a time, cutting and slitting the slabs
as required so that in all cases the slabs can bed into the adhesive ribbons without their springing up
or hollows forming beneath.
The insulation must be protected from rain at all times, and the Base sheet must be laid as soon as
possible after the insulation - i.e. when the Insulation Adhesive 310 is sufficiently set to support men
without sliding. The insulation should not be left uncovered overnight or if rain occurs. All edges
should be sealed in if work stops, to prevent the entry of rain and moisture.
The insulation must be 25 mm non-flam isocyanurate foam board or equivalent laminated with an
aluminium foil/paper laminate on one side and a glass reinforced felt on the other, or other approved
by Colas Products.
A vent must be provided at the centre of the tank roof and at least four more spaced equally around
and near the tank perimeter. Each vent being set over an insulation slab joint and properly sealed in.
Area per vent roughly 1 per 100 m (120 sq yards).
Vents should be Andersons Breather Vent, or similar sealed in as shown in the sketch at the end of
Appendix 08.05.10.
Where the handrail standards, dipping hatches, manholes or similar occur, the Base Sheet must be
dressed up and the top edge tied in with a strip of open woven glass membrane embedded in a brush
coat of Monoform Emulsion.
An open woven glass membrane must be similar to Marglass 250.

Around the perimeter the detail will vary with the tank but generally the Base Sheet should be tied
onto the metal of the tank perimeter with a strip of open woven glass membrane embedded into a
brush coat of Monoform Emulsion. See attached sketch.
All skirtings and flashings should be sound and firmly fixed in position before proofing.
The felt Base Sheet should be either Colas Olympic HP 125 or equal approved.
Only Monoform Glass Roving of a make and grade tested and approved by Colas Products may be
used.
A Monoform Coating can be considered dry when on rubbing vigorously with a wet finger, no brown
stain is produced on the finger.
Two full weeks should elapse before applying Alubit after the Monoform Coating is dry.
Where a traffic surface is required between walkways and dipping hatches, this should be Colas
Olympic HP 350 (mineral finish) Felt fully adhered to the Monoform coating with Feltfix felt adhesive
but two to three weeks must elapse, after the Monoform coating has dried, before this is laid.
Insulation Adhesive 310 is a two-part adhesive with a combined unit weight of 5 kg. Component (a)
may need warming in a hot air box or by hot water to reduce viscosity at the time of application.

SPECIFIED MATERIAL QUANTITIES

Item
litres/ m

Rates of Application
Kg/m

IG/100sq ft

Coat (a)
- Insulation adhesive

(0.15 unit/m)

0.75

Coats (b)(i)
- Monoform Emulsion

4.5

4.5

- Monoform Roving

(0.15 kg/m)

0.15

(3 lbs/100 sq ft)

0.14

0.15

0.3

Coat (b)(ii)
- Bituminous Aluminium
Pain approximately
For two coats

(1.4 unit/sq ft)

APPENDIX 08.05.10
CALLENDERS TANK ROOF BOARD

APPENDIX 08.05.11
APPLICATION AND POLYSTYRENE SLABS TO TANK ROOFS
In marketing installations/depots polystyrene slabs 37 mm in thickness can be used for insulating tank
roofs against solar heat, or for conserving heat where the temperature of product does not exceed
100 C. These slabs are laid on the prepared roof sheets and then sealed to prevent them from
becoming water logged.
The insulation is applied as follows (See Figure 08.05.05)
(a) Preparation of Roof Sheets
(i)

Cleaning. If the tank is new and the sheets have been pickled and shop primed, the roof
should be brushed thoroughly to remove all dust and dirt. Rust on damaged areas must
be removed by wire brushing. If the tank is new and the sheets have not been pickled
and shop primed, all dirt, rust, and loose mill scale must be removed by wire brushing. If
the tank has already been painted, the sheets must be thoroughly brushed to remove all
dust, dirt, or loose or flaking paint.

(ii)

Application of Primer. A single coat of PF4 is rushed onto the cleaned surface, using 1
litre/6 m.

(iii)

Levelling . The tank roof is smoothed by applying a mastic consisting of Colas Bituproof
No 3/Flintcote Type 3 to which has been added approximately three parts by volume of
clean, sharp sand. The mastic is applied by trowel and used solely as a smoothing coat.
It should be of the minimum thickness required to level the laps of the roof sheets.

(b) Application of Foamed Polystyrene

After the smoothing mastic has dried, Colas Insulation Adhesive 382 is applied to the tank roof,
using 0.75 litre/m, also to the foamed polystyrene slabs. The adhesive is then allowed to dry
until all the water has evaporated, during which time the surface must be kept free from dust and
dirt. When the water has evaporated the polystyrene slabs are pressed firmly into position.
The edges of the polystyrene slabs should also be coated with adhesive, to prevent water from
entering through the joints between the slabs.
(c) Application of Waterproofing Layer
(i)

After the slabs have been set, Colas Bituproof No 7/Flintcote Type 7 is trowelled onto
the external surface of the slabs using approximately 3 litres/m and a membrane of
woven glass fabric is applied to the wet surface of the coating. A specification for the
woven glass fabric of approximately 3 mm thickness is given below.

(ii)

A further coating of Colas Bituproof No 7/Flintcote Type 7 is applied, again using 3

litres/m, to give a final dry film thickness of the waterproofing layer above the
polystyrene of approximately 3 mm.

(iii)

When the waterproofing layer is thoroughly dry, two coats of Colas Albuit are applied.

The woven glass fabric should be made from a suitable water - resistant glass fibre. The
weight of the fabric is to be 0.08 kg/m minimum. The mesh size should be at least 14 threads
per 25 mm in both directions. The fabric must be strong and, in order to give rigidity and
prevent distortion and undue displacement of the threads, a suitable synthetic resin or
bitumen binder must be used in its manufacture.

APPENDIX 08.05.12
KAL-ZIP TANK INSULATION SYSTEM

This is a proprietary system of insulation developed by the Kaiser Aluminium and Chemical
Corporation. In the UK the system is handled by Kitson's Insulation Contractors, London.
Strips of profile aluminium sheet 0.7 mm thick (heavier gauge of 0.8 mm, 1.0 mm and 1.2 mm are
available if required), 300 mm wide and up to 17 m long have rigid glass-fibre slabs bonded to it. The
standard thickness of these slabs is 38 mm, however, thicknesses of 100 mm, 150 mm and 200 mm
can be supplied. These panels are placed vertically on the shell of the tank and joined together to
make a continuous cover around the shell. The panels are joined together by a special roll-forming
machine which creates a weather-proof seal between panels. As an alternative to aluminium,
galvanised or pre-finished steel may be used for cladding.
Panels are retained in position by a high-tensile steel cable located circumferentially on the tank shell.
The number of such cables depends on the size of the tank and the prevailing wind speeds.
There is an air space between the shell and the insulation material. This allows vapour escape if
moisture does creep in.
Special flashings are provided for the fixings of spiral stairways, pipe penetrations, and manifolds, etc.
These areas are insulated, clad with aluminium and sealed to prevent the ingress of moisture. The
base of the cladding is designed to give a moisture seal to prevent absorption of moisture.
By using a mobile crane fitted with a pneumatically or electrically driven boom and cradle, it is
possible to dispense with conventional scaffolding. Alternatively, a cradle suspended from painters'
brackets may be used by erectors to install the system.
The overall appearance is pleasing and is generally an improvement on more conventional types of
insulating systems. Long-term evaluation has not been possible. Experience to date is promising
and savings, compared with conventional methods of insulation are of the order of 15 per cent on
initial costs. The Kal-Zip insulation system is intended for use on storage tanks for products in
the temperature range of 5 to 230 C. Individual Kal-Zip panels can be easily removed and
replaced without disturbance to the remaining panels. This facility may be used for periodic
inspection of the tank shell for corrosion testing. Further information may be obtained from SIPC.

APPENDIX 08.05.13
INSULATION ACCESSORIES

The main items are as follows:

(a) Fastening Material
(i)

Binding wire - 1.6 mm (16 SWG) dia. and 1.2 mm (18 SWG) dia. galvanised soft steel.

(ii)

Banding (over sections) - 0.7 mm (22 SWG) x 25 mm steel strip or stainless steel.

(iii) Banding (over cladding):

-

0.558mm x 12 mm stainless for piping up to 6-inch (150 mm nominal bore).

0.558 mm x 20 mm stainless steel for piping 8-inch (200 mm and larger)

0.558 mm x 50 m stainless steel for storage tanks.

(iv) Self-tapping screws:

-

No 10 x 12 mm long, stainless steel for galvanised cladding, and stainless steel or

aluminium screws for aluminium cladding.

No 14 x 20 mm for cover and boxes.

(v) Rivets - expanding pop-type of galvanised steel or aluminium, diameter 5mm minimum.
(vi) Wire netting - 0.7 mm (22 SWG) dia. x 24 mm mesh, galvanised in accordance with, e.g. BS
1485.
(vii) Clips and quick release toggles of the same materials as the metal part which they connect.

(b) Cladding (sheeting)

(i)

Aluminium sheet (e.g. BS 1470)

- 0.7 mm (22 SWG) for pipes.

- 0.9 mm (20 SWG) for tanks and removable covers.

(ii)

Galvanised steel sheet (e.g. BS 2989) - Details as for aluminium sheet; to be used primarily
in high-temperature areas.

(iii) Fastening materials

- aluminium sheet: Aluminium or stainless steel or Monel metal.

- galvanised steel sheet: Cadmium plated or stainless steel.

(c) Coatings and Wrappings

(i)

Heat transfer cement.

(ii)

Colas Building Products Composites Adhesive 382.

(iii)

Shell PF 4 bituminous paint.

(iv)

Plasticised polyvinyl chloride (PVC) tapes and wraps.

(v)

20-mesh woven glass fabric, bitumen-coated.

(vi)

Thermal insulation cement may be applied over rigid preformed insulation to a

minimum thickness of 10 mm to give a strong durable coating.

(vii) Cement coatings or asbestos-free cements consisting of Portland cement reinforced

with long, graded, glass fibres. These provide low cost protective coatings with a
hydraulic set and give a high degree of mechanical protection. They must be kept dry
before use and should be used as soon as possible after manufacture, mixing with
clean fresh water as directed by the supplier.
Open ends of piping insulting may be sealed with Mastic as illustrated in Figure
08.05.02.

08.06.00.

HEAT LOSS CALCULATIONS

Heat loss calculations are primarily for designing new tanks and pipelines. However,
they are also applicable to existing installations and depots as explained in the relevant
sections.
In the economic assessment a discounted cash flow including the effect of taxation and
maintenance, should be used.
The advantages of hot-oil heating systems are summarised in 08.04.00. Steam plant
and distribution of steam are covered in 09.05.00.

08.06.01.

Determination of Optimum Insulation Thicknesses

In the past insulation thicknesses for storage tanks and pipelines were determined by
complex and abstruse manual calculations based on empirical formulae and heat
transfer rates of uncertain origin. The use of a computer software program is currently
recommended to obtain the same objective without resort to laborious and tedious
calculations. SIPC has a proprietary PC software program for determination of optimum
insulation thicknesses for tanks and pipelines which is available to Shell companies if
the data listed below is submitted. Alternatively, if a copy of this programme is required
SIPC can provide details for acquisition.
(i)

Tank diameter, height, capacity and product. (Required for each tank.)

(ii)

Location - sheltered/exposed - of each tank.

(iii) Maximum and minimum acceptable storage temperatures for each tank.
(iv) Meteorological data for site, e.g. wind
maximum/minimum/mean ambient temperatures.

speeds,

rainfall

pattern,

(v) Pipeline diameter and length, acceptable maximum and minimum product
temperature and product specification for each pipeline. Site layout showing piping
layout - ground level or elevated or other.
(vi) Reason for insulation, e.g. Personnel protection, economical heat conservation,
temperature control of product.
(vii) Overall cost of heat in thermal units.
(viii) Annual currency inflation rate.
(ix) Are insulating materials available locally, if so unit cost, thickness available,
thermal conductivity data, brand name of product.